CAPACITY OF URBAN ROADS AND • POSSIBLE CAPACITY

HIGHWAYS
• PRACTICAL CAPACITY
INTRODUCTION
Basic capacity is the maximum number of
Determination of road capacity is a major vehicles that can pass a given point on a
issue for transport planners. Capacity is lane or a roadway during one hour, under
defined as the maximum number of the ideal roadway and traffic conditions that
vehicles that can be accommodated per unit can possibly be attained
time under given condition of occurrence.
Possible capacity is the maximum number
The capacity and other flow characteristics
of vehicles that can pass a given point on a
depend heavily on driver behaviour and the
lane or roadway during one hour, under the
traffic composition. It also depends on the
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
physical and environmental conditions such
as the geometric design of facilities, the Practical capacity is the maximum number
weather and the lighting. Capacity is only a of vehicles that can pass a given point in a
probabilistic measure. lane or roadway during one hour, when
traffic density is not so great as to cause
Road capacity in general refers to the
unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction to
maximum traffic flow obtainable on a given
the driver’s freedom to manoeuvre under
roadway using all available lanes; usually
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
expressed in vehicles per hour or vehicles
This is usually considered to be the ‘design
per day. This depends upon several factors,
capacity’.
mainly, traffic conditions, road geometry
characteristics, environmental factors etc. Factors affecting Highway Capacity
Highway capacity is the ability or capacity Several factors affect highway capacity. Let
of a road to hold or accommodate a us see some of the factors affecting
particular volume. Hence, Highway capacity highway capacity:
is associated with traffic volume and traffic
density. It refers to the hourly rate at a • Number of lanes
maximum where vehicles can cross a point • Width of the lane
on a highway at a given period.
• Roadway Geometry
Traffic volume is the number of vehicles
passing a given point on a roadway during a • Traffic Control Devices
specified time period. This is usually • Speed limit
expressed as vehicles per hour.
• Traffic Density
Traffic density is defined as the number of
vehicles occupying a unit length of a lane of • Vehicle Mix
a roadway at a given instant of time. This is
• Weather and Road conditions
usually expressed in vehicles per kilometre.
• Driver Behavior
THREE TYPES OF HIGHWAY CAPACITY
• Incident Management
• BASIC CAPACITY
• Shoulder width
 • Lateral clearance procedures 2. Speed under the prevailing roadway and
traffic
• Intersections
3. Clearances – transverse and longitudinal
• Alignment of roads and the curves
for ensuring safe traffic operation.
• Driver and Vehicle attributes
4. Regulation and control measures of
• Pedestrian movement traffic.

• Traffic flow speed 5. Road environment (urban, rural,

signalized etc.)
Importance of the Concept of Highway
Capacity 6. Climatic and weather conditions.

1. The capacity of a highway should be The latest IRC guidelines in this regard are
adequate to serve the needs of the given below:
projected traffic.

2. The class of highway, lane width, number

of lanes and intersections are dependent on
capacity.

3. Improvements on geometric elements,

traffic control devices and traffic
management measures can be effectively
planned based on the studies of highway
capacity.
The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), USA,
4. The adequacy of the existing highway defines the ideal conditions for
network for the existing traffic volume can uninterrupted flow as follows:
be assessed by capacity studies;
transportation planning can be done 1. Traffic flow, free from interference of
effectively using this information vehicles and pedestrians from the side

Passenger Car Unit (PCU) 2. In-stream flow of passenger cars

In order to facilitate the estimation of traffic 3. Traffic lanes of adequate width and
volume and traffic capacity while dealing shoulders with no lateral obstructions within
with mixed traffic conditions, it is imperative 1.8m from the edge of the carriageway
that a common standard vehicle is chosen 4. Horizontal and vertical alignment suitable
and all other types are converted into this for an average speed of 100km/h on multi-
class of vehicle; the standard vehicle lane highways in rural areas.
chosen for this purpose is the passenger
car. The common unit, therefore, is the These ideal conditions are rarely met with
passenger car unit (PCU). on actual roads; hence, the theoretical
capacities are never realised. (According to
The important factors that affect the PCU- HCM, the theoretical capacity under ideal
value of any type of vehicle are: conditions ranges from 2800 PCU/hour
1. Size – the length and width of the vehicle (total in both directions for a two-way, two-
lane highway) to 2200 per lane with free select speed and lane. The lower limit of
speeds of 100km/h for multi-lane highways this level (lowest speed and highest volume)
is associated with service volume used in
Level of Service Concept (HCM, USA):
the design of rural highways.
When a road is carrying a traffic volume
Level C – Still in the zone of stable flow, but
equal to its capacity under ideal roadway
speeds and maneuverability more closely
and traffic conditions, the service offered by
controlled by higher volumes. Drivers are
the road to the road user becomes poor and
restricted regarding speeds lane changes
the driving speed drops leading to an
and overtaking manoeuvers. A relatively
increase in travel time as there is no
satisfactory operating speed is still obtained,
overtaking opportunity.
with service volumes suitable for urban
Thus, the service offered by a roadway to design practice.
the road user can vary depending on the
Level D – Approaches unstable flow, the
traffic volume. Level of Service denotes the
operating speed is tolerable, but
level of facility that can be derived from a
considerably affected by changes in
road under different traffic volumes and
operating conditions. Fluctuations in volume
operating conditions. The concept of level
and restrictions to flow may cause
of service is defined as a qualitative
substantial drops in operating speed.
measure of the operating conditions in a
Drivers have little freedom to manoeuver.
traffic stream and the perception of these
Comfort and convenience are low but can
conditions by drivers and passengers.
be tolerated for short periods.
The operating conditions for the six levels
Level E – This level cannot be described by
of service selected by HCM are given below
speed alone. It is also determined by
(Level A represents the highest and level F
volumes at or near highway capacity.
the lowest):
Typical speeds are 50km/h. Flow is
unstable and there may be stoppages of
short durations.

Level F – At this level, there are forced

operations at low speeds resulting in
volumes below capacity. Queues of vehicles
piling up from a restriction downstream
serve as a storage area during peak hour.
Substantial reduction in speeds and
Level A – Free flow, with low volumes and stoppages may occur for short or long
high speeds low traffic density speed duration because of downstream
controlled by driver’s desires and physical congestion. In the extreme, both speed and
roadway conditions. There is no restriction volume can drop to zero.
on maneuverability due to the presence of
other vehicles. The traffic volume that can be served at
each level of service is known as the
Level B – Zone of stable flow, operating ‘service volume’. After selecting a level of
speeds beginning to be restricted by traffic service for design purposes, the
conditions. There is reasonable freedom to corresponding service volume logically
becomes the design volume or design on capacity.
capacity. If this volume is exceeded, the
Gradient – Gradients affect the speed of the
operating conditions will fall below the level
vehicles, especially trucks, and have an
of service selected.
adversely impact on the capacity.
The highway capacity manual makes no
Pavement surface condition – A
recommendations regarding the level of
deteriorated pavement surface condition is
service to be selected for the design of
known to adversely affect the capacity but
different types of highways. The choice is
the Manual states that adequate data are
left to the designer to select an appropriate
not available to develop adjustment factors
level of service based on economy and need.
to consider this.
Factors Affecting Capacity and Level of
Intersections-at-grade – These affect the
Service
capacity significantly.
Roadway Conditions:
Gradient – Gradients affect the speed of the
Restrictive physical and geometric elements vehicles, especially trucks, and have an
such as lane-width, lateral clearance, and adversely impact on the capacity.
horizontal alignment of road shoulders,
Pavement surface condition – A
gradients and pavement surface condition
deteriorated pavement surface condition is
are some factors which affect capacity and
known to adversely affect the capacity but
level of service. Even road intersections
the Manual states that adequate data are
affect the capacity.
not available to develop adjustment factors
Lane width – A width of 3.65 m is to consider this.
considered ideal for smooth flow. Smaller
Intersections-at-grade – These affect the
widths than this will reduce the capacity up
capacity significantly.
to 25 per cent. Distance from the edge of
the carriageway to an obstruction is also an The capacity and level of service are
important factor which can affect capacity. affected by the composition of different
types of vehicles in the stream, variation of
Lateral clearance – Lateral obstructions
traffic flow, traffic interruption, and lane
may be abutments such as sign posts, light
distribution. The number of traffic lanes,
poles and parked cars; if these are located
vehicular and driver characteristics, and one
closer than 1.83 m from the edge of a traffic
- or two-way traffic movements have a
lane, it reduces the capacity.
direct bearing on the lane or highway
Shoulders – They help to maintain traffic capacity.
flow. Paved shoulders of 1.2 m width
Capacity of Urban Roads:
increase the effective width of the lane by
0.3m. Capacity values for urban roads (between
intersections suggested by the IRC are
Horizontal alignment – Sharp curves and
given below:
restrictive sight distances are also factors
which tend to reduce lane capacity. The
highway capacity manual contains tables to
account for the influence of these factors
TRAFFIC OPERATION, REGULATIONS, AND Providing traveler information- Providing
CONTROL commuters with real-time traffic information,
such as current traffic conditions and
 Traffic operations, regulations, and
predicted travel times. This information can be
control are essential components of
provided through a variety of channels, such
managing and maintaining a safe and
as traffic information websites, apps, and
efficient transportation system. These
radio.
elements work together to ensure the
smooth flow of traffic, reduce
congestion, and enhance overall safety
Traffic Regulations:
on roads.
Traffic Regulations- Traffic regulation can be
Traffic Operation
defined as the rules and regulations which
 It is the process of monitoring and guide the behavior or action of road users, in
controlling traffic flow to ensure the order to prevent accidents and enhance the
efficient and safe movement of people free flow of traffic. These are driving laws put
and goods. It is a critical function for in place by the government to regulate or
transportation agencies and municipal control the attitude of all road users to achieve
authorities, as it can help to reduce an orderly and free flow of traffic.
congestion, improve air quality, and
Traffic Laws- Encompass a set of rules and
increase road safety.
regulations that govern the conduct of drivers,
Traffic operations management typically pedestrians, and other road users. These laws
involves these activities: are enforced by traffic police and are designed
to ensure safety and order on the roads.
 Monitoring traffic conditions
 Controlling traffic signals Vehicle Regulations- Specify standards for
 Managing incidents vehicle design, maintenance, and equipment
 Predicting future traffic conditions to ensure that vehicles are safe and
 Providing traveler information roadworthy. This includes regulations on
vehicle size, weight limits, and emissions
Monitoring traffic conditions- Collecting
standards.
data on present traffic flow: Traffic counts,
travel times, and speed. This data is collected Two Principal Government Agencies in the
from a variety of sources, such as traffic Country that are Responsible for the Proper
sensors, traffic cameras, and GPS devices. use of a Philippines Driving License.
Controlling traffic signals- Adjusting the Land Transportation Office (also called the
timing of traffic signals to optimize traffic flow. Land Transportation Commission) (LTO)- an
This can be done manually or automatically, agency under the Department of
using traffic management software. Transportation, the office is responsible for the
registration and inspection of motor vehicles,
Managing incidents- Responding to traffic
issuance of driver's licenses and student
incidents, such as accidents and roadwork.
permits, the implementation of rules and
This may involve rerouting traffic, providing
regulations related to land transportation, and
real-time information to motorists, and
adjudication of traffic cases.
dispatching emergency crews.
Metropolitan Manila Development
Predicting future traffic conditions-
Authority (MMDA)
Anticipate critical situations before they occur,
giving authorities more time to respond, Because Metro Manila is one of the busiest
improve their response, and possibly resolve areas in the country, especially in terms of
them before they cause inconvenience to road traffic, this agency helps implement traffic
users. laws that rule metro-wide applications. A
traffic enforcer from the MMDA can typically Some violations punishable by penalty
be seen in the areas of Manila, the cities of fees under RA 4136 are overtaking and
Quezon City, Caloocan, Las Piñas, Makati, passing a vehicle, Obstruction of traffic,
Malabon, Mandaluyong, Marikina, right of way and signaling, reckless
Muntinlupa, Navotas, Pasig, Pasay, Parañaque, driving, turning at intersections, driving
San Juan, Taguig, Valenzuela, and the or parking on the sidewalk, and even
municipality of Pateros. hitching to a vehicle.
Registration Classification of a Philippine
 RA 10913: Anti-Distracted Driving
Driver's License
Act of 2016- Don’t text and drive.
 Student Driver’s Permit Prohibits all Filipino drivers and foreign
 Non-Professional Driver's License license holders from using any
 Professional Driver's License electronic mobile devices and mobile
phones while the car is moving, or even
6 Driving Laws in the Philippines Every during a red light. If you get caught,
Driver Should Know you'll be facing Php 5,000 on your first
 RA 4136: The Land Transportation offense. However, you can still use
and Traffic Code- This republic act gadgets, provided that they have a
encompasses the basis of all the driving hands-free function such as Bluetooth
laws in the Philippines. It is also the earphones.
law responsible for the creation of the
Land Transportation Office. Under the
law, all Filipino drivers have been  RA 10586: Anti-Drunk and Drugged
mandated to register all motor vehicles Driving Act of 2013- Don't drink and
in the National Registry. drive. This law is should be the most
taken seriously by drivers, as this will
Under the law, there are assigned legal not only cause vehicular accidents, but
speed limits for every driver to follow. also damage to property, but also loss
Should there be a failure to comply, of lives. If you are arrested driving
there are also corresponding penalty under the influence of alcohol and in
fees, ranging from Php 100 to Php 500, possession of dangerous drugs, then
to pay. All vehicles have to observe the expect that you are subject to various
following speed limit on these areas: tests, such as field sobriety tests,
breath analyzers, and for suspected
Open country roads without blind under the influence of drugs and
corners and not closely bordered by all similar substances, chemical tests.
forms of house and lot in the
Philippines - 80 km/hr for passengers, Once found guilty, the following penalty
cars, and motorcycles, then for motor fees will be incurred:
trucks and buses, 50 km/hr. if it didn't result in physical injury or
homicide - Php 50,000 - Php 100, 000
On city and municipal streets, with if there are physical injuries - Php
light traffic, when not designated 150,000 - Php 250, 000
"through streets" - both 30 km/hr. if it resulted in homicide - Php 350,000
- Php 500,000 plus imprisonment.
Through crowded streets such as  RA 8750: The Seat Belts Use Act of
school zones, intersections at blind 1999- mandates the installation and
corners, passing other stationary use of adult seat belts in the front and
vehicles, or other similar dangerous rear seats of any private motor vehicle.
circumstances, only 20 km/hr
 For penalties, you will be paying Php - it applies to work zones, special events,
100 to Php 1,000 on the first offense, or regular conditions
up to Php 500 to Php 5,000, and a one-
week suspension of your driver's license.
 RA 10666: Children’s Safety on
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
Motorcycles Act of 2015- two-wheeled
motorcycle riders may not be allowed to What is traffic control?
drive a motorcycle with a small child on
board.  Traffic control, supervision of the
movement of people, goods, or vehicles to
Corresponding penalties for violation of ensure efficiency and safety.
this act range from Php 3,000 on the  It involves directing vehicular and
first offense up to Php 10, 000 on the pedestrian traffic around a construction
third offense. zone, accident or other road disruption,
 RA 10054: Motorcycle Helmet Act of thus ensuring the safety of emergency
2009- All motorcycle riders, including response teams, construction workers and
drivers and back riders, shall at all the general public.
times wear standard protective
motorcycle helmets while driving,  It applies to all control devices – it can be
whether long or short drives, in any signals, signs, or pavement markings
type of road and highway. In this  It can be executed by humans or
republic act, motorbike riders are computers
required to wear DTI-prescribed
standard helmets as they travel. Failure  Vehicles can be strictly governed or
of motorists in wearing helmets may advised
cause them to pay violation fees of Php
 Movements can be fully halted or adjusted
1,500 on the first offense up to Php
10,000 and confiscation of their license WHAT ARE THE 4 COMMON TRAFFIC
on the fourth and succeeding offenses. CONTROL DEVICES?
Traffic Control:  Signs.
Traffic Control- This is a process of  Traffic signals.
managing movements of transportation
system users to ensure conflict-less  Road markings.
passages along their intended paths.  Barricades
Traffic control is carried out by network
operators and controllers with reference to SIGNS
predetermined traffic management policies
Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at
and plans. It involves directing vehicular
the side of or above roads to give instructions
and pedestrian traffic around a or provide information to road users.
construction zone, accident or other road
disruption, thus ensuring the safety of
emergency response teams, construction
workers and the general public.
- it can be signals, signs, or pavement
markings
- it can be applied at intersections or road
segments
TRAFFIC SINALS ROAD SIGNS
Used at intersections to regulate the ROAD TRAFFIC SIGNS AND SYMBOLS are
movement of vehicles and pedestrians. Signal visual markers that were designed to guide
timings are carefully calibrated to optimize drivers and pedestrians toward their
traffic flow and minimize delays. destination. They usually provide either a
direction, a warning, or an instruction that
both drivers and pedestrians must follow.
Some road signs are usually found at the side
of the street, above the roads, pavements, and
bridges.

WHY TRAFFIC SIGNS IMPORTANT

It provides:
- Safety
- Warning for potential dangers of congested
ROAD MARKINGS and accident-prone areas.
Road marking (or line marking) is the - Efficient explanation of the rules of road
application of paints or materials on road usage to facilitate better and safer traffic flows.
surfaces, pavements, concrete or asphalt to
communicate information to motorists and - Drivers and pedestrians can also refer to
pedestrians. these signs to find areas that are safe for
walking, driving, turning, and crossing.

CATEGORIES OF TRAFFIC SIGNS AND

SYMBOLS IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. REGULATORY SIGNS. It refers to the

common known signs that motorist are
obliged to follow because if they are
BARICADES disregarded, they will constitute an offense,
which could lead to imposition of penalties
Barricades are solid objects that serve as an
and sanctions.
indicator for road users not to pass through.
As a communication tool for traffic control, 6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REGULATORY
both signs and barricades help dictate and TRAFFIC SIGNS
direct the flow of traffic
1. PRIORITY SIGNS
- STOP SIGN