Production of electric charges

The experimental discovery shows that whenever two bodies are rubbed together, they acquire
attracting property on some light objects such as paper. Consider one ebonite rod rubbed with a fur;
they are seen to attract each other. The two bodies are said to be electrified. Other examples are glass
and silk.

Types of charges

There are two types of charges

Positive charge and

Negative charge

A glass rod is said to acquire positive (+ve) charge while ebonite acquires negative (-ve) charge. The law
of electrostatic states that likes charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

Charging of electric charges

Charging of electric charges can be done through the following means:

Charging by electrostatic induction

Charging by friction

Charging by electrostatic induction:

Electrostatic induction is a method of charging a body by introducing a charged body to a neutral body.
When this is done, the body is said to be induced with a charge.

To charge a body, the neutral body A is made to stand on an insulator, not on a conductor. A charged
body B is introduced to the neutral body of A by electrostatic induction. The nearer side of A gets
reversely charged while the further side gets similarly charged.

When the charged body B is removed, the induced positive and negative charges are neutralized,
showing no resultant charge.
When the body is touched, the positive charge flows to the earth through the hand but the negative
charge does not flow to the earth.

If the hand is removed first, and then rod B is introduced, the whole surface will be bound with a
negative charge.

The neutral body can be charged either positively or negatively.

In conclusion:

To charge a body positively, a negatively charged rod is brought near and to charge a body negatively, a
positively charged rod is brought near.

Charging by friction:

Two substances such as glass and silk, when rubbed together, become electrically charged. During
rubbing, some electrons are transferred from the glass to the silk. The silk acquires a net negative charge
(excess electrons) while the glass acquires a net positive charge (electron deficit). If ebonite (hard
rubber) is rubbed with fur, the ebonite is negatively charged and the fur is positively charged. A body
with a positive charge attracts one with a negative charge but repels one with a positive charge, i.e. like
charges repel, unlike charges attract.

Distribution of charges on conductors

Experimental works have shown that charges are distributed where there is a sharp curve. The density
of these charges is greater at the surface of a sharp curve. The charge per unit area of a charged surface
is called surface density.

Surface density is greater at the corner or pointed edge than at the plain surface.

Storage of charges
Electrophorus:

The electrophorus is a device for transferring and storing charges. It produces electric charges by
electrostatic induction or by friction.

Capacitor:

A capacitor is a device for storing electrical charges. It consists of two conductors which are parallel to
each other. The storage of a capacitor is increased due to an increase in its conductivity.

Week 2.

The field is described as a region of space under the influence of some physical agency such as
gravitational, magnetism and electricity. The field concept is a convenient and informative method of
describing the influence of one body over another body separated from the first by some distance.

Force field

A force field is defined as the force whose sources do not require contact with the body to which they
are applied. We identified such force field as a gravitational force field, electric force, magnetic force and
electromagnetic force.

Types of force field

There are two classes of force fields:

Scalar force filed

Vector force field

Scalar force field:

A scalar force field is one that has only magnitude but no direction, e.g. Temperature, energy and
density.

Vector force field:

A vector force filed is the one that has both magnitude and direction, e.g. gravitational, magnetic and
electric fields.
Type of field

Gravitational Field

Magnetic Field

Gravitational field:

A gravitational field is a force field that affects every object that has mass. The earth’s gravitational field
attracts every object in the earth and gives it an acceleration known as acceleration due to gravity. It is
represented by the symbol g whose average value is about 9.81m/s2.

The Force of gravitational attraction is given by:

F = mg,

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity and m is the mass of the object.

Newton’s law of universal gravitation

Newton’s laws of universal gravitation are used to explain the gravitational force. This law states that
every massive particle in the universe attracts every massive particle with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. This general, physical law was derived from observations made by induction. Another
way, more modern, way to state the law is every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a
force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point masses.

Magnetic field

The region or space around a magnet in which the influence of the magnetic can be felt or detected is
called the magnetic field.
This space can be mapped out using a magnetic needle. The compass needle when placed in a magnetic
field, swings around and settles in a definite direction. The swinging of the needle when in the vicinity of
the magnet shows that it has been subjected to a force. This force is known as the magnetic force. Thus
magnetic field is a force field. Magnetic force can be felt at a distance. It influences an object even when
not in contact with it.

A magnetic field is also a vector field, i.e. it has both magnitude and direction.

We can demonstrate the pattern or nature of the magnetic field around a bar magnet by use of:

Iron filings

Magnetic compass

Week 3:

Definition

The region around the electric charge in which the stress or electric force act is called an electric field or
electrostatic field. If the magnitude of the charge is large, then it may create huge stress around the
region. The electric field is represented by the symbol E. The SI unit of the electric field is Newton per
coulomb which is equal to volts per meter.

Representation of electric field

The electric field is represented by the imaginary lines of force. For the positive charge, the line of force
comes out of the charge and for a negative charge, the line of force will move towards the charge. The
electric field for positive and negative charges are shown below.

Consider a unit charge Q placed in a vacuum. If another charge q is placed near the Q then according to
Coulomb law, the charge Q apply a force on it. The charge Q produces an electric field around it, and
when any other charge is placed near it, then the electric field of Q apply


force on it. The electric field produced by the charge Q at a point r is given by

E=

Where Q – unit charge

r – the distance between the charges

A charge Q applies the force on a charge q is expressed by

F=

The charge q also applies an equal and opposite force on the charge Q.

Types of an electric field

The electric field is mainly classified into two types. They are the uniform electric field and the non-
uniform electric field.

Uniform electric field:

When the electric field is constant at every point, then the field is called the uniform electric field. The
constant field is obtained by placing the two-conductor parallel to each other, and the potential
difference between them remains the same at every point.




Non-uniform electric field:

The field which is irregular at every point is called the non-uniform electric field. The non-uniform field
has a different magnitude and directions.

Properties of an electric field

The following are the properties of an electric field.

Field lines never intersect each other.

They are perpendicular to the surface charge.

The field is strong when the lines are close together, and it is weak when the field lines move apart from
each other.

The number of field lines is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

The electric field line starts from the positive charge and ends from negative charge.

If the charge is single, then they start or end at infinity.

The line curves are continuous in a charge-free region.

When the electric and magnetic field combines, they form the electromagnetic field.

The electric force around an

Isolated positive charge and isolated negative charge:


Two equal negative charges:

Two equal positive charges:

Two equal but opposite charges: