Article

Optimum control of heat exchangers

Atli Benonysson, R & D Manager, Danfoss A/S, Herman Boysen, Product Application Manager, Danfoss A/S
Presented at 5th International Symposium on Automation of District Heating systems, Finland, August 1995

www.danfoss.com
 Atli Benonysson, R & D Manager, Danfoss A/S
Herman Boysen, Product Application Manager, Danfoss A/S

Optimum control
of heat exchangers
An analysis of the common theory and
an example on control development.
The present paper concerns the control of high-performance heat
exchangers for hot water service. Some of the basic control
theories and their decisively important relationships are analysed
from a theoretical point of view. A newly developed control is
described, putting the various elements in the design into the
perspective of control theory.

1. Introduction
It has become increasingly common for
hot-water service from district heating
systems to be heated in high-perfor-
mance heat exchangers with no form
of hot water storage. One reason is the
simple, compact equipment required;
another is that the instantaneous heating
principle enables highly efficient cooling
of the district heating water: a very
important consideration in modern
district heating systems based on
combined heat and powergeneration.
Concurrently with the increase in applica-
tion, and the increase in requirements on
the cooling of district heating water and
the quality of control (e.g. temperature
stability of service hot water), greater
attention is being focused on control
system performance. This topic has been
the subject of several research projects
in recent years. Since the instantaneous
heating principle is gaining ground not FIGURE 1: Self-acting control valve for small hot water service heat exchangers
least among small-scale systems (e.g.
single family houses) where the cost of
the installation may be decisive in relation It is unfortunate that some of the 2. Static characteristics
to the competitiveness of district heating literature dealing specifically with the
compared to other methods of heating, regulation of heat exchangers confuses Most of the papers and articles written on
more and more attention is also being some of the more basic relationships the regulation of heat exchangers take it
paid to the financial aspect. Since higher within control technology and inade- as a basic assumption that the precondi-
performance is being demanded at the quate assumptions are made. The first tion for satisfactory control should be an
same time as the economic factors are part of this article therefore discusses attempt to achieve a load-linear regulat-
becoming increasingly important, it is certain central aspects of the static ing loop. The term „load-linear regulating
vital that all work on the development characteristics of control systems which loop“ means that there is a linear relation-
and/or choice of control systems should need stressing. The remainder of the ship between the position of the control
be based on a thorough understanding of article briefly describes the development valve and the heat transferred. Heat
the characteristics of control problems, in of a new, self-acting control valve for exchangers are also frequently referred to
that such an understanding is a prereq- hot-water service heat exchangers, see as non-linear, since there is a non-linear
uisite for the development of control fig. 1, in which the various elements of relationship between the flow on the
systems which are optimum from both control technology are set in relationship primary side and the heat transferred.
technical and economic points of view. to the principles dicussed in the first part. These two assumptions generally lead to

2 Danfoss Heating · VF.GB.C3.02 · ©Danfoss

 the conclusion that valves with quadratic
or exponential characteristic curves ought
to be used to counteract the non-linearity
T11 T22 of the heat exchanger, thus achieving
the desired load linearity. Neither the
assumption of an optimum result of the
Primary side Secondary side load-linear regulating loop nor that of
which valve characteristics are the right
ones for achieving such linearity apply in
T12 T21 all circumstances. Under the conditions
generally prevailing in district heating
substations, the logic leaves something
Heat exchanger to be desired, as discussed below.
2.1 The load - linear control loop
FIGURE 2: Heat exchanger As stated in the literature, there is in
principle a non-linear relationship
between the regulated (primary) flow
and the heat transferred, e.g. Hjorthol
(1990). How non-linear the overall
characteristics of the heat exchanger are
100
in practice however depends entirely on
P/Pmax. [%]

90 its capacity. The static characteristics

of the heat exchanger depend on the
80 temperature efficiency of the primary
70
side. The temperature efficiency, ht1,
specifies the relationship between
60 the maximum temperature difference
and the cooling: see eqn.1 and fig. 2.
50

40 T11 − T12
η t1 = (1)
30 T11 − T21
20
where
10
T11 = supply temperature
0 on the district heating side,
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T12 = temperature of return to
m° /m
° max. [%]
the district heating mains, and
T21 = secondary side
FIGURE 3: Static characteristic of heat exchanger showing ht1 from 0.05 - 1 inlet temperature

Danfoss Heating · VF.GB.C3.02 · ©Danfoss 3

 In fig. 3 we see what the static character-
istics look like at various levels of temper-
ature efficiency (x axis = percentage flow;
y axis = percentage heat transferred). Primary side Secondary side
T11/t12 T21/T22
The degree of efficiency depends on the
capacity. The characteristic curve of an Sweden 65/25 5/50
Värmeverksföreningen 1994:
over-sized heat exchanger will be more (District Heating Association,
linear than that of an undersized one.
Norway 80/30 5/55 (Hjorthol (1990))
As can be seen, for ht1 in the 0.5
to 1 range, the characteristic curve Germany 70/40 15/50 (Manthey (1992))
is only slightly non-linear.
In Sweden, Norway and Germany The degrees of temperature efficiency at the above sets of temperatures are:
the following sets of tempera- Sweden: ht1 = 0.67
tures are quoted for hot-water Norway: ht1 = 0.67
Germany: ht1 = 0.55
service heat exchangers —>
Degree ofvalve opening, f

Degree ofvalve opening, f

1 1

1,0
0,7
0,5
0,3
0,2
0,1 1,0
0,5 0,5 0,7
0,5
0,3
0,2
0,1

0 0
0 0,5 1 0 0,5 1
Valve position, z Valve position, z
Fig. 4a. Effective valve characteristic - exponential Fig. 4b. Effective valve characteristic - linear
characteristic with authority range 0.1 to 1. characteristic with authority range 0.1 to 1.

FIGURE 4

It must be assumed that the sizing cases Sweden, simulation models (see Ch. 3.1) As can be seen from fig. 5, the resultant
represent the highest demands placed were used to calculate what the valve valve characteristic curve is very close
on the heat exchanger (highest load characteristics ought to be in the event of to linear, as would be expected on the
at lowest flow temperature), and that full linearity between valve position and basis of the relatively high temperature
temperature efficiency would be higher heat transferred. The simulation was car- efficiency. Thus the conclusion must
in other situations. In addition, a size of ried out under the following conditions: be that a water/water heat exchanger
heat exchanger would always be selected T11 = 65 °C meeting modern sizing requirements,
to be „on the safe side“ so that temper- T21 = 5 °C used with a linear control valve, will
ature efficiency would be higher still. have almost linear relationship between
Secondary flow (m2) increasing from 10
Fig. 4 shows how their authority influenc- valve travel and heat transferred. The
to 100% Primary flow (m1) regulated to
es the effective characteristic curves of general impression that significant
maintain T22 constant at 50°C. The size
valves with linear and exponential char- non-linearities appear in this context
of the heat exchanger is the minimum
acteristics. As can be seen, provided their is probably because of the fact that in
possible in order to meet the sizing
authority is above 0.5, the effective char- other applications, e.g. air conditioning,
requirements. Constant differential
acteristics are very close to the real char- sizing is often based on temperature
pressure is maintained across the control
acteristics,even in valves not equipped efficiencies significantly lower than
valve. The load linearity is also affected
with a differential pressure control. those in district heating systems where,
by the authority of the control valve:
starting from the desire for good cooling,
Thus, the assumption that the char- low authority distorts the characteristics
such high temperature efficiencies are
acteristics of heat exchangers are of the valve because its proportional
chosen that only the linear part of the
highly non-linear is in fact wrong when pressure drop falls as its degree of
heat exchanger characteristic is used.
FIGURE 4 applied to water/water ex- opening increases. This does not,
changers in district heating installations however, apply if the drop in presure
built to fulfil modern sizing standards across the valve is kept constant by
(cooling requirements). Starting from means of a differential pressure control.
the set of temperatures used for sizing In this case the authority of the valve.
hot-water service heat exchangers in

4 Danfoss Heating · VF.GB.C3.02 · ©Danfoss

2.2 Load linearity as against loop gain
All things being equal, it is desirable that
100

Primary flow [%]

loop gain be constant throughout the
entire working range in all control sys-
tems. Constant loop gain requires that the
relationship between a step applied at the
control inlet and the resultant step in the
controlled variable be constant through-
out the entire working range. If this is the
case, the same control amplification will
be optimum across the entire working 50
range, making allowances for the changes
that can arise in dead times and rise times;
see e.g. Hjorthol (1990). The fact that a
heat exchanger circuit is load-linear by no
means implies that loop gain is constant
throughout the entire working range
and that the system is thus optimal from
the point of view of control technique, 0
although this frequently seems to be 0 50 100
the assumption. A load-linear exchanger Secondary flow [%]
circuit will have constant loop gain if there
is a linear relationship between the load FIGURE 5: Relationship between primary and secondary flow in a heat exchanger
and the controlled variable. This would be with a relatively high temperature efficiency
the case if the load of the exchanger were
controlled in accordance with a energy
meter attached to the secondary side,
an unusual thing in heating systems.
The parameter normally controlled
is the flow temperature on the
secondary side, and since there is a
highly non-linear relationship between
variations in heat load and variations
in flow temperature (dependent on
flow rate on the secondary side) a heat
load-linear heat exchange circuit can
show highly variable loop gain. This can
be illustrated mathematically. Provided
the characteristics of the control and
actuator used are linear, the condition for
constant loop gain can be expressed by:

ds
= C1 (2)
d T22
where
s = valve travel
T22 = flow temperature on the
secondary side
(the controlled variable)
C 1 = a constant.
The relationship between variations in
output and the flow temperature on
the secondary side can be calculated as
follows:

Q = m2 · cp · (T22 − T21) (3)

(4)

where
Q = output of the heat exchanger
cp = the specific heat capacity
of the medium.

Danfoss Heating · VF.GB.C3.02 · ©Danfoss 5

 Thus, by substitution in eqn. 2: where C5 = a constant. 2.3 Practical consequences
The result in eqn. 10 is very important. The general assumption is thus quite
ds C1 It demonstrates that constant loop gain reasonable, i.e. the best thing to use for
= (5) controlling heat exchangers in district
dQ m2 • cp in a heat exchange circuit with high
temperature efficiency is achieved heating substations is normally a valve
with exponential characteristics. However,
when the flow is altered by the
If as an approximation we regard the the basis is not the nonlinearity of the
exponent of the valve travel, and thus heat exchanger but the non-linearity
relationship between primary flow and also by the exponent of the output
the heat transferred as linear (see which is bound to arise in the control
signal of the control, if the actuator is loop when primary side flow is regulated
discussion in part 2.1) and regard cp as linear. in accordance with the measurement of
constant, the following will apply:
As we know, this can be attained with outlet temperature on the secondary side
the aid of an exponential valve in order to keep the temperature constant
dQ » dm1 · C2 (6) characteristic. It will be noted that eqn. (the traditional method of control).
m2 » m1 · C3 (7) 10 is, basically, the equation for an Despite the fact that the result
exponential valve characteristic. This appears to be the same, it is very
result is not unexpected. For example, important to bear the correct principles
where C2 and C3 are constants. Thus, Hjorthol (1990) arrived at a similar in mind whenever working on the
by substituting eqns. 6 and 7 in eqn. 5: development and adjustment of
conclusion on the basis of a series of
control systems, otherwise seriously
simulations of various load situations incorrect conclusions might be drawn.
1 (Hjorthol (1990) page 77). In this
On the basis of assumptions about
• (s − C 5 ) instance, however, the result was
non-linear heat exchangers several
C4 attained by analytical considerations.
m1 ≈ e (8) authors have concluded that valves with
It must be emphasised that the use of linear characteristics cannot be used
an exponential valve is not actually to control exchangers. We shall now
necessary in order to achieve constant look at this conception on the basis of
where C4 = a constant. loop gain: it can equally well be the relationships set out in part 2.1.
If the differential equation in eqn. 8 is achieved using a linear valve and then Firstly, it is impossible to draw any prin-
solved for s: applying the exponential effect ciple conclusions about optimum valve
somewhere else in the control loop, characteristics without taking the char-
e.g. in the actuator or the control. This acteristics of all the other components of
s » C4 · ln(m1) + C5 (9) solution has other great advantages in the control system into consideration at
respect of operating time and the same time. As we have seen, it is easy
to achieve constant loop gain using a lin-
regulating conditions, see below.
ds 1 ear valve if exponential compensation is
≈ • C4 (10)
dm1 m1

Heating system

Hot–water–service system

W2

H1
AMV 100
VMS

W1 AVTQ

H1: Primary flow H2

H2: Primary return
W1: Cold water inlet AVP
W2: Hot water

FIGURE 6: System diagram of a small district heating system with a selfacting

temperature control type AVTQ in the hot-water service system

6 Danfoss Heating · VF.GB.C3.02 · ©Danfoss

 1. carbon-filled sensor
2. bellows element
3. spring
4. spring
5. check valve

FIGURE 7: Self-acting temperature control type AVTQ

introduced somewhere else in the system Valve travel is another aspect which self-acting control for small-scale
e.g. at the control or the actuator. On needs taking into consideration in any instantaneous water heaters - the AVTQ.
this basis alone, it is impossible to draw discussion of the advantages and disad- The AVTQ is a self-acting temperature
any general conclusions regarding the vantages of the characteristics of the vari- control designed to regulate the
characteristics of particular components. ous valves. In normal valves with linear temperature of service hot water
The system must be looked at as a whole. travel, a valve with exponential charac- in instantaneous heat exchangers,
However, let us assume the controls and teristics typically has a travel four times see system diagram, fig. 6.
actuators are linear, as most of them are. that of a linear valve of the same capacity.
All other things being equal, exponential 3.1 Dynamic simulation as
Using a linear P-control, linear valve
valves therefore require a much faster - a developmental tool
characteristics will require a relatively
and thus much more expensive - actu- As the reader will see from the following
wide proportional band in order to
ator. Thus, although the control of heat description of the AVTQ, it is a highly
obtain stability at low flow rates,
exchangers by linear valve can be slightly advanced control seen from the point
resulting in comparatively high offset
sluggish because of their wide P-band, of view of control technology.
under high loads. On the other hand,
the final result can look rather different
exponential characteristics will give Since several different elements
when the travel required is considered.
stable control at relatively low offset are included in the design (variable
throughout the entire working range. It is thus impossible to draw general con- amplification, feed-forward etc.), with
clusions about the various components many possible combinations, it would
If however a PI control is used, the
of the control system, since the desired be very time-consuming - as well
situation is somewhat different. Normally
effect can be achieved in several ways. as expensive - to find the optimum
an exponential characteristic is still
preferable, but excellent results can be What is most important is to understand combination exclusively on the
achieved with linear valve characteristics, the principle relationships discussed in basis of laboratory experiments.
since the integral function will prevent parts 2.1 and 2.2, and on this basis take The development work was therefore a
permanent offset, even though a an overall view encompassing every combination of theoretical analysis and
relatively wide P-band has to be used to single component of the control system. laboratory experiments. The various
give stable regulation at low flow rates. possibilities were analysed with the
Another advantage of linear valves is 3. The development of a self- aid of dynamic simulation, the most
that in most cases they have a better acting temperature control for promising principles then being tested
control ratio than exponential ones. high-performance hot-water and adjusted in the laboratory.
This is because it is very expensive to service heat exchangers This is where our simulation tool
create the control ratio „natural“ to In Part 2 we considered some of the basic SIMULINK showed its worth. With the
linear valves in exponential valves. aspects of the control of heat exchangers aid of simulation it proved posible to
And after all, adequate control ratio is from a theoretical point of view. gain a high degree of insight into which
the decisive factor in creating stable avenues to explore and the way in which
We shall now describe a practical
control under minimal load. the various elements needed to be com-
method based on a newly designed
bined to give the best possible result.

Danfoss Heating · VF.GB.C3.02 · ©Danfoss 7

 The use of dynamic simulation thus The first version was selected for district the bellows (pos. 2), where it is converted
contributed to a more goal-oriented heating systems in which the above to the force necessary to activate the
course of development in which it temperature and pressure specifications valve. The amount of travel produced by
proved possible at an early stage to see were sufficient. In the next version of any particular change in the temperature
what was needed to achieve the desired AVTQ the maximum differential pressure sensor is controlled by built-in springs
result, and in which the actual design will be increased to 6.0 bar and the (pos. 3 and 4), i.e. the spring constants
work was to a great extent a matter of maximum flow temperature to 130°C. determine the system loop gain.
converting theory into practice. The Introducing a spring with exponen-
scope which dynamic simulation creates 3.3 The control technology design
tial characteristics gives loop gain
in connection with the development Since it is a complex and thus very linearisation, despite the use of
of components for district heating and expensive matter to attain an inte- a valve with linear characteristics.
central heating units is described in graleffect in a self-acting control,
In practice, however, it is impossible
greater detail in Benonysson (1993). the AVTQ is a „born“ P-control.
to use an exponential spring in this
At the same time, for both technical situation because of the comparatively
3.2 Specifications
and economic reasons, the control was short travel and the highly precise
Right from the start, the highest stand- given a valve with linear characteristics. tolerances to which the spring would
ards were demanded of this control. An exponential valve with the necessary have to be made. Instead, an approx-
It had to be extremely fast in control characteristics would have cost imate exponential characteristic was
operation in order to prevent much more, at the same time it would obtained by using two springs, one of
overheating and consequent lime have been very difficult to provide the which comes into action just before the
deposition in the heat exchanger. valve travel needed in an exponential point of closure, reducing the amplifi-
In the second place, stable control self-acting control. cation of the control under low load.
of the flow of service hot water A linear valve in combination with As can be seen from figs. 8a to 8b, this
was required in the 200 to 1200 l/h a P-control with a wide P-band can principle (which is now a patent) gives
range, with a narrow P-band. be used in systems not demanding a split-range characteristic, despite the
Thirdly, the control had to operate too much of the control, and in valve being very simple in design. The
satisfactorily within a very wide spectrum which the P-offset is acceptable. result of the break in the characteristic
of differential pressures and flow temper- However, as was explained in part 2.2, curve is that it is possible to operate with
atures in the district heating system, the this combination of a P-control with a much narrower P-band, giving less off-
operating range of the first version being a valve having linear characteristics set and stable regulation under low load.
defined as differential pressure in the 0.2 is not very good at regulating heat To further reduce the effect of the
to 4 bar range, and flow temperatures exchangers which have to fulfil the P-band, as well as ensure a rapid reaction
between 65°C and 100°C. In other words previously mentioned requirements. to changes in load, the control has
the control has to operate within a range In principle it does not matter where in a feed-forward function where set-point
where the one extreme is a secondary the control loop the exponential effect is directly affected by draw-off flow.
flow of 200 l/h at a differential pressure is applied, and this fact is utilised in the
This is achieved by inserting a check
of 4 bar and a flow temperature of 100°C, new AVTQ as is also explained in part 2.2.
valve with a special characteristics in
and the other is a secondary flow of 1200 The control (fig. 7) is fitted with a car- the hot-water service circuit (see figs.
l/h at a differential pressure of 0.2 bar and bon-filled sensor which has a large sur- 6 and 7, pos. 5) across which there is
a flow temperature of 65°C. Thus from face area and thus a short time constant a pressure drop proportional to the
a capacity point of view the operating (pos. 1). Pressure produced in the sensor draw-off flow, see fig. 9. The check valve
range of the control is very wide, corre- varies linearly with the temperature of is connected to a diaphragm element
sponding to a control ratio of about 1:60. the sensor. The pressure is transmitted to

8 Danfoss Heating · VF.GB.C3.02 · ©Danfoss

in the control. This gives indirect flow
metering in which variations in flow, Sensor pressure
and thus variations in pressure across
the check valve, have a direct effect on
the balance of forces in the control.
The set-point thus increases with increas-
ing load and falls with decreasing load,
markedly reducing the offset arising from
the P-band. Note that the feed-forward
function has no direct influence on loop
gain and thus none on the stability of
the system either. Complete equalisation
of the P-band offset can, however,
only be achieved by one particular
combination of district heating flow
temperature and differential pressure
across the control valve. Any other
combination will either lead to over-com- Sensor temperature
pensation or undercompensation. Fig. 8a. Relationship between sensor temperature
and sensor pressure in a carbon-filled sensor
As long as there is no flow on the
secondary side (i.e. no load) the control
operates at a no-load setpoint defined by Valve position

D AN FO SS
D IV /5 5 0 .1 .1
the compression in the springs (factory
set). The moment water is drawn off,
the set-point is raised momentarily to
the set value as a result of the opening
pressure of the check valve (see fig.
9). When water ceases to be drawn off
the set-point drops back down to the
no-load temperature. The set-point on
the control is determined by adjusting
the opening pressure of the check valve.
This displacement of set-point, from
operating temperature to no-load
temperature when drawing-off
stops, ensures that the control valve
closes quickly, thus reducing excess
temperature in the heat exchanger and Sensor pressure
thereby the risk of lime deposits. 4. Fig. 8b. Relationship between valve position and sensor
pressure in the split-characteristic of the AVTQ valve
Conclusion
As we saw in Part 2, there is no one FIGURE 8
clear, true path to the regulation of heat
exchangers. There are various methods, controlvalve
each with their own advantages and ∆P kPa 100
disadvantages, and in the final analysis 5
it is functional demands and financial 80
strictures which decide the right choice. 4,5
70
Part 3 describes the AVTQ control: an 4,25
example of an alternative course. Despite 60 4
3,75
the rather weak point of departure (a
50 3,5
P-control and a linear valve), the appli- 3,25
cation of various ideas and solutions has 40 3
produced a control which fulfils many of 2,75
the most important requirements for the 30 2,5
2,25
regulation of service hot water. At the 2
20
same time it is relatively inexpensive.
1
The conclusion thus is that regulating 10
systems which are optimum both
0
technically and economically are only 0 0,06 0,17 0,28 0,39 0,5 0,61 0,72
possible if an overall view is taken on 0,11 0,22 0,33 0,44 0,56 0,67 0,78
flow rate
the basis of a real understanding of Q2 [l/s]
the physical relationships in which
all elements of the control system FIGURE 9: The check valve characteristic is proportional to the flow
are looked at as a unified whole. within the tapping range

Danfoss Heating · VF.GB.C3.02 · ©Danfoss 9

References [1] Benonysson, A (1993): Dynamisk simulering som et værktøj ved udvikling
af automatik til centralog fjernvarmeanlæg. (Dynamic simulation as a tool in the
development of automatic control of central and district heating units).
VVS Denmark, April 1993, Vol. 29, No. 6.
[2] Värmeverksföreningen 1994 (District Heating Association, Sweden):
Villavärmecentraler - Tekniska bestämmelser.
[3] Hjorthol, E. (1990): Optimization of Design Values in District Heating Substations
by System Simulation. Engineering doctorate thesis, Institutt for Varme-,
Ventilasjons- og Sanitærteknikk, Trondheim. VVSrapport 1990:1.
[4] Manthey, M. (1992): Kompaktstation - Stand der Entwicklung
(The compact substation - state of the art).
Fernwärme international, Jg. 21 (1992), Heft 1/2.

More articles [1] Valve characteristics for motorized valves in district heating substations,
by Atli Benonysson and Herman Boysen
[2] Auto tuning and motor protection as part of the pre-setting procedure
in a heating system, by Herman Boysen
[3] Differential pressure controllers as a tool for optimization of heating systems,
by Herman Boysen
[4] District heating house substations and selection of regulating valves,
by Herman Boysen
[5] kv: What, Why, How, Whence?, by Herman Boysen
[6] Pilot controlled valve without auxiliary energy for heating and cooling systems,
by Martin Hochmuth
[7] Pressure oscillation in district heating installation, by Bjarne Stræde
[8] Dynamic simulation of DH House Stations, by Jan Eric Thorsen

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