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ULTRASONIC TESTING
General Description
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) makes use of sound waves and is based on the principle of echo. It
is a nondestructive method where beams of high frequency sound waves are introduced into
a test object to detect and locate surface and internal discontinuities. A sound beam is
directed into the test object on a predictable path and is reflected from interfaces or other
interruptions in material continuity. The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define
the presence and location of discontinuities.
Sound waves with frequencies from about 20Hz to 20 KHz are audible i.e. they can be heard
by human ear. In audible sound waves above 20 KHz are called ultrasonic waves. In
Ultrasonic Testing most commonly we make use of ultrasonic waves having frequencies
from 0.5MHZ to 5MHZ .The sound wave frequencies used in weld inspection are between
1and 6MHZ, which are above the audible range. Most weld testing is performed at 2.25 MH Z.
Higher frequencies i.e. 5 MHZ will produce small, sharp sound beams useful in locating and
evaluating discontinuities in thin wall weldments.

The detection, location and evaluation of discontinuities is possible because (1) the velocity
of sound through a given material is nearly constant, making distance measurements
possible, and (2) the amplitude of a reflected sound pulse is nearly proportional to the size of
the reflector.
Applications
Ultrasonic Testing can be used to detect cracks, laminations, shrinkage cavities, pores, slag
inclusions, incomplete joint penetration, and other discontinuities in weldments and
brazements. With proper techniques, the approximate position and depth of the discontinuity
can be determined, and in some cases, the approximate size of the discontinuity.
Advantages
The principle advantages of UT compared to other NDT methods for weldments are as
follows:
(1) Can detect discontinuities in thick sections
(1) Has relatively high sensitivity to small discontinuities
(2) Able to determine depth of internal discontinuities and to estimate their size and
shape
(2) Can adequately inspect from one surface
(3) Equipment can be moved to the job site i.e. portability
(4) Is non-hazardous to personnel or other equipment

Limitations
The principle limitations of UT are as follows:
(1) Setup and operation require trained and experienced technicians, especially for
manual examinations.
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(2) Weldments that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin are difficult or
impossible to inspect this includes fillet welds
(3) Discontinuities at the surface are difficult to detect.
(4) A couplant is needed between the sound transducers and the weldment to transmit
the ultrasonic wave energy.
(5) Reference Standards are required to calibrate the equipment and to evaluate the size
of discontinuities.
(6) Reference standards should reflect the item to be examined with respect to design,
material specifications, and heat treatment condition.
General Characteristics of Ultrasonic Waves
Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves (in contrast to, for instance, light or X-ray, which are
electromagnetic waves) that consist of oscillations or vibrations of the atomic or molecular
particles of a substance about the equilibrium positions of these particles. Ultrasonic waves
behave essentially the same as audible sound waves. They can propagate in an elastic
medium, which can be solid, liquid or gaseous, but not in vacuum.
In many respects, a beam of ultrasound is similar to a beam of light; both are waves and
obey a general wave equation. Each travels at a characteristics velocity in a given
homogeneous medium a velocity that depends on the properties of the medium, not on the
properties of the wave. Like beam of light, ultrasonic beams are reflected from surface,
refracted when they cross a boundary between two substances that have different
characteristics sound velocities and diffracted at edges or around obstacles. Scattering by
rough surfaces or particles reduces the energy of an ultrasonic beam; comparable to the
manner in which scattering reduces the intensity of light beam.
Wave Propagation
Ultrasonic waves (and other sound waves) propagate to some extent in any elastic material,
when atomic or molecular particles of an elastic material are displaced from their equilibrium
positions by any applied force, internal stress acts to restore the particles to their original
positions.
Because of the inter-atomic forces between adjacent particles of materials, a displacement
at one point induces displacement at neighboring points and so on, thus propagating a
stress-strain wave. The actual displacement of matter that occurs in Ultrasonic wave is
extremely small.

Sound Waves and Modes

Acoustic waves (sound wave) are produced and sustained by mechanical vibrations. When
an acoustic wave travels through the medium, the particles in the medium vibrate. A
vibration is a periodic phenomenon. When a particle vibrates, its displacement (movement
from normal position) increases and decreases periodically. A wave is represented by the
figure 6.1.
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Figure 6.1 -A Typical Sound Wave Vibration

A wave is characterized by certain quantities:

The amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position.
The wavelength (λ) is the distance between successive similar positions in the wave. The
Time period (T) is the time taken by the wave to travel a distance equal to a wavelength.
The frequency (f) is the number of waves traveling across a point in one second. It is also
the same as the number of vibrations executed by the particles per second. The relations
among the above parameters are as follows:
V=f λ and f=1/T
Where, velocity of sound V is in kilometer per second, frequency f is in megahertz and
wavelength (λ) is in millimeter.
Solved Problem 1
Calculate the wavelength of a 5 MH Z compression wave in steel. Velocity of compression
wave in steel is 5960 m/s.
Here, V = 5.96 Km/S
f= 5 MHZ
λ=V/f = 5.96/5 = 1.19 mm

Solved Problem 2
Calculate the wavelength of a 2 MHZ shear wave in aluminum. Velocity of shear wave in
aluminum is 3130 m/s.
λ= V/f= 3.13/2 = 1.565 mm
Wave Form
There are three basic modes of propagating sound through metals: (1) longitudinal, (2)
transverse, and (3) surface waves. In the first two modes, waves are propagated by the
displacement of successive atoms or molecules in the metal.
Longitudinal waves, sometimes called straight or compression, represent the simplest wave
mode. This wave form exists when the motions of the particle are parallel to the direction of
sound beam propagation, as shown in Figure 6.2(A). Longitudinal waves have relatively high
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velocity and relatively short wave length. As a result, the energy can be focused into a sharp
beam with a minimum of divergence. Longitudinal ultrasonic waves are readily propagated in
liquids and gases as well as in elastic solids. The velocity of longitudinal ultrasonic wave is
about 6000m per sec in steel, 1500m per see in water and 330 m per sec in air. The velocity
of longitudinal wave in a medium can be calculated by using the formula below:
VL=√E/ρ
Where, VL=Velocity of longitudinal waves
E=Young’s Modules of Elasticity of the propagating medium
And ρ=density of the medium

Figure 6.2(A) Longitudinal Waves Figure 6.2(B) Shear Waves

Note: Internal arrows represent physical movements of particles within the materials
Another mode is the transverse wave, also called shear wave, in which the principal particle
motion is perpendicular to the direction of sound beam propagation, as shown in Figure
6.2(B). The velocity of these waves is approximately half that of longitudinal waves.

Advantages of this wave form are lower velocities that allow easier electronic timing, and
greater sensitivity to small indications. On the other hand, these waves are more easily
dispersed and cannot be propagated in a liquid (water). Air and water will not support
transverse waves. In gases, the force of attraction between molecules is so small that shear
waves cannot be transmitted.
The same is true of a liquid, unless it is particularly viscous or is present as a very thin layer.
The velocity of transverse wave in a medium can be calculated by using the formula below:
VT =√G/ρ
Where, VT=Velocity of transverse wave
G= Modulus of Rigidity
And, p= density.

The third mode is surface waves, sometimes referred to as Rayleigh waves. In this mode,
ultrasonic waves are propagated along the metal surface, similar to waves on the surface of
water. These surface waves have little movement below the surface of a metal. Therefore,
they are not used for examination of welded and brazed joints. Surface waves are subjected
to less attenuation in a given material than are longitudinal or transverse waves. They have
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a velocity approximately 90% of the transverse wave velocity in the same material. The
region within which these waves propagate with effective energy is not much thicker than
about one wave length beneath the surface of the metal. At this depth wave energy is about
4% of the wave energy at the surface, and the amplitude of oscillation decreases sharply to
a negligible value at greater depths.
Longitudinal wave ultrasound is generally limited in use to detecting inclusions and lamellar
type discontinuities in base metal. Shear waves are most valuable in the detection of weld
discontinuities because of their ability to furnish three-dimensional coordinates for
discontinuity locations, orientations and characteristics. The sensitivity of shear wave is also
about double that of longitudinal waves for the same frequency and search unit size.
The zones in the base metal adjacent to a weld should first be tested with longitudinal waves
to ensure that the base metal does not contain discontinuities that would interfere with shear
wave evaluation of the weld.
Acoustic Impedance
When ultrasonic waves traveling through one medium impinge on the boundary of a second
medium, a portion of the incident acoustic energy is reflected back from the boundary while
the remaining energy is transmitted into the second medium. The characteristic that
determines the amount of reflection is the acoustic impedance of the two materials on either
side of the boundary. If the impedance of two materials is equal, there will be no reflection; if
the impedance differs greatly (as between a metal and air, for example), there will be
virtually complete reflection.
This characteristic is used in ultrasonic inspection of metals to calculate the amount of
energy reflected and transmitted at impedance discontinuities.
The acoustic impedance for a longitudinal wave (Z 1), in gm/cm2_Sec is defined as the product
of material density (ρ) in gm/cm3 and longitudinal wave velocity (VL) in cm/sec

ZI = p VL

Acoustic Pressure & Intensity

Acoustic pressure is the term most often used to denote the amplitude of alternating
stresses on a material by a propagating ultrasonic wave. Acoustic pressure (P) is related to
the acoustic impedance (Z) and the amplitude of particle vibration (a) as:
P=Za
The transmission of mechanical energy by ultrasonic waves through a unit cross-section
area, which is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the waves, is called the
intensity of the ultrasonic waves.
Intensity (I) of ultrasonic waves is related to the acoustic pressure (P), acoustic impedance
(Z) as
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Reflection & Transmission

The percentage of incident energy reflected from the interface between two materials
depends on the ratio of acoustic impedances (Z 2/Z1) and the angle of incidence. When the
angle of incidence is Oº (normal incidence), the reflection co-efficient (R), which is the ratio

Figure 6.3- Transmission & Reflection of Incident Energy at Interface of Two Mediums

of reflected beam intensity (I r) to incident beam intensity (It), is given by

Where, Z 1 and Z 2 is the acoustic impedance of medium 1 and 2 respectively.

The transmission co-efficient (T) can also be calculated as the ratio of the intensity of the
transmitted beam (Ii) from:

As all the energy either reflected or transmitted, therefore

R+T=1

Solved Problem 3
A longitudinal ultrasonic wave in water is incident at right angle to the surface of a steel test
piece. Calculate the percentage of acoustic energy reflected and transmitted at the interface.

Z 1(Water) = 1.48 x 106 gm/cm 2- Sec

Z 2(Steel) = 46.7 x 10 6gm/-Sec

Reflection Co-efficient = =0.88

Transmission Co-efficient =1-R =0.12

I.e. 88% of incident energy will reflected back and 12% will be transmitted.

Refraction & Mode Conversion

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Only when an ultrasonic wave is incident at right angles on an interface between two
materials, transmission and reflection occur at the interface without any change in beam
direction. At any other angle of incidence, the phenomena of mode conversion (a change in
the nature of wave motion) and refraction (a change in the direction of wave propagation)
occur.
Figure 6.4 below shown what happens when a Longitudinal wave strike a boundary
obliquely between two media. The incident longitudinal wave splited into two wave modes
longitudinal and transverse and travel through both the media as reflected and refracted
beam.
V L (1) is the velocity of incident Longitudinal wave at an incident angle (α L), V L (1)́and V t (1)
are the velocity of mode converted reflected longitudinal and transverse wave at an angle α L'
and α t respectively. V L (2) and V t (2) are the velocity of mode converted refracted longitudinal
and transverse wave in second medium at an angle β L and β t respectively.

Figure 6.4-Mode Conversion and Refraction of Wave in the Interface of Two Mediums
The general law that describes the relationship among the above parameter is known as
Snell's Law. According to Snell's Law ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of
the angle of reflection or refraction equals the ratio of the corresponding wave velocities.
Mathematically Snell's law can be expressed as the follows:

Where α is the angle of incidence, β is the angle of reflection or refraction V 1 and V2 are the
respective velocities of the incident and reflected or refracted waves. Both α and β are
measured from a line normal to interface.
Solve Problem 4
Calculate the angle of incidence of longitudinal wave in perpex to produce a 45º shear wave
in steel.
V1 (Perspex) = 2.68 x 103m/sec
V2 (Steel) = 3.24 x103m/sec
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Snell's Law

Angle of incidence α=Sin-1(0.58) =35º

The Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Waves
Generation and detection of ultrasonic wave for inspection is accomplished by means of
transducer element acting through couplant. A transducer is a device, which converts one
form of energy into another. Ultrasonic transducer converts electrical energy into ultrasonic
energy and vice-versa by utilizing a phenomenon known as the piezoelectric effect.
The Piezoelectric effect
The Curie brothers in 1880 discovered that a plate cut from a crystal in a particular plane,
had the property of generating an electric potential when subjected to mechanical pressure.
The effect was particularly noticeable in some naturally occurring crystals, quartz,
tourmaline, Rochelle salt and others. Lippmann in 1881 predicated the reverse effect, and
suggested that these crystals could be used to generate and detect sound waves.
Direct piezoelectric effect is used to detect ultrasonic waves in ultrasonic inspection.
Natural Piezoelectric Crystal Transducer
Some of the single crystal materials in which the piezoelectric effect occurs naturally are
quartz, tourmaline, lithium sulphate, cadmium sulphate, zinc oxide etc.
Quartz and lithium sulphate were most commonly used for the manufacturing of ultrasonic
transducer. But recently the performance of the synthetic transducer is considerably better
than quartz, and so quartz is no longer used as a transducer material in flaw detection.
Synthetic Polarized Ceramic Transducer
Some polycrystalline ceramic materials can be made to display the piezoelectric effect.
These ceramics can be considered to be a composite of many tiny piezoelectric crystals.
Under normal conditions these tiny crystals are jumbled together, so that the effect of one
cancels out the effect of another, and the ceramic, as a whole does not show piezoelectric
properties. If, however, we heat up the ceramic to a critical temperature known as the Curie
temperature, the tiny crystals are free to move relative to each other. If we then subject the
ceramic to an intense electrostatic field, the tiny crystals all align themselves with the field. If
the electrostatic field is maintained while we cool the ceramic to room temperature, we wind
up with a "polarized" piece of ceramic, which behaves as a piezo-electric transducer.
Barium titannate, lead metaniobata, lead-zirconate titannate (PZT) etc. are the example of
sintered polarized ceramic transducer.

Comparison of few Piezoelectric Materials

Materials as as as Resolution Stability Curie temp.

transmitter receiver transceiver
Quartz VP F P G VG 575°C
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LiSO4 P VG G G VP 75°C
BaTiO3 G P F F G 120°C
PZT VG P G G 360°C
p

VG =Very Good; G = Good; F = Fair; P=Poor; VP=Very Poor

It must however be noted that, the characteristics of a piezoelectric element can greatly vary
depending upon the method of manufacturing and construction of search unit.
The Probes
The probe or search unit contains the piezoelectric transducer which converts electrical
energy to ultrasonic oscillation and vice-versa. An ultrasonic probe consists of:
1) A piezoelectric transducer
2) A backing material
3) A matching transformer, which matches the piezoelectric transducer electrical
impedance to that of the cable to the flaw detector, to transfer maximum energy
from the cable to the transducer and vice-Versa.
4) A case, which is simply a holder of suitable dimension and construction.
Piezoelectric Transducer
An ultrasonic probe is generally excited by voltage pulse duration of less than 10-nano
second; short voltage pulse consists of band of frequencies. Among these frequencies, the
transducer vibrates with maximum amplitude at the resonance frequency of the transducer.
Backing Materials (Damping block)
The backing material or damping block is used to control the pulse length, and is achieved
by loading the transducer with a heavy damping slug made of tungsten powder mixed into
an epoxy resin base. The purpose of damping is to control the two basic characteristics of
the probe resolution and sensitivity. Resolution of a probe is its ability to separate the echoes
from two flaws, which are close together in depth. Sensitivity of a probe is defined as the
ability of the probe to detect echoes from small flaws.
To have a high resolution, the vibration of the transducer of the probe should be damped, as
quickly as possible but to have a high sensitivity probe, damping of the transducer vibration
should be as low as possible. The two requirements are contradictory to each other and
therefore a compromise has to be made.
The maximum damping of the transducer's vibration is achieved when the backing material
has the same acoustic impedance as that of the transducer.
Types of Ultrasonic Probes
Ultrasonic probes or search units are of many types and shapes. Vibration in search unit
construction includes; transducer-element material; transducer-element thickness, surface
area and shape; and type of backing material and degree of loading. Four basic types of
search units are:
1) Straight beam contact type probe
2) Angle beam contact type probe
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3) Dual-element contact type probe

4) Immersion type probe
Contact type probes are scanned in direct contact with the surface of the test specimen. In
normal probes of this type a wear plte is often used to protect the transducer from wear.
When using protected probes a thin layer of appropriate couplant usually light oil is always
required between the transducer and the wear plate to obtain transmission of ultrasound
energy across the interface.
Straight beam contact type probe: Straight beam or normal Beam contact type probe
transmit ultrasonic waves, usually longitudinal type, into the test specimen in a direction
perpendicular to the surface of the test specimen. These probes use a single transducer as
a transmitter and receiver of ultrasonic. This probe has a common connection of transmitter
and receiver (amplifier) units of the flaw detector.

Figure 6.5-Straight Beam Probe Figure 6.6-Angle Beam Probe

The figure 6.5 shows a schematic diagram of a normal contact type probe. Because of the
common connection to the transmitter and receiver unit, the single transducer probe have a
large transmission pulse which results in a large dead zone for the probe and thus renders
the probe useless for near surface flaw detection and thin wall thickness measurement.
Angle beam contact type probe: In angle probes, refraction and mode conversion of wave
modes are used for transmitting ultrasonic wave in to the test specimens at various angles to
the surface. A typical construction of an angle beam contact type probe is shown in figure
6.6.
An angle probe transmits longitudinal waves through a Perspex wedge at a definite angle of
incidence to the surface of the specimen. The angle of incidence chosen is greater than the
first critical angle so that only transverse waves enter the specimen. The longitudinal portion
is reflected back into the probe and is attenuated by the damping block and thus spurious
indications that may arise due to the presence of the longitudinal waves are avoided.

The refracted angle for steel specimen and the beam exit point, generally known as the
probe index, are marked on the metal case of the probe. When an angle beam probe
designed for steel is used for another material, the change in angle of refraction should be
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taken into account.

In a surface wave probe the wedge angle is chosen so that the shear-wave-refraction angle
is 90º and the wave resulting from mode conversion travels along the surface.
Basic Equipment
Most Ultrasonic Testing systems use the following basic components:
(1) An electronic signal generator (pulsar) that produces burst of alternating voltage.
(2) A sending transducer that emits a beam of ultrasonic waves when alternating
voltage is applied.
(3) A couplant to transmit the ultrasonic energy from the transducer to the test piece
and vice versa.
(4) A receiving transducer to convert the sound waves to alternating voltage. This
transducer may be combined with the sending transducer.
(5) An electronic device to amplify and demodulate or otherwise change the signal
from the receiving transducer.
(6) A display or indicating device to characterize or record the output from the test
piece.
(7) An electronic timer to control the operation.
The basic components are shown in Figure 6.7.
Equipment operating in a pulse-echo method with video presentation is most commonly used
for hand scanning of welds. The pulse-echo equipment produces repeated burst of high
frequency sound with a time interval between bursts to receive signals from the test piece
and from any discontinuities in the weld or base metal. The pulse rate is usually between 100
and 5000 pulses per second.
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Figure 6.7- Diagram of Pulse Echo flaw detector

In the video presentation, the time base line is located horizontally along the bottom of a
cathode ray tube (CRT) screen, with a vertical initial pulse indication at the left side of the
base line. An A scan, indicates that the time laps between pulses is represent by the
horizontal direction, Figure 6.7, and the relative amplitude of the returning signal is
represented by the degree of vertical deflection on the CRT screen. The screen is usually
graduated in both horizontal and vertical directions to facilitate measurements of pulse
displays.
A search unit is used to direct a sound beam into the test object. It consists of a holder and a
transducer. The transducer element is usually a piezoelectric crystalline substance. When
excited with high frequency electrical energy, the transducer produces mechanical vibrations
at a natural frequency. A transducer can also receive physical vibrations and transform them
into low energy electrical Impulses. In the pulse- echo mode, the ultrasonic unit senses
reflected impulses, amplifies them, and presents them as spikes called pips on the CRT
screen, Figure 6.7. The horizontal location of reflector pip on the screen is proportional to the
distance the sound has traveled in the test piece. This makes it possible to determine
location of reflectors by using horizontal screen graduations as a distance-measuring ruler.
Sound Behavior
Sound passes through most metals in a fairly well defined beam. Initially, the sound beam
has a cross section approximately the size of the transducer element. It propagates with
slight divergence in a fairly straight line. As the sound beam travels through the metals, there
is some attenuation or decrease in energy. The beam will continue to propagate until it
reaches a boundary within the object being tested. Either partial or complete reflection of the
sound beam takes place at a boundary.
The behavior of sound at UT frequencies resembles visible light in several ways:
(1) Divergence of the beam can be controlled by focusing.
(2) The beam reflects predictably from surfaces of different densities.
(3) The beam will refract at the interface between materials of different density.
On the other hand, the behavior differs from light in that different vibration mode and
velocities can occur in the same medium.
Coupling
A liquid or hydraulic material is used for transmission of ultrasonic waves into the test object.
Some of the more common couplants are water, light oil, glycerin, and cellulose gum powder
mixed with water. Couplants can become a housekeeping problem, so care must be used to
prevent accidents. Also, couplants, or the various solvents used to remove them, can be
detrimental to repair welding or subsequent operations. Several proprietary couplants are
available that minimize these problems.
A weldment must be smooth and flat to allow intimate coupling. Weld spatter, slag, and other
irregularities should be removed. Depending on the testing technique, it may be necessary
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to remove the weld reinforcement.

Basic Principle of Ultrasonic Testing
The principle of ultrasonic test is based on the characteristics of ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic
waves are usually produced by piezoelectric transducer, which converts the electrical energy
into mechanical vibration and vice versa. These ultrasonic waves are transmitted through a
coupling medium into the test object, where the ultrasonic energy is attenuated, scattered,
reflected to indicate the condition of the materials comprising the object. Ultrasonic waves
reflect because of the difference in acoustic impedance across the boundary or interface
between the two media. So, if there is any crack, void or any other flaw within the specimen,
the incident ultrasonic beam will be reflected partially. This reflected ultrasonic beam is
received and reconverted into electrical signal by the same piezoelectric transducer and this
electrical signal is returned to the test instrument.
The returned received signal is then usually displayed on Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The
displayed signal on CRT will indicate the existence of defects within or on the surface of the
test object. The position and size of the defect can be determined by analyzing the displayed
indication on CRT.
Calibration
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) is basically a comparative evaluation. The horizontal (time) and the
vertical (amplitude) dimensions on the CRT screen of the test unit are related to distance
and size, respectively. It is necessary to establish a zero starting point for these variables,
and to calibrate an ultrasonic unit to some basic standard before use.
Various test blocks are used to assist in calibration of the equipment. Known reflecting areas
can simulate typical discontinuities. Notches substitute for surface cracks, side-drilled holes
for slag inclusions or internal cracks, and angulated flat-bottomed holes for small areas of
incomplete fusion. The test block material must be similar in acoustic qualities to the metal
being tested. Standard test blocks are shown in ASTM E 164, Standard practice for
ultrasonic contact examination of weldments. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing
and Materials, latest edition.

The International Institute of Welding (IIW) test block is widely used as a calibration block for
ultrasonic testing of steel welds. This and other test blocks are used to calibrate an
instrument for sensitivity, resolution, linearity, angle of sound propagation, and distance and
gain calibrations.
Test Procedures
Most Ultrasonic Testing of welds is done following a specific code or procedure. An example
of such a procedure is that contained in AWS D 1.1, Structural Welding Code-Steel for
testing groove welds in structures.
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Longitudinal Discontinuities Transverse Discontinuities

Movements A, B, and C are combined Scanning pattern D (when welds are
as one scanning pattern. ground flush).
Scanning Movement A: Rotation angle Scanning pattern E (when weld
a = 10 degrees. reinforcement is not ground flush).
Scanning Movement B: Scanning Scanning angle e = 15 degrees max.
distance b shall be such that the section
of weld being tested is covered.
Scanning Movement C: Progression
distance c shall be approximately one-
half the transducer width.
Notes:
1. Testing patterns are all symmetrical around the weld axis with the exception of
pattern D which is conducted directly over the weld axis.
2. Testing from both sides of the weld axis is to be made wherever mechanically
possible.
Figure 6.8-Typical Search Pattern for Ultrasonic Testing
ASTM E 164, Standard practices for ultrasonic contact examination of weldments covers
examination of specific weld configurations in wrought ferrous and aluminum alloys to detect
weld discontinuities. Recommended procedures for testing butt, corner, and T-joints are
given for weld thickness from 0.5 to 8 in. (13 to 200mm). Procedures for calibrating the
equipment and appropriate calibration blocks are included. Other ASTM standards cover
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testing procedures with various ultrasonic inspection methods for inspection of pipe and
tubing.
A famous procedure used worldwide for UT of boiler and pressure vessel components are
given in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Nondestructive
Examination. Section XI, In-service Inspection Requirements for Nuclear Power Plants,
gives methods for locating, sizing, and evaluating discontinuities for continuing service life
and fracture mechanics analysis.
To ultrasonically test a welded joint properly, the search unit must be manipulated in one or
more specific patterns to adequately cover the through- thickness and of the joint. In most
cases, the joint must be scanned from two or more directions to ensure that the beam will
intercept any discontinuities that exist. A typical search pattern for testing butt joints is shown
in Figure 6.8. Similar procedures for butt, corner, and T-joints are illustrated in ASTME 164,
Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination of weldments.
Thickness Measurement
One of the most important uses of Ultrasonic testing is that of thickness measurement. It is
particularly useful because it is relatively quick, simple and accurate and access to only one
surface of the specimen is required. There are many equipment and techniques made
exclusively for thickness measurement.
Testing Techniques and Their Limitations
Ultrasonic inspection can be classified in terms of both the variables measured and the
inspection techniques. Following are the major classification of Ultrasonic testing techniques.
Pulse-Echo Techniques
This is the method most commonly used in the Ultrasonic Testing of materials. In pulse echo
inspection, short bursts of ultrasonic Energy (Pulses, or wave packets) are introduced into a
test piece at regular intervals of time. If the pulses encounter a reflecting surface, some or all
of the energy is reflected. The proportion of energy that is reflected is highly dependent on
the size of the reflecting surface in relation to the size of the incident ultrasonic beam. The
direction of the reflected beam (echo) depends on the orientation of the reflecting surface
with respect to the incident beam. In this technique reflected energy is monitored; both the
amount of energy reflected in a specific direction and the time delay between transmission of
the initial pulse and receipt of the echo are measured. Depending upon the method of
coupling of the probe to the test surface pulse-echo method is classified as (1) Direct
Contact Techniques and (2) Immersion Techniques.
Direct Contact Techniques
In this technique the probe is in contact with the test surface through a thin film of couplant.
Ultrasonic energy from transducer is passed thorough the couplant to the test material and
reflected back from internal defect or back wall. In A-scan mode the height of the echo in the
CRT screen indicate the amount of ultrasonic energy reflected. The horizontal axis indicates
the distance traveled by the ultrasound before encountering the reflecting surface. The
principle of the pulse echo method is illustrated in figure 6.9.
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Figure 6.9-Pulse Echo Technique

In this method only one surface of the test material is needed to be exposed for scanning.
The method is not suitable for inspecting the material having high attenuation characteristics.
Immersion Techniques
In these techniques probes are not direct contact with the work piece. There is a thick layer
of clear fluid couplant (water) between the probe and the test object.
Keeping of constant pressure and moving of the probe over the test surface are the major
problem in contact testing. Also the frictional damage of the probe face is another problem of
contact testing.
In immersion testing need for constant pressure and frictional damage are eliminated and the
speed of scanning is also increased. Another major advantage of immersion testing is the
ability to control and direct sound beams and adaptability for automated scanning.
Immersion testing techniques are mainly used in the laboratory and for large factory
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installations doing automatic ultrasonic inspection. It has the advantages of giving uniform
couplant conditions and simple changes of beam angle without changing probes.

Figure 6.10-Immersion Technique Figure 6.11 -CRT Display

Figure 6.10 shows a simple setup for a compression wave inspection of plate. The plate to
be tested is immersed in water and the probe assembly moved to a convenient part of the
plate leaving a suitable gap between probes and object .The compression wave probe is
housed in a fully gimbaled housing often called manipulator. The echo in the screen might
then appear as shown in figure 6.11. When the ultrasound impinges the water-steel
interface, the 1st water path echo will appear and after that the sound encounter the back
wall of the plate then the 1st back wall echo will appear. Let S be the water path distance
and t is the thickness of the plate then echoes will appears at
Echo Distance
1st water path echo S
1st back wall echo S+t
2nd back wall echo S+2t
2nd water path echo and so on 2S

As the velocity of sound in water is only about 1/4 th of the velocity in steel, the minimum
water gap should be 1/4 specimen thickness for steel samples to avoid the appearance of
second water path echo before the first back wall echo.
Solved Problem
Calculate the position of the echoes, when the testing a 20mm steel plate by immersion
testing. The distance between probe and steel plate is 6mm. Flaw detector is calibrated in
steel path.
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Echo Position of the CRT

1st water path echo S= 6x4 = 24 mm

1st back wall echo S+t= 24+20 = 44mm
2nd water path echo 2S= 24x2 = 48 mm
2nd back wall echo and so on S+2 t= 24+2x20 = 64 mm

Through Transmission Technique

In this method two ultrasonic probes are used. One is the transmitter probe and the other is
the receiver probe. The probes are situated on opposite side of the specimen as shown in
Figure 6.12. In this method the presence of an internal defect is indicated by a reduction in
signal amplitude, or in the case of gross defects, complete loss of the transmitted signal.
The main application of transmission methods is the inspection of plate for cracks or
laminations that have relatively large dimension compared to the size of the search units.
Good coupling is critical to transmission methods; because variations in sound transmission
through the couplants have corresponding effects on measured intensity. These variations in
measured intensity introduce errors into the test results.
The reasons for why the pulse-echo technique being considerably more popular than
transmission technique are:
1. The single transducer can act as a transmitter and receiver in pulse echo technique
2. In through transmission method two probes are to be aligned accurately on either side
of the material. A slight misalignment will cause reduction in energy received. Hence this
technique will need a mechanical fixture for alignment.
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Figure 6.12-Through Transmission Technique

3. In pulse-echo method we need access to only one side of the test object
4. Time taken for the pulses to return from the discontinuity can be measured and
hence the distance of the discontinuity from the scanning surface can be measured.
5. Pulse echo technique has very high sensitivity (i.e. it can detect much smaller defect)
6. Roughness and non-parallelity of the back surface do not affect pulse-echo
technique (except in the case where reduction in back echo itself is notified).
Evaluation of Weld Discontinuities
The reliability of ultrasonic examination depends greatly upon the interpretive ability of the
ultrasonic testing technician. With the use of proper inspection techniques, significant
information concerning a discontinuity can be learned from the signal response and display
on the CRT screen.
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There are six basic items of information available through ultrasonic testing which describe a
weld discontinuity, depending upon the sensitivity of the test. These are as follows:
(1) The returned signal amplitude is a measure of the reflecting area. (See Figure
6.13)

Figure 6.13-The Size of the Reflecting Area Indicated by Pip Height

(2) Discontinuity length is determined by search unit travel in lengthwise direction.

(See Figure 6.14)

Figure 6.14-Discontinuity Length Determined from Search Unit Travel

Distance

(3) The location of the discontinuity in the weld cross section can be estimated.
(See Figure 6.15)
(4) The orientation, and to some degree, the shape of the discontinuity can be-
determined by comparing signal sizes when tested from different directions.
(See Figure 6.16)
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(5) The reflected pulse shape and sharpness can be used as an indicator of
discontinuity type. (See Figure 6.17)

Figure 6.15-Estimating the Location of Indication

Figure 6.16-Discontinuity Orientation Indicated by Pip Height

Figure 6.17- Discontinuity Type & Shape Indicated by Pip Shape

(6) The height of the discontinuity within the weld can be estimated by the
coordination of the travel distance of the search unit to and from the weld with the
rise and fall of the signal. (See Figure 6.18)
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Figure 6.18- Estimating the Height of the Indication within the Weld

These six items of information concerning or describing a weld discontinuity can be used in
the following manner. The first two items, the returned signal size and length, can be used
as a basis for accepting or rejecting a single discontinuity in a weld. The third item, the
location of the discontinuity within the cross section of the weld, is useful information when
making a repair or evaluating a discontinuity for severity. Each of these first three items of
information is essential in the proper inspection of welding for acceptance or repair.
The latter three items of information, namely orientation pulse shape, and dynamic envelope,
can be used to interpret more accurately the nature of the discontinuity. This information is of
value in determining if the welding procedures are under control, and whether the
component can continue in service.
Operator Qualifications
The operator is the key to successful ultrasonic testing. Generally speaking, UT requires
more training and experience than the other Non-destructive testing methods, with the
possible exception of radiographic testing. Many critical variables are controlled by
operators. Therefore, the accuracy of an ultrasonic examination depends largely on
knowledge and ability of the operator. For this reason, most standards require ultrasonic
technicians to meet the requirement of internationally recognized Personnel Qualification
and Certification Scheme on Non Destructive Testing like SNT-TC-1A, ISO 9712, PCN,
CSWIP etc.
Reporting
Careful tabulation of information on a report form is necessary for a meaningful test. A
typical report form is shown below. The welding inspector should be familiar with the kinds of
data that must be recorded and evaluated so that a satisfactory determination of weld
acceptability can be obtained.