FABRICATION OF COCONUT COIR MAKING MACHINE 2023-24

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

Natural plant fibers’ can easily be sourced in many tropical countries and are
available in
large quantity all year round. These fibers’ are considered as environment friendly
materials due to their biodegradability and renewable characteristics. Recently,
the
interest has turned over on utilizing the natural plant fibers’ such as biogases,
coir, and oil
palm fibres as effectively and economically as possible to produce good quality
fiber for
various applications. Production of natural fibre reinforced composite materials
involves
proper processing of fibres into the required dimensions and then introducing the
matrix
to form composites. This work is about extracting coir fibres from coconut husks
and
processing them to the required geometry for composite board production. Of the
numerous available natural fibres, coir fiber is one of the hardest that attracts a
lot of
difficulty in separating or reducing the fibre size for natural fibre composite
production.
Coconut fibres come mainly from the coir (The coir is the seed hair fibrous
material
found between the hard internal shell and the outer coat (known as the endocarp) or
husk
of a coconut. The matured coconut fibre is coarse, stiff and reddish brown in
colour and it
is made up of smaller threads, consists of lignin (a woody plant substance) and
cellulose
[2]. The coir fibre is useful for the production of matrix-bond composites [3]. Due
to the
stiff nature of the fibre, conventional technology is required to extract its
fibres. The
traditional production of fibres from the husks as described by [4] is a laborious
and time-
consuming process which highly pollutes water surfaces as observed by [5-6] and
results
in the accumulation of large dumps of pith. After manually separating the nut from
the
husk, the husks are processed by various retting techniques, and generally in ponds
of
brackish waters (for about 3 — 6 months) or in salt backwaters or lagoons. This
requires
10 to 12 months of anaerobic (bacterial) fermentation. By retting, the fibers’ are
softened
and can be decorticated and extracted by beating [7], usually by hand. After
hackling,
washing and drying (in the shade) the fibres are loosened manually and cleaned.
Alternatively, mechanical processing using either defibering or decorticating
equipment
can be used to process the husks after only five days of immersion in water tanks.
By
using revolving “drums” the coarse long fibres are separated from the short woody
parts
and the pith. The stronger fibres are washed, cleaned dried, hackled, and combed.
The
quality of the fibre is greatly affected by these procedures. Size reduction is an
important

operation because it involves the breaking down of larger particles into smaller
and

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required sizes as different types of composite materials require different fiber

sizes for
proper binding of the components. Milling, crushing and grinding are processes
widely
used in the composite industries to reduce fiber sizes due to the advantages of
high
productivity and flexibility in fiber size ratio they provide [8]. There are
different types of
size reduction equipment; these include the crushers and the grinders. According to

Doerksen

The efficient operation of size reduction equipment depends on the speed of

rotation of
the machine, the hammer mill and the screen design. The size reduction and sieving
machine conventionally operates on the principles of impact and pulverization. It
consists
of a rotor assembly on which swinging hammer or beater that does milling is mounted
on
and a screen that does the sieving. The rotor shaft of this crusher can be placed
vertically
or horizontally, however horizontal placement is preferred [10]. The existing size
reduction machines are expensive and many are not incorporated with screen or
sieves
For more efficient processing of natural fibres for composite production and other
possible applications and proper waste recycling, a technological improvement that
can
be of help is encouraged. Therefore, the objective of this work was to design,
fabricate
and evaluate the performance of a cost effective laboratory scale coir fibre
extraction and

sieving machine

Fig 1.1 Coconut coir

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1.1 Materials and Methods

1.1.1 Materials Collection and Preparation

The materials for the construction of the machine were majorly mild steel sourced
locally
from Bodija iron market and for the performance evaluation coconut husks were
collected
from Badagry area of Lagos state. The collected coconut husk were prepared and made

ready for crushing by drying to moisture contents of 26, 16 and 8%.

1.1.2 Design Considerations

The product was meant to be cost effective, as a result, the availability, strength
and
durability of the local construction materials were the major properties considered
in the
design. Design considerations as outlined in standard machine design books were
also
taken into consideration. Data obtained from the preliminary investigations carried
out on
some physical and engineering properties of coconut husk were used to select design

parameters.

1.1.3 Design Analysis

The design was carried out based on methodology given in machine design textbook]
and
literatures The design analysis was carried out to evaluate necessary design
parameters
for proper development of the machine. There are five mechanisms which facilitate
proper functioning of sieving and milling machine. These mechanisms include:

1. Feeding Mechanism: This provides the passage for the materials to be processed

into the crushing chamber

2. Crushing mechanism: Crushing mechanism is the process responsible for breaking

and retting of the coconut husks into fibres.

3. Driver and driven mechanism: This is the source of rotating power to the shaft.

4. Sieving and Screening mechanism: The device was designed to hold, sieves of
different sizes, which is agitated to sieve the processed fibres into desired

dimensions.

5. Collection mechanism: The sieved fibres are collected through an open duct into
a

sack.

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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Anu S.C [1] et al in 2006 said that, coconuts are dehusked manually using tools.
These
methods required skilled labour. Attempts made so far in the development of
dehusking
tools have only been partially successful and not only been partially successful
and not
effective in replacing manual methods. The reasons stated for the failure of these
tools
include unsatisfactory and incomplete dehusking and breakage of the coconut shell
while
dehusking. Based on this hand operated coconut dehusking machine is being designed
to
solve this problem. This machine takes into consideration the danger, hazards and
risks
involved in the dehusking the coconut which will be the efficient, productive,
environmentally friendly, less laborious, easy to use and easy to assemble and

disassemble, most importantly, cost effective in the production, maintenance and

repair.

Luise cancel [2] et al in 2000said that, Coconut is a primary yield of konkan

district and
dehusking of coconut is essential process in preparing the coconut for additional
usage.
Coconut dehusking includes expelling of the husk from the coconut. Conventional
dehusking is difficult and troublesome procedure. To beat these difficulties, to
improve
the robotization and to give security to the workers, another structure of
dehusking
machine is presented and created. This dehusker includes utilization of two flat
rollers
with arrangement of sharp apparatuses which would shear the husk from coconut when
moving against one another. Shear force is required for dehusking of green coconut
and
dry darker coconut. Shear force required is more for green coconut than dry
coconut.
Torque and speed decrease required for dehusking is determined by utilizing the
power
required for shearing coconut. Ideal number of spikes is orchestrated on the
rollers to

dehusk the coconut with least power.

Chandra Dinath [3] et al said that, A machine explicitly intended to remove the
husks
from the coconut natural product including a majority of rollers pivoting in
inverse ways
adequately toward each other wherein every roller incorporates a majority of
infiltrating
spikes honed to enter and viably connect with the husk segment of the coconut
organic
product. The connection of the rollers in blend with the holding activity of the
spike
serves to tear away the husk from the nut leaving the nut in class.

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Sujaykumar [4] et al said that Coconut dehusking includes expelling of the husk
from
the coconut. Conventional dehusking is tedious and troublesome procedure. To beat
these
restrictions, to improve the machining and to give security to the administrator,
another
structure of dehusking machine is presented and manufactured. This dehusker
involves
utilization of two even rollers with arrangement of sharp apparatus which would
shear the
husk from coconut when moving against one another. Shear power is required for
dehusking of develop green coconut and dry dark colored coconut. Shear power
required
is more for develop green coconut than dry coconut. Torque and speed decrease
required
for dehusking is determined by utilizing the power required for shearing coconut.
Ideal

number of spikes is organized on the rollers to dehusk the coconut with least
power.

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CHAPTER-3
OBJECTIVES

> To produce high quality coir's fibers that are clean

» To reduce cost

» To provide safe and user-friendly operation for machines operators

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CHAPTER-4
COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

1) POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

2) SPUR GEARS

3) STAND

4) BEARINGS

5) INDUCTION MOTOR

6) SPROCKET AND CHAIN DRIVE

4.1 Power transmission system

The design is based on the power requirement of various component, economics and
relevant theories. It involves the use of different sizes of pulley and length of V
belts as
dictated by the required speeds and power. Power transmission unit consist of rotor
directly connected to the shaft of the grating machine. The machines consist of two

bearings, which reduce the wearing and tearing of the auger and shaft. The bearing
holds

the auger in position and allows transmission of force.

4.2 Spur gear

Gears are commonly used to transmit rotational motion between machinery shafts.
When
gears of different types and sizes are combined, they can change the rate of
rotation, the

direction of the axis of rotation, and change rotary motion to linear motion.

The spur gears, which are designed to transmit motion and power between parallel
shafts,

are the most economical gears in the power transmission industry.

4.2.1 Application
> Material handling

Feed drives
Machine tools

Conveyors

>
>
>
>» Marine hoists

4.3 Stand
This is a supporting frame and made up of mild steel.

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4.4 Bearings

The bearings are pressed smoothly to fit into the shafts because if hammered the
bearing

may develop cracks. Bearing is made upof steel material and bearing cap is mild
steel.

Ball and roller bearings are used widely in instruments and machines in order to
minimize
friction and power loss. While the concept of the ball bearing dates back at least
to

Leonardo da Vinci, their design and manufacture has become remarkably

sophisticated.

This technology was brought to its p resent state o f perfection only after a long
period of
research and development. The benefits of such specialized research can be obtained

when it is possible to use a standardized bearing of the proper size and type.

However, such bearings cannot be used indiscriminately without a careful study of

the
loads and operating conditions. In addition, the bearing must be provided with
adequate
mounting, lubrication and sealing. Design engineers have usually two possible
sources for
obtaining information which they can use to select a bearing for their particular
application

a) Textbooks

b) Manufacturers’

Catalogs Textbooks are excellent sources; however, they tend to be overly detailed
and
aimed at the student of the subject matter rather than the practicing designer.
They, in
most cases, contain information on how to design rather than how to select a
bearing for a
particular application. Manufacturers’ catalogs, in turn, are also excellent and
contain a
wealth of information which relates to the products of the particular manufacturer.
These
catalogs, however, fail to provide alternatives — which may divert the designer’s
interest
to products not manufactured by them. Our Company, however, provides the broadest

selection of many types of bearings made by different manufacturers.

For this reason, we are interested in providing a condensed overview of the subject
matter
in an objective manner, using data obtained from different texts, handbooks and
manufacturers’ literature. This information will enable the reader to select the
proper
bearing in an expeditious manner. If the designer’s interest exceeds the scope of
the
presented material, a list of references is provided at the end of the Technical
Section. At
the same time, we are expressing our thanks and are providing credit to the sources
which

supplied the material presented here.

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Construction and Types of Ball Bearings

A ball bearing usually consists of four parts: an inner ring, an outer ring, the
balls and the

cage or separator.

To increase the contact area and permit larger loads to be carried, the balls run
in
curvilinear grooves in the rings. The radius of the groove is slightly larger than
the radius
of the ball, and a very slight amount of radial play must be provided. The bearing
is thus
permitted to adjust itself to small amounts of angular misalignment between the
assembled shaft and mounting. The separator keeps the balls evenly spaced and
prevents
them from touching each other on the sides where their relative velocities are the
greatest.
Ball bearings are made in a wide variety of types and sizes. Single-row radial
bearings are
made in four series, extra light, light, medium, and heavy, for each bore, as
illustrated in

Fig. 1-3(a), (b), and (c).

100 Series 200 Series 300 Series Axial Thrust Angular Contact Self-aligning Bearing

Fig 4.1 Types of Ball Bearings

The heavy series of bearings is designated by 400. Most, but not all, manufacturers
use a
numbering system so devised that if the last two digits are multiplied by 5, the
result will
be the bore in millimeters. The digit in the third place from the right indicates
the series
number. Thus, bearing 307 signifies a medium-series bearing of 35-mm bore. For
additional digits, which may be present in the catalog number of a bearing, refer
to

manufacturer’s details.

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Some makers list deep groove bearings and bearings with two rows of balls. For
bearing
designations of Quality Bearings & Components (QBC), see special pages devoted to
this

purpose. The radial bearing is able to carry a considerable amount of axial thrust.

However, when the load is directed entirely along the axis, the thrust type of
bearing
should be used. The angular contact bear- ing will take care of both radial and
axial loads.
The self-aligning ball bearing will take care of large amounts of angular
misalignment.
An increase in radial capacity may be secured by using rings with deep grooves, or
by
employing a double-row radial bearing. Radial bearings are divided into two general
classes, depending on the method of assembly. These are the Conrad, or nonfilling-
notch

type, and the maximum, or filling-notch

type. In the Conrad bearing, the balls are placed between the rings as shown in
Fig. 1-
4(a). Then they are evenly spaced and the separator is riveted in place. In the
maximum-
type bearing, the balls are a (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 100 Series Extra Light 200
Series Light
300 Series Medium Axial Thrust Bearing Angular Contact Bearing Self-aligning
Bearing
Fig. 1-3 Types of Ball Bearings Fig. 1-4 Methods of Assembly for Ball Bearings (a)

Conrad or non-filling notch type (b) Maximum or filling notch type.

4.5 Induction motor

It is found to drive the roller shaft which fixed on the end of the frame
structure. The free
end of the shaft in the motor a large pulley is found around which the belt runs.
The other

specification about the motor is discussed in design part of the machine.

4.5.1 Single-Phase Theory

Because it has but a single alternating current source, a single-phase motor can
only
produce an alternating field: one that pulls first in one direction, then in the
opposite as
the polarity of the field switches. A squirrel-cage rotor placed in this field
would merely
twitch, since there would be no moment upon it. If pushed in one direction,
however, it

would spin.

The major distinction between the different types of single-phase AC motors is how
they
go about starting the rotor in a particular direction such that the alternating
field will
produce rotary motion in the desired direction. This is usually done by some device
that

introduces a phase-shifted magnetic field on one side of the rotor.

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The figure the performance curves of the four major types of single-phase AC
motors.

They are described below.

Haining split Split-phase
capacik r \
100 \ as Capacitor start
/ f
3s BS 80F
oS 2 ; “d-
ze z Shaded =
7 ea Z pole
a) 60 F
2g
5485
sae eee yy o
20 -
0 1 1 1

0 100 200 300) 400

Torque (percentage of full-load torque)

Fig 4.2 Single phase theory graph

4.5.2 Split-Phase Motors

The split phase motor achieves its starting capability by having two separate
windings
wound in the stator. The two windings are separated from each other. One winding is
used only for starting and it is wound with a smaller wire size having higher
electrical
resistance than the main windings. From the rotor’s point of view, this time delay
coupled
with the physical location of the starting winding produces a field that appears to
rotate.

The apparent rotation causes the motor to start.

A centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the starting winding when the motor
reaches
approximately 75% of rated speed. The motor then continues to run on the basis of

normal induction motor principles.

Starting winding

9 Wee Af
oe, an
é
Ly, oo ee ane
2 ( Rotor ) C page
\. / Starting switch
Es a—4 y s a = =
2°—T—{, “ |
‘
‘
‘— Running
winding

Split-phase motor

Fig 4.3 Split phase motor

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4.5.3 Capacitor-Start Motors

Capacitor start motors form the largest single grouping of general purpose single
phase

motors. These motors are available in a range of sizes from fractional through 3HP.

The winding and centrifugal switch arrangement is very similar to that used in a
split
phase motor. The main difference being that the starting winding does not have to
have
high resistance. In the case of a capacitor start motor, a specialized capacitor is
utilized in

a series with the starting winding.

The addition of this capacitor produces a slight time delay between the
magnetization of
starting poles and the running poles. Thus the appearance of a rotating field
exists. When
the motor approaches running speed, the starting switch opens and the motor
continues to

run in the normal induction motor mode.

This moderately priced motor produces relatively high starting torque, 225 to 400%
of
full load torque. The capacitor start motor is ideally suited for hard to start
loads such as
conveyors, air compressors and refrigeration compressors. Due to its general
overall
desirable characteristics, it also is used for many applications where high
starting torque

may not be required.

The capacitor start motor can usually be recognized by the bulbous protrusion on
the
frame where the starting capacitor is located.
Starting Capacitor
Starting winding fA
\ i,
4 f a
Let leiaeaaile’ A|

Leon. t |

oe (+ tor Centrifugal
L AN sari ng switch |
Running

winding

Capacitor-start motor

Fig 4.4 Capacitor start motor

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4.5.4 Permanent-Split Capacitor Motors

The capacitor of this motor is left in series with the starting winding during
normal
operation. The starting torque is quite low, roughly 40% of full-load, so low-
inertia loads

such as fans and blowers make common applications.

Starting winding i Capacitor

\, é
4 ! a teee
ALI .
Ly oe , fai
= | Rotor |

=, :
Lpop—SH NY
‘ !

— Running

winding

Permanent-split capacitor motor

Fig 4.5 Permanent split capacitor motors

Running performance and speed regulation can be tailored by selecting an

appropriate

capacitor value. No centrifugal switch is required.

4.6 Sprocket and chain drive

This is a cycle chain sprocket. The chain sprocket is coupled with another
generator shaft.
The chain converts rotational power to pulling power, or pulling power to
rotational

power, by engaging with the sprocket.

The sprocket looks like a gear but differs in three important ways:

1. Sprockets have many engaging teeth; gears usually have only one or two.
2. The teeth of a gear touch and slip against each other; there is basically no
slippage
in a sprocket.

3. The shape of the teeth is different in gears and sprockets.

Fig 4.6 Types of Sprockets

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4.6.1 Engagement with Sprockets

Although chains are sometimes pushed and pulled at either end by cylinders, chains
are
usually driven by wrapping them on sprockets. In the following section, we explain
the

relation between sprockets and chains when power is transmitted by sprockets.

1. Back tension

First, let us explain the relationship between flat belts and pulleys. Figure 2.5
shows a
rendition of a flat belt drive. The circle at the top is a pulley, and the belt
hangs down
from each side. When the pulley is fixed and the left side of the belt is loaded
with

tension (TO), the force needed to pull the belt down to the right side will be:
Tl =TO 3 euu

For example, TO = 100 N: the coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley, =
0.3;
the wrap angle u = 4 (180).

T1 = TO 3 2.566 = 256.6 N

In brief, when you use a flat belt in this situation, you can get 256.6 N of drive
power

only when there is 100 N of back tension.

For elements without teeth such as flat belts or ropes, the way to get more drive
power is
to increase the coefficient of friction or wrapping angle. If a substance, like
grease or oil,
which decreases the coefficient of friction, gets onto the contact surface, the
belt cannot

deliver the required tension.

In the chain's case, sprocket teeth hold the chain roller. If the sprocket tooth
configuration
is square, as in Figure 2.6, the direction of the tooth’s reactive force is
opposite the chain's

tension, and only one tooth will receive all the chain's tension. Therefore, the
chain will

O)

To

work without back tension.

Ti

Fig 4.7 Flat Belt Drive

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Roller

Toot Force Chain Roller

<= t >

Fig 4.8 Simplified Roller/Tooth Forces

Tooth Force a Pressure Angle

> Chain
Tension

Link Tension

Frictional
Tooth Force

Fig 4.9 The Balance of Forces Around the Roller

But actually, sprocket teeth need some inclination so that the teeth can engage and
slip off
of the roller. The balances of forces that exist around the roller are shown in
Figure 2.7,

and it is easy to calculate the required back tension.

For example, assume a coefficient of friction 4 = 0, and you can calculate the back

tension (Tk) that is needed at sprocket tooth number k with this formula:

Tk = TO 3 sin g k-1 sin(g + 2b) Where:

Tk = Back tension at tooth k

TO = Chain tension

gp = Sprocket minimum pressure angle 17 64/N(8)

N = Number of teeth

2b = Sprocket tooth angle (360/N)

k = The number of engaged teeth (angle of wrap 3 N/360); round down to the

nearest whole number to be safe

By this formula, if the chain is wrapped halfway around the sprocket, the back
tension at
sprocket tooth number six is only 0.96 N. This is 1 percent of the amount of a flat
belt.

Using chains and sprockets, the required back tension is much lower than a flat
belt.

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Now let’s compare chains and sprockets with a toothed-belt back tension.

Although in toothed belts the allowable tension can differ with the number of
pulley teeth
and the revolutions per minute (rpm), the general recommendation is to use 1/3.5 of
the
allowable tension as the back tension (F). This is shown in below Figure 2.8.
Therefore,

our 257 N force will require 257/3.5 = 73 N of back tension.

Both toothed belts and chains engage by means of teeth, but chain's back tension is
only

1/75 that of toothed belts.

Fig 4.10 Back Tension on a Toothed Belt

2. Chain wear and jumping sprocket teeth

The key factor causing chain to jump sprocket teeth is chain wear elongation (see
Basics
Section 2.2.4). Because of wear elongation, the chain creeps up on the sprocket
teeth until

it starts jumping sprocket teeth and can no longer engage with the sprocket.

Figure 2.9 shows sprocket tooth shape and positions of engagement. Figure 2.10
shows

the engagement of a sprocket with an elongated chain.

In Figure 2.9 there are three sections on the sprocket tooth face:

a) Bottom curve of tooth, where the roller falls into place;

b) Working curve, where the roller and the sprocket are working together;
c) Where the tooth can guide the roller but can't transmit tension. If the roller,
which

should transmit tension, only engages with C, it causes jumped sprocket teeth.

The chain's wear elongation limit varies according to the number of sprocket teeth
and
their shape, as shown in Figure 2.11. Upon calculation, we see that sprockets with
large
numbers of teeth are very limited in stretch percentage. Smaller sprockets are
limited by
other harmful effects, such as high vibration and decreasing strength; therefore,
in the
case of less than 60 teeth, the stretch limit ratio is limited to 1.5 percent (in
transmission

chain).

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Fig 4.11 Sprocket Tooth Shape and Positions of Engagement

O
O O
O

Fig 4.12 The Engagement Between a Sprocket and an Elongated Chain

es 3

2? a

my a ee di 135 0.8%
io

= 0 20 3 4 SO 6 7 80 9% 100 110

Number of Teeth in Sprocket

Fig 4.13 Elongation Versus the Number of Sprocket Teeth

In conveyor chains, in which the number of working teeth in sprockets is less than
transmission chains, the stretch ratio is limited to 2 percent. Large pitch
conveyor chains

use a straight line in place of curve B in the sprocket tooth face.

A chain is a reliable machine component, which transmits power by means of tensile

forces, and is used primarily for power transmission and conveyance systems. The
function and uses of chain are similar to a belt. There are many kinds of chain. It
is
convenient to sort types of chain by either material of composition or method of

construction.

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We can sort chains into five types:

> Cast iron chain.
> Cast steel chain.
> Forged chain.
> Steel chain.
> Plastic chain.

Demand for the first three chain types is now decreasing; they are only used in
some
special situations. For example, cast iron chain is part of water-treatment
equipment;

forged chain is used in overhead conveyors for automobile factories.

In this book, we are going to focus on the latter two: "steel chain,” especially
the type
called "roller chain,” which makes up the largest share of chains being produced,
and

"plastic chain.” For the most part, we will refer to "roller chain” simply as
"chain."
NOTE: Roller chain is a chain that has an inner plate, outer plate, pin, bushing,
and roller.

In the following section of this book, we will sort chains according to their uses,
which
can be broadly divided into six types:

Power transmission chain.

Small pitch conveyor chain.

Precision conveyor chain.

Top chain.

Free flow chain.

nw FY N D>

Large pitch conveyor chain.

The first one is used for power transmission; the other five are used for
conveyance. In
the Applications section of this book, we will describe the uses and features of
each chain

type by following the above classification.

In the following section, we will explain the composition of power transmission

chain,
small pitch chain, and large pitch conveyor chain. Because there are special
features in
the composition of precision conveyor chain, top chain, and free flow chain, checks
the

appropriate pages in the Applications section about these features.

3. Basic Structure of Power Transmission Chain

A typical configuration for RS60-type chain is shown in Figure 1.1.

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Presa Fit = Press Fit

Slip Fit

f Link Plate

Sip Fit $ Fin Link Plate

i Conran hg " a
— SE
Cftat Pen Oa ,
Pa

Goatter Pin

Fig 4.14 The Basic Components of Transmission Chain

4. Connecting Link

This is the ordinary type of connecting link. The pin and link plate are slip fit
in the
connecting link for ease of assembly. This type of connecting link is 20 percent
lower in
fatigue strength than the chain itself. There are also some special connecting
links which

have the same strength as the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)

5. Tap Fit Connecting Link

In this link, the pin and the tap fit connecting link plate are press fit. It has
fatigue strength

almost equal to that of the chain itself. (See Figure 1.2)

Spring Clip

Connecting Link Plate

Spring Clip Connecting Link Cotter Connecting Link

_- Pin Link Plate

maf
Spring Clip Tap Fit Connecting Link Plate Cotter Pin
Spring Clip Connecting Link Cotter Connecting Link

Fig 4.15 Standard Connecting Link (top) and Tap Fit Connecting Link (bottom)

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6. Offset Link
An offset link is used when an odd number of chain links is required. It is 35
percent
lower in fatigue strength than the chain itself. The pin and two plates are slip
fit. There is

also a two-pitch offset link available that has fatigue strength as great as the
chain itself.

(See Figure 1.3)

_-Offset Link Plate

a

i
Offset Pi :
sere Cotter Pin

Fig 4.16 Offset Link

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CHAPTER-S5
DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

5.1 Design of ball bearing

Bearing No. 6204

Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 47 mm

Thickness of Bearing (B) = 14mm
Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 20 mm
TY = Corner radii on shaft and housing
™% = 1 (From design data book)
Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (From design data book)
Mean Diameter (dm) = (D+ d)/2

= (47 + 20) /2
dm = 33.5 mm
Spring index (C) = (D/d)

= 12/2
C = 6
5.2 Wall stress factor
Ks = 4C-1 + 0.65

ac-4.

- (4X6)-1 + 0.65
(4X 6)-4 6

Ks = 1.258

5.3 Design of induction A.C motor

Output power in H.P = (2 x IL x NT)/4500

Where,

T - Torque = Load x distance moved

Weight of the machine = 13 kg

Distance moved = 0.1m

Torque = 13x0.1

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= 1.3 kg-m
..Required output power in HP = (2 x IL x NT)/4500

= (2 xIIx 550 x 1.3 )/ 4500

= 0.998
& 1 H.P

Hence power required for the motor is = 1 HP

5.4 Design of first shaft

As per design data Book.

Angle of lapping between belt & pulley=180 degree = a rad. Km = combined shock &
fatigue factor for bending= 1.5 (table

14.2 khurmi- gupta page 531).

Kt = combined shock & fatigue factor for bending = 2 Coefficient of friction 1: =

0.3.
Allowable shear stress = 35 mpa = 35 N/mm2 NOW;
Power (P) = 2 TI NT

60

=> 180=2xI1xl400xT
60

=>T= 180x60
2x IIx 1400

T= 1.22 N.m= 1.22 x 103 N-mm.

Tl & T2 = Tension in tight side & slack side of belt resp. In newtons
T=(TI1-T2)R

1.22 x 103 =(T1- T2) x 203. (T1—T2) = (1.22 x f10/ *3)/203

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CHAPTER-6
MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Manufacturing processes are the steps through which raw materials are transformed
into a
final product. The manufacturing process begins with the creation of the materials
from
which the design is made. These materials are then modified through manufacturing
processes to become the required part. Manufacturing processes can include treating
(such as heat treating or coating), machining, or reshaping the material. The
manufacturing process also includes tests and checks for quality assurance during
or after

the manufacturing, and planning the production process prior to manufacturing.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Fig 6.1 Manufacturing process

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2023-24

6.1 Metal cutting

Metal cutting or machining is the process of by removing unwanted material from a

block

of metal in the form of chips.

TOOL

hy

METAL CUTTING

RAW METAL (UNWANTED MATERIAL)

Fig 6.2 Metal cutting

Cutting processes work by causing fracture of the material that is processed.

Usually, the

portion that is fractured away is in small sized pieces, called chips. Common
cutting

processes include sawing, shaping (or planning), broaching, drilling, grinding,

turning

and milling. Although the actual machines, tools and processes for cutting look
very

different from each other, the basic mechanism for causing the fracture can be
understood

by just a simple model called for orthogonal cutting.

CARRIAGE-
3 JAW CHUCK:

‘SPINDLE-

HEAD STOCK.

4 ca
SPINDLE SPEED
SELECTOR——}
FEED ROD- 1 ia: k
Xe

EAD SCREW

| )

i
|

Lb ee
ED SHAFT

LATHE MACHINE

Fig 6.3 Lathe machine

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In all machining processes, the work piece is a shape that can entirely cover the
final part
shape. The objective is to cut away the excess material and obtain the final part.
This
cutting usually requires to be completed in several steps — in each step, the part
is held in
a fixture, and the exposed portion can be accessed by the tool to machine in that
portion.
Common fixtures include vise, clamps, 3-jaw or 4-jaw chucks, etc. Each position of
holding the part is called a setup. One or more cutting operation may be performed,
using

one or more cutting tools, in each setup.

To switch from one setup to the next, we must release the part from the previous
fixture,
change the fixture on the machine, clamp the part in the new position on the new
fixture,
set the coordinates of the machine tool with respect to the new location of the
part, and

finally start the machining operations for this setup.

Therefore, setup changes are time-consuming and expensive, and so we should try to
do
the entire cutting process in a minimum number of setups; the task of determining
the
sequence of the individual operations, grouping them into (a minimum number of)
setups,

and determination of the fixture used for each setup, is called process planning.

These notes will be organized in three sections:

a) Introduction to the processes,
b) The orthogonal cutting model and tool life optimization and

c) Process planning and machining planning for milling.

6.2 Sawing

Cold saws are saws that make use of a circular saw blade to cut through various
types of
metal, including sheet metal. The name of the saw has to do with the action that
takes
place during the cutting process, which manages to keep both the metal and the
blade
from becoming too hot. A cold saw is powered with electricity and is usually a
stationary

type of saw machine rather than a portable type of saw.

The circular saw blades used with a cold saw are often constructed of high speed
steel.
Steel blades of this type are resistant to wear even under daily usage. The end
result is
that it is possible to complete a number of cutting projects before there is a need
to
replace the blade. High speed steel blades are especially useful when the saws are
used

for cutting through thicker sections of metal.

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FEED HAND (OVER

ADJUSTABLE SCREW ROD

AXIS OF ROTATION

TABLE——| CUTTING WHEEL

MOVABLE JAW
XED JAW
WORK PIECE:
SAWING CUTTING MACHINE
Fig 6.4 Sawing

2023-24

Along with the high speed steel blades, a cold saw may also be equipped with a
blade that

is tipped with tungsten carbide. This type of blade construction also helps to
resist wear

and tear. One major difference is that tungsten tipped blades can be re-sharpened
from

time to time, extending the life of the blade. This type of blade is a good fit for
use with

sheet metal and other metallic components that are relatively thin in design.

6.3 Welding

Welding is a process for joining similar metals. Welding joins metals by melting
and

fusing 1, the base metals being joined and 2, the filler metal applied. Welding
employs

pinpointed, localized heat input. Most welding involves ferrous-based metals such
as steel

and stainless steel. Weld joints are usually stronger than or as strong as the base
metals

being joined.

LECTRODE
HOLDER

IMILAR METALS

Fig 6.5 Welding

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Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of

automobile
bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks,

furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

6.4 Operation

Several welding processes are based on heating with an electric arc, only a few are
considered here, starting with the oldest, simple arc welding, also known as
shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) or stick welding. In this process an electrical machine
(which
may be DC or AC, but nowadays is usually AC) supplies current to an electrode
holder
which carries an electrode which is normally coated with a mixture of chemicals or
flux.
An earth cable connects the work piece to the welding machine to provide a return
path
for the current. The weld is initiated by tapping (‘striking’) the tip of the
electrode against
the work piece which initiates an electric arc. The high temperature generated
(about
60000C) almost instantly produces a molten pool and the end of the electrode

continuously melts into this pool and forms the joint.

V/ | METAL PENETRATION
TWO PARTS TO BE WELDED

‘.END VIEW (BEFORE) 2,CROSS SECTIONAL (SIDE) VIEW 3.END VIEW (AFTER)
(QURING WELD)

WELDING

Fig 6.6 Welding operation

The operator needs to control the gap between the electrode tip and the work piece
while

moving the electrode along the joint.

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t->—— WELDING MACHINE

ELECTRODE HOLDER

AC or DC ELECTRODE

POWER
SOURCE

ARC

WORK CABLE

ELECTRODE CABLE |

WELDING PROCESS

Fig 6.7 Welding process

In the shielded metal arc welding process (SMAW) the 'stick’ electrode is covered
with an
extruded coating of flux. The heat of the arc melts the flux which generates a
gaseous
shield to keep air away from the molten pool and also flux ingredients react with
unwanted impurities such as surface oxides, creating a slag which floats to the
surface of
the weld pool. This forms a crust which protects the weld while it is cooling. When
the

weld is cold the slag is chipped off.

The SMAW process cannot be used on steel thinner than about 3mm and being a
discontinuous process it is only suitable for manual operation. It is very widely
used in
jobbing shops and for onsite steel construction work. A wide range of electrode
materials
and coatings are available enabling the process to be applied to most steels, heat
resisting

alloys and many types of cast iron.

6.5 Drilling

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of
circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often
multipoint. The bit is
pressed against the workpiece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of
revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the workpiece, cutting
off

chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

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ROTARY MOTION OF
CUTTING

TWIST aa
FEED
|

MOTION

ys

7 W ORKPIECE

DRILLING

Fig 6.8 Drilling

OPERATION

The geometry of the common twist drill tool (called drill bit) is complex; it has
straight
cutting teeth at the bottom — these teeth do most of the metal cutting, and it has
curved
cutting teeth along its cylindrical surface. The grooves created by the helical
teeth are
called flutes, and are useful in pushing the chips out from the hole as it is being
machined.
Clearly, the velocity of the tip of the drill is zero, and so this region of the
tool cannot do
much cutting. Therefore it is common to machine a small hole in the material,
called a
center-hole, before utilizing the drill. Center-holes are made by special drills
called
center-drills; they also provide a good way for the drill bit to get aligned with
the location
of the center of the hole. There are hundreds of different types of drill shapes
and sizes;

here, we will only restrict ourselves to some general facts about drills.

DRILL DIAMETER
POINT ANGL!

CHISEL EDGE
ANGLE

ANGLE |_LIPRELIEF

anes ANGLE
_ ttf PS
SHANK LENGTH | | ‘FULL LENGTH

t BODY
OVERAL LENGTH

LIP LAND
DRILL BIT

Fig 6.9 Drill bit

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Common drill bit materials include hardened steel (High Speed Steel, Titanium
Nitride
coated steel); for cutting harder materials, drills with hard inserts, e.g. carbide
or CBN

inserts, are used;

In general, drills for cutting softer materials have smaller point angle, while
those for

cutting hard and brittle materials have larger point angle;

If the Length/Diameter ratio of the hole to be machined is large, then we need a

special
guiding support for the drill, which itself has to be very long; such operations
are called
gun-drilling. This process is used for holes with diameter of few mm or more, and
L/D

ratio up to 300. These are used for making barrels of guns;

MOTOR

DRILLING MACHINE

Fig 6.10 Drilling machine

Drilling is not useful for very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm), since the
tool may
break and get stuck in the work piece; - Usually, the size of the hole made by a
drill is
slightly larger than the measured diameter of the drill — this is mainly because of
vibration
of the tool spindle as it rotates, possible misalignment of the drill with the
spindle axis,

and some other factors;

For tight dimension control on hole diameter, we first drill a hole that is
slightly smaller
than required size (e.g. 0.25 mm smaller), and then use a special type of drill
called a
reamer. Reaming has very low material removal rate, low depth of cut, but gives
good

dimension accuracy.

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6.6 Inspection

Critical appraisal involving examination, measurement, testing, gauging, and

comparison
of materials or items. An inspection determines if the material or item is in
proper
quantity and condition, and if it conforms to the applicable or specified
requirements.
Inspection is generally divided into three categories: (1) Receiving inspection,
(2) In-
process inspection, and (3) Final inspection. In quality control (which is guided
by the
principle that "Quality cannot be inspected into a product”) the role of inspection
is to

verify and validate the variance data it does not involve separating the good from
the bad.

Inputs Process Product Inspect

Accept

Fig 6.11 Inspection

6.7 Assembly

Fig 6.12 Assembly

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An assembly line is a manufacturing process (most of the time called a progressive

assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as the semi-
finished
assembly moves from work station to work station where the parts are added in
sequence
until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the
assembly
work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a
finished product can be assembled much faster and with much less labor than by
having

workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.

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CHAPTER-7
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The experimental setup of our project consists of a frame on which the entire
components
are mounted. The coir making is present at the center which is delivered motion
with the
help of a motor and the worm drive. Also at the top of the coir making a plate is
mounted
which helps to prevent the scattering of the coconut fibers while the dehusking
operation.
The chain drive is supplied with power with the help of an AC motor and by using
the

chain drive. The chain drive is preferred since it is highly economical.

The coconut is placed in its position and the switch is turned on. Hence the motor
is
started and supplies power to the dehusker. As the vibrations are more and there is
a
chance for the coconut fibers to scatter, the top plate supported by the springs
helps to
avoid this. Thus the coconut is dehusked automatically which saves lot of time.

COCONUT CORE FIBER

MAKING MACHINE

hopper

bearing unit
spiked rollers

spur gear drive

forward- réverse to idle roller

switch F
sprocket drive

heavy duty AC motor

Fig 7.1 Coconut coir making machine

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CHAPTER-8
MERITS AND DEMERITS
Merits
1. Uniform production is obtained by this machine.
2. Skilled labor is not required.
3. Easy operation
4. It can be transported easily from one place to another since dismantling and
assembling is simple.
5. Maintenance is easy.
Demerits
1. The initial investment is high when compared to other machines.
2. High maintenance is required.

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CHAPTER-9
APPLICATIONS

> All coconut pith manufacturing industry.

> Agricultural purpose.

> Coconut oil industries.

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2023-24

CHAPTER-10
LIST OF MATERIALS
Table 10.1 Materials
SL. No. PARTS Qty. MATERIAL
1 AC motor 1 -
2 Chain sprockets 2 CI
3 Spur gear 2 CI
4 Rollers 2 M.S
5 Bolts & Nuts - M.S
6 Bearings 4 -
7 Frame stand 1 MS

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CHAPTER-11

1. MATERIAL COST:

COST ESTIMATION

Table 11.1 Cost of project

SI. No. | PARTS Qty. COST

1 AC motor 1
2 Chain sprockets 2
3 Spur gear 2
4 Rollers 2
5 Bolts & Nuts -
6 Bearings 4
7 Frame stand 1

TOTAL:
2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrivedby “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost

Overhead Charges

Total cost = Material Cost =

Total cost for this project

Recommendations for future work

>» RPM to be reduced to 120rpm

= Material Cost + Labour cost

= 20% of the manufacturing cost

TOTAL COST

Labour cost + Overhead Charges

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> Indexing pitch has to decrease

> Length of the shaft can be increased

» Pitch between the shaft can be reduced by 5mm

> Hollow Shaft (tube) can be used.

As we are offering this product with new design to farmers and small scale coir
industry,

need to undergo further refinement

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CHAPTER-12
CONCLUSION

This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use
our
limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning,
purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that
the

project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and
industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully.
The
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF COCONUT COIR MAKINGH MACHINE is
working with satisfactory conditions. We are able to understand the difficulties in
maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We have done to our ability and skill
making

maximum use of available facilities.

In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our
impression project work. Thus we have developed a “COCONUT COIR MAKING
MACHINE” which helps to know how to achieve low cost automation. The application
of coconut dehusking got smooth operation. By using more techniques, they can be

modified and developed according to the applications.

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REFERENCES

1) Anu, S.C, “Development and testing of a continuous power operated coconut

husker’, M. Tech project report submitted to the kelappaji college of agriculture
engineering and technology (KCAET), Tavanur, 2012.

2) Luise Cancel, San Juan, Puerto Rico, “Coconut breaking machine”’.U.S Patent
3,605,834, Sept. 20, 1971.

3) Chandra Dinanath, Chaguanas, Trinidad and Tobago, “Coconut dehusking

machine”, US patent no 4,708,056, November, 24,1987.

4) G.Sujaykumar, Shashidhar B. Asantapur, Vishwas C., Prashanth Kumar, Dhanush

D. “Design and Fabrication of Coconut Dehusker’ Journal of Mechanical

Engineering and Automation p-ISSN: 2163-2405 e-ISSN: 2163-2413 2017

Department of Mechanical Engineering, GEC Raichur Page 40