406 1 INTRODUCTION ‘The Telephone Circuit Atelephone viteitis vile a transmission path between a source ana a destination, The interconnected facilities pnprised of (wor more facilities, imferconnected in tandem, to pro- may be temporary. asin a standard (elephone call, vr permanent, as ina dedicated private Tine telephone cicuit, The facilities may be metallic cable pairs, optical fibers, or wireless ‘carrier systems. The information trausiezred is called the message, and the eixeuit used is ge clare ‘companies offer a wide assortment of mes from a basic 4-kHz voiee-hand eireuil to wideband microwa e, satelite, or optical fiber tansmnis. sion systems capable of transferring high-resolution video or wideband dats, The Follow= ing discussiou ts limited to basie voiee-hand circuits. In telephone termiinolog le the aes Telephon cchumnels ran, the won wessige originally denoted speceh information, However. this definition lias been ex fended to include any signal th pice chanel, ‘occupies the sanve bands id us a standard Thus. amessage channel may include the transmission of ordinary speech, supervisory si nals, or data the form of digitally moxtulated carriers (PSK. PSK, QAM, aud 90 on). The network band il fora standard voice-and me mel is 4 KHz: however, a por tion of that bandwidth 1s used for gi i ‘Guard bands are unused fre a ration signals. Consequently, dhe cllective eh bhands id for a voice-band message signal (shether il be yoige oF data) is upprosimately 300 Hz 10 3100 Ile als located between inl nl 2 THE LOCAL SUBSCRIBER LOOP Ihe neat subscriber loops the ony facility required by all voree-band circus, as is the means by which subseriber locations are connected to the local telephone compan. In ‘essence, the sole purpose ofa local loop isto provide subscribers access to the public tele- phone network, The local loop is. metalic transmission fine comprised of two msulated ‘copper wires (a pac! twisted together. The local loop is the prmnary cause of attenuation analpas now atelephine eireurt. Attenuation ty an aelal loss of signal strent ‘and phase distortion oecurs when wo oF more frequencies undereo dierent amounts of Phase shit. The transn visti of cable pair depend on the wire diameter, cone dluctor spacing, dielectric constant ofthe insur Sepa the wires, an the eonductiv= ity ofthe wire. These physical properties n cur, determine the inductance, resistance, ca prclance, and conductance of the cable. The resistance an mduectance are distributed along the length of the wire, wheteas the conductance and capacitance exist betwee the ‘ovo wines, When the insulation is sufficient, the effects of cond erally ne lisible, Figure 1a shows the elecirical mee! for a copper-wine transmission hine ‘Mhe electeal characterisies of a cable ésuch as inductance, capaestance, an resis ani are tance) are uniformly diswibuted along ats le mierers, Beau is common practice 10 Iu and are appropriately relerred wy as 2 work mp thetn into discrete values per wnt len instribnted! pa irs cumberso wih distributed parameters, it th die. millibeneys per mile, microlaads per kilometer, or olums per 1009 fee). The amount of attenuation and phase delay experienced by a signal propagating doww s metallic tansmission Line 18 function of the frequency of the si There are ul and the electrical characteristics ofthe cable pate seven main component paris that make up a traditional local loop: Feeder cable FP. The largest cable used in a loeal oop, usually 3600 pair of copper ssine phiced undersroundl or in conduit 6840. A cross-connect point used (© distribute dhe lary feeder cable into smaller distribution cables.‘The Telephone Circuit C= capsctance two conduetors separated byan insulator Rs resistance = opposion to cunt flow LL set inductance 1UG= leakage resistance of dilecic FR = shuntentage vonstance @ “ 10 Attenuation (8 FIGURE 1 [a] Electrical model of @ eogpervare transmission tne, (0) frequency-versuslteruation cheracteristics fur unloaded and Joaded vabies Disiribtion cabfe(F2),\ smaller version ofa odor cable eomtainin less wire pais Subscriber or standard neawork interface (SND, A deviee that serves as the demar- ation point betcen local telephone company’ responsibility and subseriber respon sibility For telephone service yp wire The final length of cable pt that terminates atthe SNL Aerial That portion ofthe local loop that is strung between poles. Diosribaion cable and dvopewire erss-eonsect point. The keaton where individual cable pairs within a distribution eable are separated and extend! fo the subscriber's Focation on a drop wite “Two components often found on Toe loops are leading eoils and bri taps. 407408 ‘The Telephone Circuit 2-4 Loading Coils Figure Tb shows the effect of fregueney on attenuation frat 12,000-f0t length of 26 capper cable. As the figure shows, a 3000-117 signal experiences 6 JB more attention than 2 SIM-H signal onthe same cable. In essence, the cable acts ke at low-pass filter, Extensive Stdies of attenuation on cable pairs have shown that a substantial reduction in atfennton is achieved by inereasing the inductance value of the cable. Minmoum altemution requires value of nluctance nearly 100 times the value obtained in ordinary twasied-wire cable Achieving such values on uniformly distributed Pasi ts miprectical. Instead the deste = feet can be obtained by ding mduetors peridcallym series with the wir, This practice is called Holng and the inductors are called oan cons, Loading cols place ina cable de- crease the aman, merease the line mipedance. an improve transmission Fevels fr c= cuits longer than 18,08 feet, Loadmg evils allowed local loops to extend three to four times their previous length. A leadmg coil is simply a passive conductor wrapped around. core and placed in series with a cable creating small electromagnet, Loading coils ean be placed on telephone poles, in manholes, or om eross-conneet axes. Loading coils increase the effective distance that a signal must travel Between to location aid cancels the capeaitanee thal ine herently builds up between wares ith distance Leealing eos est came into use i 1906 TLnaded cables are specified by the aklition of the letter codes A B.C, D, BF HL. oY, which designate the distance hetseen loading coilsand by numbers, whieh indicate the innluctange value ofthe wire gage, Ine letters indicate thal vading eos ae separated by 700, 3000, 929, 4500, 5575, 2787 HN, G80. or 2130 fel respectively. Bo D-and T-type Foaling cls are the most common because their separations are representatise wf the dis tances between mankboles. The amountof series mductance aided ts generally Han 88 mt 6o¢ 135 mH. Thus, a cable pair designated 261188 is made from 26-2 with 88 mil of series inductance aakled every 600 feet. The loss-versus-frequenney characteristics ora Joaued eable are relatively lat up to approximately 2000 Hz, as shown in Figure 1. From nb see that a 308-1 sgn wll suferonly 1.5 dB more loss than. SO0-11z ‘wire when S8-mlfoling coils are spaced every 600 fet use it sharp dp in Ireguency respense at approximately 3400 Hz ‘which is undesirable for high-speed das transmission, Therefore, for high-performance A rasmission,Iuling goils Should be removed ftom the cables, Th lo teristics of a cable also afleet the phase distortion-versus-lrequency characteristics ofa sig nal, The amount of phase disiortion i proportonal to the length and gauge of the we. [Loading a cable also affecs the phase charaeterstes n'a cable. The telephone company must often ad gain and delay equalizers to aeireuit fo achieve the minimum requirements Equalizers mirexiuee discontinuities or ripples athe bandpass eharaeterstis of eireut Automatie equalizers in data modems are sensitive © this condition, and very often an ‘oxerequalized etreut causes as many problems to ata signal asa underequaized eireut. 22. Bridge Taps A fridge sop is an ineaulaity fecquently found in cables serving subscriber locations Bri ‘unused sections of eable that are connected in shun a working cable pai such as a local loop, Bridge taps ean be pad at any povnt along a cable's length, Bridge taps were used for party Hines to connect more than one subseriber tthe sine Heal loop. Bridge taps als increase the flexibility ofa local loop by allowing the cable w 2 aoe than one janetion bos, aldhouel it is unlikely that mone han one of dhe cable pits leaving ‘abrideine point will used atanysiven Gin, Bridee taps may or may not be used al some fate in, depending on serge demands, Bridge taps imexease dae exibilty of a cable by makin, sign a cable yo a different subscriber without requitn ‘Working inthe field to russ connect seetions of eable Bridge taps introduce a loss calle riding fons. They also allow propagate down more than one wise. Signals dat propas. (easier ton ils to split and ale down unferminated (oper‘The Telephone Circuit ingerterence with ceircuited) cables reflect back Irom the open endof the eable, often caus the on sonal, Brddge taps that are short and closer 1 the originating or ternal tends oven produce the most interference sperally harmful © voice tansinssions, but if wity of a data signal, Therelore, bridge taps and Loading coils should be removed from a cable pair that used for data wansmis= sion. Th ise 11s sometimes Ullficul (© locate a bre timated that the average local loop ean have ais many as 16 brid [Bride taps and loading goals are not improperly used, dhey ean hterally destary the in ‘ean bea problem be: tap. Ieises- 2-3 Loop Resistance The de resistance of a lal Joap depend primarily on the iype of wire and wire size, Most local loops use 18: 0 26-gauge, swistopair eopper wie. The lower the wire gause, the larger dhe diameter, the less resistance, and te Tower the atenuation, For example, 26 gauge unllxed copper wire has an attenuation of 2.67 dD per mike, whereas the same Jongth of 19-gauge-vopper wire has only 1,12 dB per mile, Theretore, the mastimuny leneth of local loop using 19-gauge wine is twice as long as a Hoel loop using 26-gige ware The total attenvation of a loca loop is generally ited (o a maximum value of 7.5 dBwith a maximum de resistance of 1300@, which includes the resistance of the tele- phone (approximately 1200), The de esistanee of 26-zauze copper wine is approximately 41.2 por 1000 feet, which Kms the rounkrip loop leneth wapproxiniately Somes. The minum distance for lower-gauge wire is longer of course The dk loop resistance for copper conductors 1 apprormated by a where, ~ de loop resistance (olims per mile} d= wine diameter finches! 3 TELEPHONE MESSAGE-CHANNEL NOISE AND NOISE WEIGHTING Thesnoise that roaches a listener's ears affects the de to some extent, the intelligibility of the reecived sp rooméucekgrond etseand morse imoxtuce listening subseriber’s prem and indirectly by way of the siete talking subseriber’s pre Circuit noise i comprise! mainly of thermal noise, nonk ‘whitch are desert ma later section of dhs chapter The measurement of interferenee (nonse), like the Measurement of xolwme, 18am ef= fort to characterize a complex signal Noise meastrements on a telephone wnessige channel are characterized by hows aimoym the noise is (othe subseriber rather than by the absolute magniqude of the average noise power, Noise mterferenge is comprised of two components annoyamee and the effe Ilgibility. both of which ane funetions of fre ‘quency. Noise signals with equal intesteein ed equal magnitudes. To ac ccompiish this effect, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) developed ang netwark called Cnessage weight ‘When designing the C fork, groups af observers were asked to adjust the loudness of 14 different frequencies between ISH) Hy and 3500 Hy uti the soumd of each tone was judgedl fo be equally annoying as 100042 reference fone 1 the abseniee of speech, A 1DIK-HZ tone was selected for the reference because empirical dat inglicated that 1000 Hz 18 the most annoying frequeney tke,. the best Frequency ree of ammoyance tothe listener an, i. Tho fatal noise is comprised of uit Room bia ses Foaches the car directly through leakae around the reee pal trou ses also reaches the listener over the communications chanel round nose on the ihe telephone set, Room naise from the spouse} 409430 ‘The Telephone Circuit Table 3. Feclty Parameter Linits Pate Lit 1.10061 lose sao ‘Not move than 4 fons tec 2 Comessage nese Masini ms ise at mem receiver Coominl — 16m pit cy res “a O-N él Hi 9 lol s 40) 10% s 0) 450 2 101.259 u 2501-400 3 Sosa sotto 3. Corsica ruin valu v) Snardsoice-band channel 2a sil to Cased is 6 High performance lin 2 ll satl tC mote ns 4. Sina regen terre AU lest 3d below C mess nie lini bats vat, nals 5 6. Frequency shift 1S Hr endinend Phase rep stron Nolimits on Nore than 10° po wo pak en ond ee 8, Nolita istion Deaton iris ol Sion to secon ve Areas 35 ub Signal to thd order Akan 40h Jo, Peaks ais Belg of $0 minim clo cm thst PAR miter 11, Phase Sor esi any IS mite pti seer tha 12 Gain hts oo les in any smut pri gear than Dropouts incany 1S oe jt tester than dlestination station, The modem, telephone, snd circuit configueation are capable of two ‘way transmission a either the liall- or the full-dupley mexte Figure 19b shows an active hvo-wire transmission system fie. ome that provides sain), The only difference between this circuit ant the ane shown in Figure [ais the al dltion of an amplifier to compensate for transmission line losses, The amplifier is unidir tional and, thus, limits transmission to one dirgetion only (simples Figure 19e shows a evo-wine eeu using a digital T carrier for the transmission medium, ‘This circuit requires aT catrier transmitter at one end and aT ewrier receiver at the otlior end. ‘The di + transmission line is capable of two-way teansmission: Fhowever, the (ransina ran the T eamtier are not, The transmitter encodes the analog vance or mesdem signals into 3 PCM evsde, and the decor in the receiver performs the opposite operation, converting PCM godes back to analog, The digital transmission modi 1S pair oF eopper ware Figures 1a, b, and e are examples of ised! 3,8 the 1860 Stations «dit a owo-wire metalic transmission line, Figure 1d shows Tine transmission medium is Parth’s atmesphere, and there or and ree are physically interconnee an equivaens syo-wive i‘The Telephone Circuit BB Bicroctonal of a. Tex ———_____1 Tex Two-wre Passive torre wae Teleo transmission ine Teleo Inteace L____} ntetace — —— Theme Thome Satna aon 8 a Uric es Fie eS Ane bs Ten Ten Ph een | ntitco _—> ES ion vanamison ne am Satna san 8 ©) FIGURE 18 Twowre configurations (a) poss (Continvedh fe cable cincuit; (bi) active cable circu fare no copper wires berseen the {Wo stations. Although Earth's atmosphere is capable of bbvo-way simultaneous transmission, the radio transmatier and receiver are not, Therelone this ts considered an equivalent (wo-wire cite, 62 Four-Wire Voice-Frequency Circuits As the name imphes, rolves four wires (two for each dinection— a signal and a reletence) or a eireuit configuration that is equivalent to using four wires Four-wire circuits are ideally suited 10 full-duplex transmission, although they cam kane very often do) operate inthe hilf-duplex mode. As with Byossice transmission, there are wire and eqpnatent for 20 shows the lock diagrams for our possible four-wire cireutt comligura ovo Forms of four-wire transmission systems: physica! fo Figure tions. As the figures show, a four-wige circuits equivalent 1o wo two-wire eireuts, one for ‘each direction of tanstnission, The ereuits shown in Figures 20a, b, ane are physical four wire circuits, as the transmitter at one station és hard ired 10 the rocetser a the other sta tion, Therelore, each 10. ire pair is unidirectional (simples), but the combined four-scire cereuit is idirectional (fll duplex ‘The eireuit shown in Figure 2041 1s. an equivalent fo hat uses Earth's a mosphere for the ransiission medium, Slahon A (ransmbils on one frequency Wf) and fe ceives on a diferent frequency (3), while station B transmits on frequency fs and reeetses ‘on frequency fj, Therefore the avo radio signals do wot interfere with of nor, and Si: imultancous bid ‘tional (ransmission is possible 431432 ‘The Telephone Circuit i Tose Oat Dial yess 1 Dieston of —e = Propagation vos » Unidirectonal u Saton& Saton 8 Tansmt Aecsive anonne Unitroctonal_ Stern ee [oie erztn Earth's atmosphere — Tx " Pe Twostie page aie HOt anenier assur Twos Twos Saton & Saton 8 @ FIGURE 18 (Continued) (o) digtal carrier stern; (cl wireless radia carrier aystern 6-3. Two Wire versus Four Wire There are several inherent advantages of four-wire circuits over tworwire circus, Por in stance, four-wire circuits are considerably less noisy. have less crosstalk an provide mone isolation betseen de two diteetions of ansanissinn when operating in either dhe bal or te full-duplex mode. However, ewo-wirecizcuils require less wire, less eizeuttry and, thus Jess money than their four-wire counterparts, Providing amplification is another disadvantage of four-wire operation, Telephone for modem signals propagated more dhan a few miles require amplitieation. A bidirec: tional amphiier on a (so-wire eireuit is no practical, Its much easier 49 separate the bovo dizections of propagation sth a four-wine circuit and install separate amplifiers in teach direetion 6-4 Hybrids, Echo Suppressors, and Echo Cancelers When a owo-wire circuit is connected toa four-wire circuit, as ina long-distance telephone call, an interface circuit called a hybrid, or terminating, set is used to affect the interta The hybrid set used to match impedances an «0 provide isolation hetvicen the (0 die reetinnsof signal low. The hybrid eireut used 1 convert ewo=ite etre o our cit cats is similar o the by bed coil found n Sanda telephone setsTe ir ror CC Four wire passin ia Py transmission ne data a —— a a F*7é mx SttonA Staton 8 8) ts cy Four Four wire transmission line wre data date meer J moss Fx ine F Staion A Staion 8 8) week Fourie vista || pore aguy | Dial Fourie st Foner Foute ite I rtre, om modem ‘transceiver “ transceiver modem a Staton A Staion 8 6 Transmiteceve ——_Trnsmitsoee Bicractonal — Earh samesphore — Tex " Tex Twoste page aie ORE iranecover trnecover worse Two-nre Staton A Staion 8 a al passive vale cru: (b wei cable Grout (etal FIGURE 20. Four-aire configurations T-carrier system. (G) wireless radio carrier system 433434 ‘The Telephone Circuit ‘Transmitter astenuator ps Ampliior Equalizers > WE ine 2000000 —— su) | —son0060 weave —| Balancin Two=mie tne Hybri| ei ee Four-wire ne +f 2000000 oo00000—| ‘astenuator—Amplfi — Equazers pad FIGURE 24 Hyr (Lerminatng) sets ran fora wo. wine to four- wire hybeid network. The by es for unpedance vations inthe two-wire portion ofthe circuit, The am Figure 21 shows the bloek di brid evil eompes pliers snd alternators aust the si sate for impairments in dhe qansmission line that affect dhe frequency response of the transmitted signal such as line inductance, capacitance, and resistance. 8 to cast (W-E5 enter the terminating st from the ts sire line, where they are inductively cou ples amt the ses-40 east tnmsniter section of the Four wire circuit. Siewals received foam the fvur-wire side ofthe hybrid propagate through the receiver in tie east-to-west EW) section of the four-wire circuit where they ae applied to the center taps of the hybrid voils, Ike imped ances of the tvo-wire line and the balancing network are paoperly watched. all eurents pro duced inthe upper half of tne lsbrid by the FW signals will be equal in magnitude but oppo site in polarity. Therefore, the voltages induced inte secondaries will be 180) out of phase with ‘cach other sn, ths. cancel. This prevents any’ oF the si senleras.an echo, the impedances of the two-wire line and the balancing network ure no matched. voltages induced in the sevondaries of the hybrid coil will not completely cancel, This mm bulance causes a portion of the received signal 1o be returned to the sender on the WE por tion of the four wire circuit, Bukit te subscriber loop because of lons-tern temperature variations and degradation of trans mission fines, The talker hears the returned portion of the signal as am echo, snd if the round-trip delay exceeds approximtstely 45 ms, the echo ean become quite annoying. To climinate this echo, devices called ech suppressorsare inserted alone enxL oF the four-wie cirenit Figure 22 shows a simplified block diagram of an echo suppressor. The specel dete tor senses the presence and direction of the signal. [ten enables the amplifierin the appropri atc dirvetiow and disuibles the amplifier in the opposite direction, thus prevent, s,m uals aveling west smite the jetwworks can never completely match a hybrid to dhe eel7 CROSSTALK ‘The Telephone Circuit wee empitior West hybris ast hybrid [or

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