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Ecosystem
INTRODUCTION
ECOSYSTEM
-Self sustainable Unit
-Functional unit of nature
-Interaction of living organisms & surroundings
↶ TYPES ↷
Terrestrial Aquatic
Eg : Forest , grassland Eg : Pond , Lake , River
Desert wetland , Estuary
ECOSYSTEM - Structure & Functions
↶ Components of Environment ↷
Biotic Abiotic
-Living Beings -Non-living things
of ecosystem
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STRATIFICATION
-Vertical distribution of different species occupying
different levels
-Trees : Top vertical strata
Shrubs : second layer
Herbs : Bottom layer
Functional Components Of Ecosystem -
•Productivity
•Decomposition
•Energy flow
•Nutrient recycling
Example of functional components of ecosystem is a Pond
Ecosystem :
-Abiotic component is the water with all the dissolved
inorganic & organic substances and the rich soil deposit at
the bottom of the pond
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-The solar input , the cycle of temperature , day-length &
other climatic conditions regulate the rate of function of
the entire pond
-Autotrophic Components - include the phytoplankton ,
some algae & the floating , submerged & marginal plants
found at the edges
-Consumers - represented by the zooplankton , the free
swimming & bottom dwelling forms
-Decomposers - are the fungi , bacteria & flagellates
especially abundant in the bottom of the pond
#Biosphere - is regarded as a global ecosystem
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↶ Structural Features ↷
Species Composition Stratification
PRODUCTIVITY
~Amount of biomass / Organic Matter produced perunit
area over a time period
~Rate of Biomass production
Productivity Is of Two Types -
(1) Primary Productivity
(2) Secondary Productivity
-Primary Productivity : Amount of biomass or organic
matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants
during photosynthesis
-Primary productivity is expressed in terms of weight
(g–2) or energy (kcal m–2 )
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Factors Affecting Primary Productivity :
(1) Environmental factor
(2) Availability of nutrients
(3) Photosynthetic capacity of plants
↶ PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY ↷
Gross primary Net primary
productivity (GPP) productivity (NPP)
-Rate of production -Biomass available for
of organic matter net composition to
during Photosynthesis heterotrophs
-GPP - respiration -NPP = GPP -
losses (R) , is the net respiratory loss
primary productivity (NPP)
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-GPP – R = NPP
Species Composition - Given by identification &
enumeration of plants & animals species
Secondary Productivity - Rate of formation of new
organic matter by consumers
Annual - Net primary productivity of whole Biosphere =
170 Billion Tones
Ocean = 55 Billion Tones
Terrestrial = 115 Billion Tones
DECOMPOSITION
~Breakdown of complex organic matter into inorganic
substances like CO2 , H2O & nutrients
DETRITUS
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-Consists of dead plants remains such as leaves ,
flowers , fruits
-Substrate for Decomposition
-Detritivores are the organisms break down detritus into
smaller particles
-Example : millipedes , dung flies , woodlice , burying
beetles
STAGES OF DECOMPOSITION
(1) Fragmentation
(2) Leaching
(3) Catabolism
(4) Humification
(5) Mineralisation
Fragmentation : Breaking down of detritus into smaller
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particles
Leaching : Process by which watersoluble inorganic
nutrients go down into the soil horizon & get precipitated
as unavailable salts
Catabolism : Process by which bacterial & fungal enzymes
degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances
Humification : Accumulation of a dark coloured
amorphous substance called Humus
↓
Further degraded by some microbes & release of inorganic
nutrients occur by Mineralisation
Factors Affecting Rate of Decomposition :
-Large amount of oxygen is required for decomposition as
it is an energy requiring process
-Chitin & lignin present in detritus slower the rate of
decomposition
-Nitrogen & water-soluble substances like sugars in
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detritus increases the rate of decomposition
Climatic Conditions
-Warm & Moist environments → Favour
decomposition
-low temperature , dryness & anaerobiosis inhibit
decomposition
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Figure-14.1
ENERGY FLOW
~Sun only source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth
except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem
~Less than 50% incident solar radiation is
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
~Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR
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~All organisms are dependent for their food on producers
~Flow of energy in the ecosystem is unidirectional
~Green Plants in Ecosystem - Producers
-Example : In a terrestrial ecosystem , major producers
are herbaceous & woody plants and in aquatic ecosystem
phytoplankton , algae & higher plants are producers
~All animals depend on plants for their food needs are
called Consumers
~Consumers which feed on the producers , they are
called primary consumers or herbivores
Example - grass
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~Animals eat herbivores , they are called secondary
consumers or primary carnivores
Example - goat
~The animals which eat the primary carnivores are called
Tertiary consumers or secondary carnivores
Example - man
TROPHIC LEVELS
~Organisms occupy specific place in the food chain , based
on source of their nutrition , food
1st Level - Producers
2nd Level - Herbivores (Primary Consumers)
3rd Level - Carnivores (Secondary Consumers)
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FOOD CHAIN
-Flow of energy from one trophic level to another trophic
level by eating & being eaten
↶ Two Types of Food Chain ↷
Grazing Food Chain Detritus Food Chain
Grazing Food Chain
-Starts from producers & ends on carnivores through
herbivores
Grass --> goat --> man
(Producer) (Primary (Secondary
producer) producer)
Detritus Food Chain
-Starts from dead organic matter & passes through
detrivores to organisms feeding on detrivores
Detrivores
-Decomposers
-Meet their energy & nutrient requirements by degrading
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dead organic matter or detritus
-Also known as Saprotrophs
-Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that
breakdown dead & waste materials into simple , inorganic
materials
Food Web
-Interconnected matrix of food chain
-For example - specific herbivores of one food chain may
serve as food of carnivores in another food chain
Standing Crop
-Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material
at a particular time
-Measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or
the number in a unit area
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Figure-14.2
10% Law
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-By Lindemann
-Only 1% of energy is transferred to each trophic level
-That's why number of tropic levels in GFC are
restricted
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
~Graphical representation of various trophic levels of
food chain designed to show their number , biomass &
energy
~Base of a pyramid is broad & it narrows down at the apex
~Base of each pyramid represents the producers or the
first trophic level
~Apex represents tertiary or top level consumer
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Three Ecological Pyramids
(1) Pyramid of Number
(2) Pyramid of Biomass
(3) Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid Of Number
-A given species may occupy more than one trophic level
in the same ecosystem at the same time
-Example : A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats
seeds , fruits , peas , a secondary consumer when it eats
insects & worms
-Producers are more in number & biomass than the
herbivores
-Herbivores are more in number and biomass than the
carnivores
-So all the pyramids , of number , of energy & biomass are
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upright
Pyramid Of Biomass
-Pyramid of biomass in sea is also generally inverted
because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of
phytoplankton
Pyramid Of Energy
-Always upright because when energy flows from a
particular trophic level to next trophic level , some energy
is always lost as heat at each step
Limitations Of Ecological Pyramids
-It does not take into account the same species belonging
to two or more trophic levels
-It assumes a simple food chain , something that almost
never exists in nature
-It does not accommodate a food web
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-Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological
pyramids
Figure-14.4 (a) , (b) , (c)
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Figure-14.4 (d)
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Climax Community : Community that is near in the
equilibrium with the environment
Sere : Entire sequence of community their successively
changes in a given succession
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↶ TYPES ↷
Primary Succession Secondary Succession
-Succession at area -Succession at an area
where no living organism which lost all organisms
never existed that existed there
-Bare Rock -Example : Abandoned
-Newely cooled lava farm lands
-Newely created pond -Burned or cut forest
or reservoir -lands that have been
flooded
Secondary succession is faster than primary succession
because some soil or sediment is present
SUCCESSION OF PLANTS
Hydrach Succession Xerarch Succession
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-Takes place in wetlands -Dry Areas
-Hydric → Mesic -Xeric → Mesic
Eg : Water
PIONEER SPECIES
-Species that invade a bare area
~In primary succession on rocks , the pioneer species is
lichens are able to secrete acids to dissolve rock , helping
in weathering and soil formation and the little soil leads to
the growth of bryophytes
~With time , the bryophytes are succeeded by bigger
plants , & after several more stages , ultimately a stable
climax forest community is formed & ultimately the
xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic one
HYDRACH SUCCESSION
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-The pioneers are the small phytoplanktons which are
replaced with time by free-floating angiosperms
-The free-floating angiosperms are replaced by rooted
hydrophytes , sedges , grasses & finally the trees
-The climax again would be a forest & with time the water
body is converted into land
-All succession whether taking place in water or on land ,
proceeds to mesic community
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Figure-14.5
LICHENS
-Secrete rock dissociation enzymes , Holds soil
-Bryophtes , Higher Plants
-Soil Formation
During Ecological Succession
-Species Diversity Increase
-Number of Species Increase
-Number of Organisms Increase
-Total Biomass Increase
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NUTRIENT CYCLING
Standing State
-Amount of nutrients present in the soil at any given time
-Also called Biochemical Cycle
↶ NUTRIENT CYCLE ↷
Gaseous Sedimentary
-Reservoir is atmosphere -Reservoir is Earth's
Eg : Nitrogen , Carbon Crust
Eg : Sulphur ,
Phosphorus
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Figure-14.6
CARBON CYCLE
-49% of dry weight of organisms
-4x1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere by
photosynthesis
-71% of C is dissolved in oceans
-Reservoir : Fossil fuel
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-Biosphere through photosynthesis
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
-Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological
membranes , nucleic acids & cellular energy transfer
systems
-Many animals also need large quantities of this element
to make shells , bones & teeth
-The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock , which
contains phosphorus in the form of phosphates
-When rocks are weathered , minute amounts of these
phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by
the roots of the plants
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-Herbivores and other animals obtain phosphorous from
plants
-The waste products and the dead organisms are
decomposed by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing
phosphorus
Difference between carbon & phosphorous cycle -
-There is no respiratory release of phosphorus into
atmosphere like carbon
-Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are
much smaller than carbon inputs
-Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism &
environment are negligible
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
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~The products of ecosystem processes are named as
ecosystem services
~For example , healthy forest ecosystems
-Purify air and water
-Mitigate droughts & floods
-Cycle nutrients
-Generate fertile soils
-Provide wildlife habitat
-Maintain biodiversity
-Pollinate crops
-Provide storage site for carbon & also provide aesthetic
-Cultural & spiritual values
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Figure-14.7
