GAD101

WEEK 2 Female
● Child-bearing
GENDER AWARENESS - SEX VS GENDER ● Gestation ● Childbirth
● Lactation or breastfeeding
Sex
● Refers to the categories of being Male and Female -
Gender
needed for the act of mating to result in biological
● Di erentiated social roles, behaviors, capacities,
reproduction.
intellectual, emotional, and social characteristics
● Biologically determined di erences between men and
attributed by a given culture to women and men.
women.
● Di erences between women and men that are socially
● Constant across time, across di erent societies and
determined.
cultures.
● Learned ● Changes over time ● Varies between cultures
● Masculine vs Feminine
Male
● Penis and testicles
Gender
● Androgen and testosterone
● Roles assignedby society to males and
● XY chromosomes
females.
● Underdeveloped breasts
● Activities deemed by society as appropriate for males
and females.
Female
● Behaviors expected of males and females.
● Vagina and ovaries
● Characteristics expected of males and
● Estrogen and progesterone
females.
● XX chromosomes
● Fully developed breasts
In short . . . Genderisasocialconstruct.

Sex
Are men born masculine?
● Functions or roles which a male or female assumes
Are women born feminine?
because of the basic physiological or anatomical di
erences between the sexes.
SOGIESC - Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and
● Biologically determined
Expression, Sex Characteristics
● Can be performed exclusively by only one of the sexes.
● Male of female roles are not exchangable.

Male
● Ovum fertilization
● Chromosomes determine sex of the child

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● Answers the question “Who am I?”

Cisgender - a person whose gender identity and biological sex

assigned at birth matched.
Gender Fluid - a person who is gender fluid may always feel like a
mix of the two traditional genders (man and woman).
Transgender - a person whose gender identity does not align or is
di erent from the sex assigned at birth.

Agender - a person without gender identity or doesn't identify

with a particular gender.
> Sex / Biological Sex
● Biological > Expression / Gender Expression
● Physical traits that indicate biological sex such as ● The way in which a person expresses gender identity,
chromosomes, genitalia, gonads, hormones, and typically through their appearance, dress, and behavior.
reproductive organs. ● Feminine, Androgynous, Masculine
● Male, Female, or Intersex

A.Ingeneralterms,sexreferstothebiological di
> Attraction / Sexual Orientation erencesbetweenmalesandfemales,suchasthe
● Each person’s capacity for profound emotional, a genitaliaandgeneticdi erences.
ectional, and sexual attraction to, and intimate and
sexual relations with a. Sex refers to the anatomical and physiological
● Answer the questions: “To whom am I attracted to?” characteristics of maleness and femaleness. It is a
and “Who do I love?” combination of bodily characteristics.

Heterosexual - attracted to a person of di erent/opposite gender i. Chromosomes ii. Hormones iii.

identity. Reproductive organs iv. Secondary sex
Homosexual - attracted to a person of same gender identity. characteristics
Bisexual - attracted to persons of two or more genders; attracted
to person of any two or more genders. b. Sex is composed of the biological characteristics
Pansexual - attracted to people of all genders and/or do not definite between male and female. It is natural, you are
concern gender when attracted towards someone. born with that sex (biological set up), and it cannot be
Asexual - A person who doesn't have sexual attraction to anyone. changed, unless with medical treatment/operation.

> Identity / Gender Identity c. It is biologically determined as female or male

● Refers to each person’s deeply felt internal and according to certain identifiable physical features which
individual experience of gender, which may or may not are fixed.
correspond with the sex assigned at birth.

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d. Sex is biologically and physiologically e. Gender is how a person's biology is culturally valued
determined based on an individual's anatomy at birth. It and interpreted into locally accepted ideas of what it
is typically binary, meaning that one's sex is either male is to be a woman or man. Gender and the hierarchical
or female. power relations between women and men based on
this are socially constructed and not derived directly
B.DefinitionofGender from biology.

a. Gender is the state of being male or female in f. It is a social construct. An individual's gender is
relation to the social and cultural roles that are their social identity resultingfrom
considered appropriate for men and women. their culture's conceptions of
masculinity and femininity. Gender exists
b. It refers to the socially constructed characteristics of on a continuum.
women and men such as norms, roles and
relationships of and between groups of women and g. Gender is not the same as sex.
men. It varies from society to society and can be
changed. Historically, the terms "sex" and "gender" have been used
interchangeably, but their uses are becoming increasingly
c. It refers to the socially determined ideas and distinct, and it is important to understand the di erences
practices as to what it means to be female or male. In between the two.
di erent societies, there are di erent sets of rules,
norms, customs and practices by which di erences C. Sexualityisaboutwhoyouareattractedto sexually and
between males and females are translated into romantically - dating and sexual
socially constructed di erences between women and activity
men, boys and girls. These culturally determined
gender identities define rights and responsibilities TypesofSexuality
and what is "appropriate" behavior for women and 1. Straight/Heterosexual - attracted mostly to people of
for men. This often results in the two genders being the opposite sex or gender.
valued di erently, often reinforcing the idea that 2. Gay/Homosexual - attracted mostly to people of the
women are inferior and subordinate to men. same sex or gender.
3. Lesbian - attracted mostly to people of same sex or
d. Gender is a socially constructed definition of women gender (refers to women).
and men, it is not the same as sex 4. Bisexual - attracted to both men and women.
(biological characteristics of women and men). Gender is 5. Pansexual - attracted to romantic and sexual partners of
determined by the conception of tasks, functions and any gender, sex or sexual identity.
roles attributed to women and men in society and in 6. Polysexual - attracted to romantic and sexual partners
public and private life. of many but not all genders, sexes or sexual identities.
7. Asexual - not really sexually attracted
to anyone.

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Gender Concepts and Definitions

General concepts about gender i.

Gender is learned. ii. Gender is
collaborative.
iii. Gender is not something that individuals have, but something
they do. iv. Gender is asymmetrical.

Gender can be divided into a number of di erent components

relating to ideas of masculinity and femininity
i. Gender identity - the sense of ourselves as men, women,
or other gendered beings.
ii. Gender presentation - acted behaviors associated with
masculinity and femininity: speech, dress, movement.
iii. Gender roles - the social roles expected of men and
women in a particular society. Gender Discrimination – the systematic, unfavorable treatment
of individuals on the basis of their gender, which denies them

WEEK 3 rights, opportunities or resources. Across the world, women are

treated unequally and less value is placed on their lives because
GENDER DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPTS AND
DEFINITIONS of their gender. Women’s di erential access to power and control
Culture – the distinctive patterns of ideas, beliefs, and norms of resources is central to this discrimination in all institutional
which characterize the way of life and relations of a society or spheres, i.e. the household, community, market and state.
group within a society culturally determined gender ideologies
define rights and responsibilities and what “appropriate” Discrimination - Prejudice against a person based on arbitrarily
behavior is for women and men. They also influence access to attributed characteristic (gender pay gap, glass ceiling).
and control over resources and participation and decision
making. These gender ideologies often reinforce male power and Gender Division of Labor – the socially determined ideas and
the idea of women’s inferiority. practices which define what roles and activities are deemed
appropriate for women and men. This results in context specific
patterns of who does what by gender and how this is valued.
Gender Analysis – the systematic gathering and examination of
information on gender di erences and social relations in order to Gender Division of Labor
identify, understand, and redress inequities based on gender.

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Practical gender needs (PGN)
Productive Role Reproductive Role
● Related to immediate needs of living, such as food,
drinking water, health care, and medical support.
Production of goods and Biological reproduction and
services for exchange tasks usually
Strategic gender needs (SGN)
rather than for personal or associated with it.
● Related to gender divisions of labor, equal wages,
immediate
resources and education, and women's control over
consumption, usually for These are necessary for
their bodies.
a corresponding fee, salary, survival but given no
or economic value. ● Necessary to encompass social and political reforms for
economic value is given
ensuring power and control, legal rights, and reduce
to it.
domestic violence.

● These measures are seen as relatively long-term

Community Role objectives.

Total value of paid work: P9.3 trillion, with women's contribution

Gender Planning – the technical and political processes and
at 40%. Total value of unpaid work: P2.5 trillion, with women's
procedures necessary to implement gender-sensitive policy and
contribution at 76% (PIDS, 2019).
practice. This is to ensure gender-sensitive policy outcomes
through a systematic and inclusive process.
Gender Equality and Equity – the term “gender equity” is often
used interchangeably with “gender equality”. Gender equality
Gender Relations – hierarchical relations of power between
denotes women having the same opportunities in life as men,
women and men that tend to disadvantage women. Gender
including the ability to participate in the public sphere. Gender
relations constitute and are constituted by a range of institutions,
equity denotes the equivalence in life outcomes for women and
such as the family, legal systems, or the market.
men, recognizing their di erent needs and interests, and requiring
a redistribution of power and resources.
Gender Training – a facilitated process of developing awareness
and capacity on gender issues to bring about personal or
Gender Mainstreaming – an organizational strategy to bring a
organizational change for gender equality.
gender perspective to all aspects of an institution’s policy and
activities, through building gender capacity and accountability.
Gender Violence – an act or threat by men or male-dominated
institutions, that inflicts physical, sexual, or psychological harm
Gender Needs – shared and prioritized needs identified by
on a woman or girl because of their gender.
women that arise from their common experiences as a gender.
Strategic gender needs are those needs identified by women that
require strategies for challenging male dominance and privilege.
These needs may relate to inequalities in the gender division of
labor, in ownership and control of resources, in participation and
decisionmaking, or to experiences of domestic and other sexual
violence.
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Gender-Based Violence ● A culture that systematically privileges a certain group –
rich, male, white, heterosexual, masculine, able-bodied,
young - while disadvantaging all others.

Women’s Empowerment – a “bottom-up” process of

transforming gender power relations, through individuals or
groups developing awareness of women’s subordination and
88% of women age 18 to 24 have experienced sexual harassment building their capacity to challenge it.
on the streets (Social Weather Station, 2016)

Women’s Human Rights – the recognition that women’s rights

are human rights and that women experience injustices solely
because of their gender.

ADDITIONAL LECTURE FOR WEEK 2

SEX vs GENDER

Sex and gender are often used interchangeably, but they refer to
di erent concepts:

Sex - This typically refers to the biological characteristics that

define male and female bodies. These include chromosomes,
reproductive organs, and secondary sexual characteristics such as
facial hair, breast development, and voice pitch. In most cases,
sex is categorized as either male or female, based on the
presence of certain anatomical features. However, it’s important
to note that there are intersex individuals who may possess
variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions
of male or female.
Patriarchy – systemic societal structures that institutionalize male
physical, social, and economic power over women. Gender - Gender, on the other hand, is a social and cultural
construct that refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, and
attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men,

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women, and people of other genders. Gender identity is a deeply to people of the same gender as well as people of di erent
held sense of being male, female, or something else, which may genders.
or may not correspond to the sex assigned at birth. Unlike sex,
which is primarily biological, gender is largely shaped by societal Pansexuality Pansexuality refers to an enduring pattern of
norms, expectations, and expressions. Gender identity is often emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to people regardless of
thought of as a spectrum, with individuals identifying as male, their gender identity or biological sex. Pansexual individuals may
female, both, neither, or anywhere along the continuum be attracted to individuals who identify as male, female,
between these categories. Gender roles and expectations vary transgender, genderqueer, or any other gender identity.
across di erent cultures and can change over time.
Asexuality Asexuality refers to a lack of sexual attraction or
In summary, sex typically refers to biological characteristics, while interest in sexual activity. Asexual individuals may still experience
gender refers to socially and culturally constructed roles, emotional or romantic attraction to others and may engage in
behaviors, and identities. romantic relationships, but they do not experience sexual
attraction.
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Sexual orientation is considered to be a fundamental aspect of a
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s enduring emotional, person’s identity, and it can have a significant impact on various
romantic, or sexual attraction to other people. It encompasses an aspects of their life, including relationships, social interactions,
individual’s pattern of attraction, whether towards people of the and self-concept. It is important to recognize and respect the
same gender, di erent genders, or multiple genders. Sexual diversity of sexual orientations and to create inclusive and
orientation can be categorized into several main types: supportive environments for individuals of all sexual orientations.

Heterosexuality This refers to an enduring pattern of emotional, GENDER IDENTITY

romantic, or sexual attraction to people of a di erent gender. For
example, a man who is exclusively attracted to women or a Gender identity refers to a deeply held sense of one’s gender,
woman who is exclusively attracted to men would be considered which may or may not correspond to the sex assigned to them at
heterosexual. birth. It’s a fundamental aspect of a person’s identity and may be
experienced as male, female, a combination of both, neither, or
Homosexuality Homosexuality refers to an enduring pattern of something else entirely. Gender identity is distinct from biological
emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to people of the same sex and encompasses a complex interplay of psychological,
gender. For instance, a man who is exclusively attracted to other cultural, social, and personal factors.
men or a woman who is exclusively attracted to other women
would be considered homosexual. Key points about gender identity include:

Bisexuality Bisexuality refers to an enduring pattern of Innate Sense Gender identity is often understood as an innate

emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to people of both their sense of being male, female, or another gender, which can

gender and other genders. Bisexual individuals may be attracted manifest early in life and persist throughout one’s lifespan.

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Not Necessarily Aligned with Biological Sex While for many vary greatly from person to person. Gender expression is a form
people, their gender identity aligns with the sex they were of self-expression and can be influenced by cultural, social, and
assigned at birth (cisgender), for others, it does not personal factors.
(transgender). Transgender individuals identify with a gender di
erent from the one they were assigned at birth. Key points about gender expression include:

Spectrum of Identities Gender identity exists on a spectrum Varied and Diverse Gender expression is diverse and can include
rather than in a strictly binary manner. Some people may identify a wide range of behaviors, appearances, and styles. For example,
as exclusively male or female, while others may identify as both, someone may express their gender identity through clothing
neither, or as a di erent gender altogether. choices, hairstyle, body language, speech patterns, and interests.

Fluidity and Exploration Gender identity can be fluid and may Not Necessarily Tied to Gender Identity Gender expression is not
evolve. Some individuals may explore di erent aspects of their necessarily tied to a person’s gender identity. Some individuals
gender identity before settling on a label or may identify with di may express their gender in ways that align with societal
erent gender identities at di erent points in their lives. expectations for their gender identity, while others may
intentionally defy or challenge these expectations.
Cultural and Social Influences Gender identity is influenced by
cultural and social factors, including societal expectations, norms, Fluid and Changing Like gender identity, gender expression can
and attitudes toward gender roles. These influences can vary be fluid and may change over time or in di erent contexts. Some
widely across di erent cultures and historical contexts. individuals may experiment with di erent expressions of gender
or may express di erent aspects of their gender identity
Respect and A rmation It’s essential to respect and a rm depending on the situation.
individuals’ gender identities, regardless of whether they
conform to traditional expectations or societal norms. Providing Cultural and Social Influences Gender expression is influenced by
support, validation, and acceptance can have a significant cultural and social factors, including societal norms, expectations,
positive impact on the well-being and mental health of and stereotypes about gender roles and behaviors. These
transgender and gender-nonconforming individuals. influences can vary widely across di erent cultures and
communities.
Overall, gender identity is a complex and multifaceted aspect of
human identity that plays a crucial role in shaping individuals’ Personal Authenticity Expressing one’s gender authentically and
experiences, relationships, and sense of self. in a way that feels true to oneself is an important aspect of
gender expression. For many individuals, being able to express
GENDER EXPRESSION their gender identity openly and without fear of judgment or
discrimination is essential for their well-being and self-esteem.
Gender expression refers to how individuals present their gender
identity to others through behavior, clothing, appearance, Respect and Acceptance Respecting and accepting individuals’
mannerisms, and other outward expressions. It encompasses the gender expression is crucial for creating inclusive and supportive
outward manifestations of one’s internal gender identity and can environments. Everyone should have the freedom to express

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their gender in a way that feels comfortable and authentic to existing gender norms and promote positive changes that benefit
them, regardless of whether it conforms to traditional or societal all individuals, regardless of their gender.
expectations.
GENDER ANALYSIS
Overall, gender expression is a complex and multifaceted aspect
of human identity that plays a significant role in how individuals Gender analysis is a systematic approach used to examine how

interact with the world and how they are perceived by others. It gender roles, norms, and relations influence people’s lives,

is an essential component of diversity and should be recognized, opportunities, and experiences. It involves examining the ways in

respected, and celebrated. which social, economic, cultural, and political factors intersect
with gender to shape outcomes and disparities. Gender analysis

ADDTIONAL LECTURE FOR WEEK 3 seeks to understand the power dynamics, inequalities, and
discrimination that exist betweendi erent genders
CULTURE within a given context.

Culture in the context of gender and development refers to the This analysis typically involves collecting and analyzing data
complex system of beliefs, values, norms, practices, and disaggregated by gender to identify patterns, disparities, and
traditions within a society that shape and influence the roles, underlying causes of inequality. It also involves examining the
behaviors, opportunities, and power dynamics of individuals roles, responsibilities, and expectations associated with each
based on their gender. Culture plays a significant role in gender within various social, economic, and political structures.
constructing and perpetuating gender norms, expectations, and
inequalities, impacting various aspects of development such as Gender analysis is crucial for informing policies, programs, and
access to education, employment, healthcare, decision- making, interventions aimed at promoting gender equality and addressing
and overall well-being. gender-based disparities. It helps policymakers, development
practitioners, and researchers understand the specific needs,
In many societies, cultural norms and traditions often prescribe challenges, and opportunities faced by di erent genders and
specific roles and behaviors for individuals based on their gender, develop targeted strategies to address them e ectively.
reinforcing stereotypes and limiting opportunities for women and Additionally, gender analysis plays a vital role in monitoring and
girls while privileging men and boys. These gendered cultural evaluating the impact of interventions on gender equality
norms can result in unequal access to resources, unequal outcomes.
distribution of labor within households, restricted mobility,
limited participation in decision-making processes, and various GENDER DISCRIMINATION
forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls.
Gender discrimination refers to the unfair treatment or unequal
Gender and development initiatives seek to address these opportunities based on an individual’s gender or perceived
cultural norms and practices by promoting gender equality, gender identity. It involves actions, policies, attitudes, or
challenging harmful stereotypes, and fostering social change to behaviors that systematically disadvantage or privilege
create more inclusive and equitable societies. This involves individuals based on their gender, often to the detriment of one
engaging with local communities, religious leaders, cultural gender over another. Examples of gender discrimination include:
influencers, and other stakeholders to challenge and transform
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Unequal pay Paying individuals di erently for the same or similar GENDER DIVISION OF LABOR
work based on their gender.
The gender division of labor refers to the allocation of di erent

Limited job opportunities Denying individuals access to certain types of work and responsibilities within a society based on

job roles or career advancement opportunities because of their gender norms and expectations. It encompasses the ways in

gender. which tasks, roles, and responsibilities are assigned to individuals

based on their gender, often resulting in distinct patterns of work

Gender-based violence Physical, sexual, or participation, distribution of labor, and access to resources.

psychological harm inflicted on individuals because of their

gender, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and In many societies, the gender division of labor tends to be

rape. characterized by:

Stereotyping Making assumptions about individuals’ abilities, Traditional roles Historically, certain tasks and responsibilities

interests, or characteristics based on their gender, which may have been associated with specific genders. For example, men

result in discrimination in employment, education, or social are often associated with paid work outside the home, while

interactions. women are typically responsible for unpaid domestic work such
as caregiving, cooking, and cleaning.

Unequal access to education Denying individuals access to

education or limiting their educational opportunities based on Economic activities Men and women may participate in di erent

their gender. economic activities, with men more likely to be engaged in formal
wage labor, agriculture, or skilled trades, while women may be

Gender-based restrictions Imposing restrictions or limitations on more involved in informal sector work, part-time employment, or

individuals’ rights, freedoms, or mobility solely because of their subsistence farming.

gender, such as restrictions on women’s right to travel or drive in

certain societies. Unpaid care work Women disproportionately bear the burden of
unpaid care work, including childcare, eldercare, and household

Discrimination in healthcare Providing inferior or limited chores. This often limits women’s participation in paid

healthcare services to individuals based on their gender, or failing employment, education, and other activities outside the home.

to address their specific healthcare needs.

Decision-making Gender norms may also influence decision-

Gender discrimination is a violation of human rights and making within households and communities, with men often

undermines e orts to achieve gender equality and promote social having greater control and authority over financial matters and

justice. It perpetuates inequalities, limits individuals’ important household decisions.

opportunities and choices, and contributes to the perpetuation of

harmful gender stereotypes and norms. Access to resources Gender divisions of labor can impact
individuals’ access to resources such as land, education,
healthcare, and credit, with women often facing greater barriers
and inequalities in accessing these resources compared to men.

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Reproductive roles Women are typically expected to bear the Redistributive justice Implementing policies and programs that
primary responsibility for reproduction and child-rearing, which aim to redistribute resources and opportunities in ways that
can further reinforce traditional gender roles and limit women’s promote equal outcomes for individuals of all genders,
opportunities for economic and social participation. particularly those who have been historically marginalized or
disadvantaged.
The gender division of labor is influenced by cultural, social,
economic, and political factors, and it varies across di erent Promoting diversity and inclusion Recognizing and valuing the
contexts and societies. Addressing gender inequalities in the diversity of experiences, perspectives, and contributions of
division of labor is essential for promoting gender equality, individuals of all genders, and actively working to create inclusive
economic empowerment, and social justice. This involves environments where all can thrive.
challenging traditional gender norms, redistributing unpaid care
work more equitably, promoting women’s participation in the Empowerment Promoting the empowerment of individuals of all
formal labor market, and ensuring equal access to resources and genders by providing them with the knowledge, skills, resources,
opportunities for all genders. and support they need to make informed choices, exercise their
rights, and fulfill their potential.
GENDER EQUALITY
Gender equity acknowledges that achieving equality may require
Gender equity refers to the principle of fairness and justice in the di erent treatment or interventions to address existing disparities
distribution of resources, opportunities, and responsibilities and level the playing field for individuals of di erent genders. It is
between individuals of di erent genders. It involves recognizing essential for creating a more just, inclusive, and equitable society
and addressing the specific needs, challenges, and barriers faced where everyone has the opportunity to thrive and contribute to
by di erent genders in order to ensure equal outcomes and their full potential.
opportunities for all. Key aspects of gender equity include:

GENDER MAINSTREAMING
Equal access Ensuring that individuals of all genders have equal
access to resources, opportunities, and services, such as Gender mainstreaming is a strategy for promoting gender
education, healthcare, employment, and decision-making equality and integrating gender perspectives into all aspects of
positions. policies, programs, and initiatives. It involves systematically
considering the implications of gender in the design,
Fair treatment Providing fair and unbiased treatment to implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and
individuals of all genders, regardless of social or cultural norms, programs, with the goal of addressing gender inequalities and
stereotypes, or expectations. promoting gender equity. Key elements of gender mainstreaming
include:
Addressing disparities Identifying and addressing existing
disparities and inequalities between genders, including disparities Integration Incorporating gender considerations into all stages of
in education, employment, income, and political representation. policy and program development, from planning and budgeting
to implementation and evaluation.

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Analysis Conducting gender analysis to identify and understand context. These needs are shaped by social, cultural, economic,
the di erent needs, experiences, and priorities of individuals of di and political factors and may vary based on factors such as age,
erent genders, and using this analysis to inform decision-making ethnicity, disability, and socioeconomic status. Understanding
and resource allocation. and addressing gender needs are essential for promoting gender
equality and ensuring that policies, programs, and interventions e
Action Taking proactive steps to address gender inequalities and ectively meet the diverse needs and experiences of individuals of
promote gender equity by implementing targeted measures and all genders. Examples of gender needs include:
interventions that address the specific needs and barriers faced
by di erent genders. Healthcare Access to gender-sensitive healthcare services that
address the unique health concerns and reproductive rights of
Institutionalization Embedding gender equality principles and individuals of di erent genders, including sexual and reproductive
practices into the structures, processes, and systems of health services, maternal healthcare, and mental health support.
organizations and institutions, and ensuring that they are
mainstreamed across all levels and functions. Education Equal access to quality education and training
opportunities for individuals of all genders, free from
Participation and empowerment Engaging with diverse discrimination, harassment, and gender-based violence. This may
stakeholders, including women’s organizations, civil society include initiatives to promote girls’ education, support for
groups, and marginalized communities, to ensure their women in STEM fields, and gender-sensitive curriculum
meaningful participation in decision-making processes and development.
promote their empowerment.
Employment and economic empowerment Equal opportunities
Accountability Establishing mechanisms for monitoring, for employment, income generation, and economic
evaluating, and reporting on progress towards gender equality empowerment for individuals of all genders, including measures
goals, and holding policymakers and program managers to address gender wage gaps, promote women’s
accountable for achieving gender mainstreaming objectives. entrepreneurship, and support equitable access to resources and
economic opportunities.
Gender mainstreaming recognizes that gender inequalities are
pervasive and intersect with other forms of discrimination and Safety and security Protection from gender-based violence,
disadvantage, such as race, ethnicity, class, and disability. By harassment, and discrimination, and access to safe and
mainstreaming gender perspectives, policymakers and supportive environments for individuals of all genders, both in
practitioners can better address the diverse needs and public and private spaces. This may include initiatives to address
experiences of individuals of all genders and contribute to domestic violence, sexual harassment, tra cking, and violence
creating more inclusive and equitable societies. against LGBTQ+ individuals.

GENDER NEEDS Political participation and representation Equal opportunities for

political participation, leadership, and representation for
Gender needs refer to the specific requirements, priorities, and individuals of all genders in decision-making processes and
challenges faced by individuals of di erent genders within a given institutions, including measures to address barriers to women’s

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political participation and promote gender-balanced education, reducing gender wage gaps, and promoting women’s
representation in government and public life. leadership and decision-making roles.

Social and cultural rights Recognition and protection of the social Gender-responsive strategies Developing strategies and
and cultural rights of individuals of all genders, including the right interventions that are responsive to the specific needs and
to freedom of expression, cultural participation, and the priorities of individuals of all genders, including measures to
preservation of cultural heritage, free from discrimination and address gender-based discrimination, promote women’s
gender-based stereotypes. empowerment, and challenge harmful gender stereotypes and
norms.
Addressing gender needs requires a comprehensive and
intersectional approach that considers the diverse experiences Inclusive participation Ensuring the meaningful participation of
and identities of individuals of all genders and prioritizes actions individuals of all genders, including women, men, and gender-
to address the root causes of gender inequalities and diverse individuals, in the planning process. This may involve
discrimination. This may involve targeted policies, programs, and consulting with diverse stakeholders, including women’s
interventions that are designed to promote gender equality, organizations, civil society groups, and marginalized
empower marginalized groups, and create more inclusive and communities, and creating spaces for their voices to be heard
equitable societies for all. and their perspectives to be incorporated into decision-making.

GENDER PLANNING Resource allocation Allocating resources, including financial,

human, and technical resources, in ways that prioritize gender
Gender planning is an approach to development planning that equality objectives and support the implementation of gender-
aims to promote gender equality and address the specific needs, responsive strategies and programs.
priorities, and interests of individuals of all genders. It involves
integrating gender perspectives into all stages of the planning Monitoring and evaluation Establishing mechanisms for
process, from problem identification and analysis to policy monitoring and evaluating the e ectiveness of gender planning
formulation, implementation, and evaluation. initiatives in achieving gender equality outcomes. This may
Key elements of gender planning include: involve collecting sex-disaggregated data, tracking progress
towards gender-related indicators, and conducting regular
Gender analysis Conducting a systematic analysis of the ways in reviews to assess the impact of interventions on individuals of all
which gender roles, norms, and inequalities intersect with other genders.
social, economic, and political factors to shape development
outcomes. This analysis helps to identify the gender-specific Gender planning recognizes that gender inequalities are
challenges, constraints, and opportunities within a given context. pervasive and intersect with other forms of discrimination and
disadvantage. By integrating gender perspectives into
Gender-sensitive goals and objectives Setting goals and development planning processes, policymakers and practitioners
objectives that explicitly address gender inequalities and can better address the diverse needs and experiences of
promote gender equality, such as increasing women’s access to individuals of all genders and contribute to creating more
inclusive, equitable, and sustainable development outcomes.

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GENDER RELATIONS Access to resources and opportunities Gender relations impact
individuals’ access to resources, opportunities, and social
Gender relations refer to the ways in which power, roles, and participation based on their gender identity. This may include
interactions are structured and negotiated between individuals of access to education, employment, healthcare, property rights,
di erent genders within a given society or social context. These and political representation, with individuals of certain genders
relations are shaped by social, cultural, economic, and political facing greater barriers and inequalities than others.
factors and influence various aspects of people’s lives, including
their opportunities, experiences, and identities. Key elements of Resistance and change Gender relations are not static and can be
gender relations include: contested, negotiated, and transformed over time. Individuals
and groups may challenge traditional gender norms, advocate for
Power dynamics Gender relations often involve unequal power gender equality, and work to shift power dynamics and social
dynamics between di erent genders, with one gender group structures in order to create more inclusive and equitable
having greater access to resources, decision-making authority, societies.
and social status than others. These power dynamics may be
reinforced by social norms, traditions, and institutional Understanding gender relations is essential for addressing gender
structures. inequalities, promoting gender equality, and fostering social
change. By critically examining the ways in which gender
Division of labor Gender relations determine how tasks, operates within di erent contexts, policymakers, practitioners,
responsibilities, and roles are divided between individuals of di and activists can develop more e ective strategies to challenge
erent genders within households, communities, and workplaces. discrimination, empower marginalized groups, and create
This division of labor may be based on traditional gender norms environments where all individuals can thrive regardless of their
and expectations, with men typically assigned to roles associated gender.
with paid work and public life, while women are expected to
perform unpaid care work and domestic duties. GENDER TRAINING

Socialization and social norms Gender relations are influenced by Gender training is an educational process aimed at increasing
socialization processes and cultural norms that prescribe and awareness, understanding, and skills related to gender issues,
reinforce specific gender roles, behaviors, and expectations. equality, and social justice. It involves providing individuals with
These norms shape individuals’ identities, attitudes, and the knowledge, tools, and resources to recognize and address
behaviors, and may contribute to the perpetuation of gender gender inequalities, stereotypes, and discrimination, both
inequalities and stereotypes. personally and professionally. Key aspects of gender training
include:
Interpersonal relationships Gender relations influence the nature
and dynamics of interpersonal relationships between individuals Awareness-raising Gender training begins by raising awareness
of di erent genders, including romantic relationships, friendships, about the concept of gender, including its social construction, the
and family dynamics. These relationships may be characterized impact of gender norms and stereotypes, and the ways in which
by power imbalances, communication patterns, and expectations gender intersects with other forms of discrimination and
that are influenced by gender norms and expectations. disadvantage.

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Understanding gender dynamics Gender training helps in advancing gender equality and creating more just and inclusive
participants develop a deeper understanding of the ways in societies for all genders.
which gender operates within di erent contexts, including how it
influences power dynamics, social relations, and access to GENDER VIOLENCE
resources and opportunities.
Gender violence refers to any form of violence, abuse, or harm

Promoting gender equality Gender training aims to promote the that is perpetrated against individuals based on their gender

principles of gender equality by challenging harmful gender identity or perceived gender. It encompasses a wide range of

norms and stereotypes, advocating for the rights and behaviors and actions that are used to exert power and control

empowerment of marginalized genders, and promoting inclusive over individuals, often resulting in physical, sexual, psychological,

and equitable practices and policies. or economic harm. Examples of gender violence include:

Building skills and capacity Gender training equips participants Domestic violence Physical, sexual, or psychological abuse that

with practical skills and strategies for promoting gender equality occurs within intimate partner relationships or within families,

in their personal and professional lives. This may include including behaviors such as physical assault, sexual coercion,

communication skills, conflict resolution techniques, advocacy emotional manipulation, and financial control.

strategies, and gender-sensitive programming and policymaking.

Sexual violence Any form of unwanted or

Creating inclusive environments Gender training helps non-consensual sexual activity or contact, including rape, sexual

organizations and institutions create inclusive and supportive assault, sexual harassment, and sexual exploitation. This may

environments where individuals of all genders feel valued, occur in both private and public settings, perpetrated by

respected, and empowered to participate fully. This may involve intimate partners, acquaintances, or strangers.
addressing institutional barriers and biases, promoting diversity
and inclusion, and fostering a Gender-based harassment Verbal, physical, or online harassment
culture of gender equality. that is motivated by a person’s gender identity or expression,
including sexist comments, derogatory language, threats, and
Monitoring and evaluation Gender training programs often stalking behavior.
include mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating their impact
on participants’ attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors related to Honor-based violence Violence or abuse perpetrated against
gender equality. This helps ensure that training e orts are e ective individuals, usually women, who are perceived to have violated
and contribute to meaningful change over time. cultural or social norms related to gender, sexuality, or family
honor. This may include practices such as honor killings, forced
Gender training can take various forms, including workshops, marriages, and female genital mutilation.
seminars, online courses, and capacitybuilding programs. It is
often targeted at diverse audiences, including policymakers, Tra cking The recruitment, transportation, or
government o cials, educators, healthcare providers, community exploitation of individuals, often women and children, for the
leaders, and activists. By increasing awareness and building purposes of forced labor, sexual exploitation, or other
capacity around gender issues, gender training plays a critical role forms of exploitation. Tra cking

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disproportionately a ects women and reinforced through social norms, cultural beliefs, and institutional
girls and is often driven by gender inequalities practices that uphold and reinforce gender stereotypes and
and economic vulnerabilities. inequalities.

Reproductive coercion Coerciveor controlling behavior Control of resources In patriarchy, men typically have greater
aimed at controlling individuals’ reproductive choices and access to and control over resources such as land, wealth,
autonomy, including forcing or pressuring someone to education, and healthcare, while women and marginalized

have or not have children,coercing individuals genders face barriers to accessing these resources and are

into sterilization, or sabotaging contraception. economically dependent on men.

Gender violence is a violation of human rights and is rooted in Gender roles and expectations Patriarchal societies prescribe

unequal power dynamics, harmful gender stereotypes, and social traditional gender roles and expectations for men and women,

norms that perpetuate inequality and discrimination. Addressing with men expected to be strong, assertive, and independent,

gender violence requires comprehensive strategies that address while women are expected to be nurturing, submissive, and

the root causes of violence, challenge harmful attitudes and caregiving. These gender roles limit individuals’ opportunities and

behaviors, and provide support and resources to survivors. It also autonomy based on their gender identity.

involves promoting gender equality and empowering individuals

of all genders to challenge violence and build safe and respectful Violence and discrimination Patriarchy perpetuates violence and

communities. discrimination against women and marginalized genders,

including sexual harassment, domestic violence, gender-based

PATRIARCHY violence, and other forms of abuse. These forms of violence serve
to maintain men’s power and control over women and reinforce
Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power gender inequalities.
and authority, and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral
authority, social privilege, and control of property. In patriarchy, Patriarchy is a system of oppression that a ects individuals and
societal norms and institutions are structured to uphold and communities on multiple levels, including social, economic,
perpetuate male dominance and privilege, while subordinating political, and cultural dimensions. Challenging and dismantling
and marginalizing women and other genders. Key characteristics patriarchy requires collective action to address the root causes of
of patriarchy include: gender inequality, promote gender justice, and create more
equitable and inclusive societies for all genders.
Male dominance Patriarchal societies prioritize the interests,
needs, and perspectives of men over those of women and other WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
genders. Men typically hold positions of power and authority in
government, business, religion, and other social institutions. Women empowerment refers to the process of enabling women
to have control over their lives, exercise their rights, and fulfill

Gender hierarchy Patriarchy enforces a rigid gender hierarchy, their potential as equal and active members of society. It involves

with men placed at the top and women and non-binary increasing women’s access to resources, opportunities, and

individuals relegated to subordinate roles. This hierarchy is decision-making power, and challenging the structural barriers

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and discriminatory norms that limit their participation and their rights and negotiate power dynamics in their relationships is
agency. Key elements of women empowerment include: essential for their overall empowerment.

Equal access to education Ensuring that women and girls have Women empowerment is not only a matter of social justice and
equal access to quality education and lifelong learning human rights but also crucial for achieving sustainable
opportunities, including formal schooling, vocational training, and development and creating more equitable and inclusive societies.
skills development programs. By investing in women’s empowerment, communities and
nations can unlock the full potential of women as agents of
Economic independence Promoting women’s economic change and drivers of progress in their families, communities,
empowerment by providing access to financial resources, credit, and societies.
employment opportunities, and entrepreneurship support. This
includes addressing gender wage gaps, discriminatory labor WOMEN’S HUMAN RIGHTS
practices, and barriers to women’s participation in the workforce.
Women’s human rights refer to the fundamental rights and

Political participation and leadership Increasing women’s freedoms that are inherent to all human beings, regardless of

representation and participation in decision-making processes, their gender, and are specifically focused on addressing the

governance structures, and political institutions at all levels. This unique needs, experiences, and challenges faced by women and

involves promoting women’s leadership skills, supporting girls. These rights are enshrined in international human rights

women’s political mobilization, and removing legal and social instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human

barriers to women’s political participation. Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), and other treaties and

Health and well-being Ensuring women’s access to agreements. Key aspects of women’s human rights include:

comprehensive healthcare services, including sexual and

reproductive health services, maternal healthcare, and mental Right to equality Women have the right to equal treatment and

health support. Empowering women to make informed decisions non-discrimination in all areas of life, including access to

about their health and well-being is essential for their overall education, employment, healthcare, and participation in public

empowerment. and political life. This includes the right to be free from
discrimination based on gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual

Legal rights and protection Promoting women’s legal rights and orientation, disability, or other status.

protection against discrimination, violence, and exploitation. This

includes enforcing laws and policies that guarantee women’s Right to freedom from violence Women have the right to live

rights, such as laws against gender-based violence, sexual free from all forms of violence, abuse, and discrimination,

harassment, and discrimination in employment and education. including domestic violence, sexual assault, tra cking, and harmful
traditional practices such as female genital mutilation and child

Gender equality in relationships Promoting gender-equitable marriage. States have an obligation to prevent, investigate, and

relationships and challenging harmful gender norms and prosecute acts of violence against women and provide support

stereotypes that perpetuate inequality and violence within and protection to survivors.

intimate partnerships and families. Empowering women to assert

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Reproductive rights Women have the right to make decisions 1 - FREUDIAN
about their own bodies, sexuality, and reproductive health, free
from coercion, discrimination, and violence. This includes access I. Sigmund Freud was one of the first to o er an

to comprehensive sexual and reproductive healthcare services, explanation for the development of gender. He believed that life

including contraception, maternal healthcare, and safe abortion was built around tension and pleasure. He also believed that all

services. tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that
all pleasure came from its discharge.

Right to health Women have the right to the highest attainable

standard of physical and mental health, including access to II. He stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to

healthcare services that are free from discrimination, stigma, and the formation of adult personality. The id must be controlled in

violence. This includes addressing gender-specific health needs order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between

and disparities, such as maternal mortality, HIV/AIDS, and frustrated wishes and social norms.

gender-based violence.
III. The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this

Right to education Women have the right to equal access to control and direct the need for gratification into socially

education and lifelong learning opportunities, including access to acceptable channels. Gratification centers in di erent areas of the

quality primary and secondary education, vocational training, and body at di erent stages of growth, making the conflict at each

higher education. States have an obligation to eliminate barriers stage psychosexual.

to girls’ education and promote gender equality in education.

IV. Each of the psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic,

Right to participation and representation Women have the right latency, genital) is associated with a particular conflict that must

to participate fully and equally in all aspects of public and political be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the

life, including decision-making processes, leadership roles, and next stage.

civil society activism. This includes ensuring women’s

representation in government, parliaments, and other decision- V. The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the

making bodies. expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is
expended at a particular stage, the more the important

Women’s human rights are essential for promoting gender characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as he/she
equality, social justice, and sustainable development. Ensuring matures psychologically.
the realization of women’s human rights requires concerted e
orts by governments, civil society organizations, international
agencies, and individuals to address the root causes of gender Gender develops through a combination of biological and social
inequality, discrimination, and violence, and to create more
factors which emerges at age 2 or 3 and is reinforced at puberty.
inclusive and equitable societies for all.
Once established, it is generally permanent.
WEEK 4 TO 5
THEORIES OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT
A major step occurs when children first becomes aware of
Gender develops through a combination of biological and social
anatomical di erences between sexes (at age 2 or 3), usually from
factors which emerges at age 2 or 3 and is reinforced at puberty.
the observation of siblings or peers. This is followed by an

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awareness of cultural di erences between males and females, and - the nature of this first conflict with authority can
identification with the parent of the same sex. determine the child's future relationship with all forms
of authority
Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the
formation of adult personality. The id must be controlled in order Phallic Stage
to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between - 3 to 6 years
frustrated wishes and social norms. - the child becomes aware of anatomical sex di erences,
which sets in motion the conflict between erotic
The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which
and direct the need for gratification into socially acceptable Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the
channels. Gratification centers in di erent areas of the body at di Electra
erent stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage complex (in girls)
psychosexual. - this is resolved through the process of identification,
which involves the child adopting the characteristics
Oral Stage (values, attitudes, and behaviors) of the same sex parent
- birth to 1 year
Oedipus Complex
- libido is centered around the baby’s mouth
- this complex arises because the boy develops sexual
- the first psychosexual attachment of the individual will
(pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to
be the mother
possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father
- once the child recognizes the existence of the father, the to enable him to do so.
child identifies with him.
- irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find
- however, as the sexual wishes of the child intensifies, out about all this, his father would take away what he
the child becomes possessive of the mother and wishes lovesthe most (his penis, thru chopping). This is called
the father out of the picture. castration anxiety.
- this event starts the Oedipus and Electra Complex in the - the little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by
next two stages imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type
behaviors (thru identification), thus resolving the
Anal Stage Oedipus complex
- 1 to 3 years - the consequence of this is that the boy takes on the
- the child is now fully aware that they are a person in male genderrole, and adopts an ego ideal and values
their own right and that their wishes can bring them into that become the superego
conflict with the demands of the outside world
- this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty Electra Complex
training, in which adults impose restrictions on when - the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not
and where the child can defecate have a penis. This leads to the development of penis
envy and the wish to be a boy

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- the girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her
father and substituting the wish for a penis with the
wish for a baby
- the girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and
this creates great tension
- the girl then represses her feelings (to remove the
tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the
female gender role

Limitations of Freud’s Theories Freud often had di culty

incorporating female desire into his theories, leading to his
famous, unanswered question: “What does a woman want?”

To explain women, Freud argued that young girls followed more

or less the same psychosexual development as boys.

This has often been criticized by feminists, who argue that Freud
based his theories on the assumption that “anatomy is destiny”

One respected feminist theory is that of Nancy Chodorow, for

whom the central factor in gender identity acquisition is the
mother's role as primary caregiver, which leads to a greater sense
of interrelatedness in girls, who identify with the mother and go
2 - SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
on to reproduce the same patterns of mothering in their own
adult lives. I. Social learning/cognitive theory is based on outward
motivational factors that argue that is children receive positive
reinforcement they are motivated to continue a particular
behavior. If they receive punishment or other indicators of
disapproval they are more motivated to stop that behavior.

II. In terms of gender development, children receive praise

if they engage in culturally appropriate gender displays and
punishment if they do not.

III. For example, when aggressiveness in boys is met with

acceptance, or a “boys will be boys” attitude, but a girl’s
aggressiveness earns them a little attention, the two children
learn di erent meanings for aggressiveness as it relates to their

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gender development. Thus, boys may continue being aggressive IV. In the past people tend to have very clear ideas about
while girls may drop it out of their repertoire. what was appropriate to each sex and anyone behaving di erently
was regarded as deviant.
IV. The main way that gender behaviors are learned is
through the process of observational learning. Children observe V. Today we accept a lot more diversity and see gender as
the people around them behaving in various ways, some of which a continuum (i.e. scale) rather than two categories.
relate to gender.
VI. The biological approach suggests there is no distinction
V. They pay attention to some of these people and encode between sex & gender, thus biological sex creates gendered
their behavior. At a later time they may imitate the behavior they behavior.
have observed. They may do this regardless of whether the
behavior is “gender appropriate” or not but there are a number VII. Gender is determined by two biological factors:
of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce hormones and chromosomes.
the behavior that its society deems appropriate for its sex.
Hormones
- Chemical substances secreted by glands throughout the
3 - BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
body and carried in the

Sex - refers to biological di erences between males and females. bloodstream

For example, chromosomes (female XX, male XY), reproductive - Occur in both men and women, but di er in amounts and

organs (ovaries, testes), hormones (estrogen, testosterone). in the e ect that they have upon di erent parts of the
body

Gender - refers to the cultural di erences expected (by society / I. Hormones are chemical substances secreted by glands
culture) of men and women according to their sex. A person’s sex throughout the body and carried in the bloodstream.
does not change from birth, but their gender can.

II. The same sex hormones occur in both men and women,
but di er in amounts and in the e ect that they have upon di erent
Biological - Biological Theories of Gender / Saul McLeod, parts of the body.
published 2014

III. Testosterone is a sex hormone, which is more present in

I. Sex refers to biological di erences between males and males than females, and a ects development and behavior both
females. before and after birth.

II. For example, chromosomes (female XX, male XY), IV. Testosterone, when released in the womb, causes the
reproductive organs (ovaries, testes), hormones development of male sex organs (at 7 weeks) and acts upon the
(estrogen, testosterone). hypothalamus which results in the masculinization of the brain.

III. A person’s sex does not change from birth, but their
gender can.

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V. Testosterone can cause typically male behaviors such as III. A number of nonreproductive behaviors in rats are also
aggression, competitiveness, visuospatial abilities, higher sexual a ected by testosterone exposure around birth. These included
drive etc. exploratory behavior, aggression and play.

VI. At the same time testosterone acts on the developing IV. This is because the physiologies (e.g. brain) of humans
brain. and animals species are not identical.

VII. The brain is divided into two hemispheres, left and right. V. Also, the social and cultural variables within a human
population are more complex when compared to social
VIII. In all humans the left side of the brain is more interactions between rats.
specialized for language skills and the right for non-verbal and
spatial skills. VI. Hines (1982) studied female babies born to mothers
who had been given injections of male hormones during
pregnancy to prevent miscarriage.

VII. They were found to be more aggressive than normal

female children.

VIII. Hines concluded that the extra testosterone in the

womb had a ected later behavior.

SRY Gene (Sex-determining Region Y gene)

- At about 6 weeks, the SRY gene on the Y chromosome
causes the gonads (sex organs) of the embryo to
develop as testes.
- If the embryo has no Y chromosome, it will not have the
SRY gene, without the SRY gene, the gonads will develop
as ovaries.
- Sometimes the SRY gene is missing from the Y
chromosome, or doesn't activate. The foetus grows, is
I. Young (1966) changed the sexual behavior of both male born, and lives as a little girl, and later as a woman, but
and female rats by manipulating the amount of male and female her chromosomes are
hormones that the rats received during their early development. XY.
- Koopmanet al. (1991) found that mice that were
II. They displayed “reversed” sexual behavior and the e genetically female developed into male mice if the SRY
ects were unchangeable. gene was implanted.
- One of the most controversial uses of this discovery was
as a means for gender verification at the Olympic

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Games, under a system implemented by the - The syndrome becomes noticeable in childhood, as the
International Olympic Committee in 1992. Athletes with boy has poor language skills.
a SRY gene were not permitted to participate as females. - At three years of age, the child may still not talk. At
school,their poor language skills a ect their reading
Turner’s Syndrome (XO) ability.
- Occurs when females develop with only one X - When they are babies, their temperament is described
chromosome on chromosome 23 (1 in 1500 chance). as passive and cooperative. This calmness and shyness
- The absence of the second X chromosome results in a remain with them throughout their lives.
child with a female external appearance but whose - This suggests that level of aggression have a biological
ovaries have failed to develop. rather than environmental component.
- In addition to physical di erences, there are di erences in
cognitive skills and behavior compared with typical
chromosome patterns.
- The a ected individuals have higher than average verbal
ability but lower than average spatial ability, visual
memory and mathematical skills.
- The physical characteristics of individuals with Turner's
syndrome include lack of maturation at puberty and
webbing of the neck.
- They also have di culty in social adjustment at school
and generally have poor relationships with their peers. Evolutionary Explanations of Gender
- As the evolutionary approach is a biological one, it
suggests that aspects of human behaviour have been
coded by our genes because they were or are adaptive.
- A central claim of evolutionary psychology is that the
brain (and therefore the mind) evolved to solve
problems encountered by our hunter-gatherer ancestors
during the upper Pleistocene period over 10,000 years
ago.
- The evolutionary approach argues that gender role
division appears as an adaptation to the challenges
faced by the ancestral humans in the EEA (the
Klinefelter's Syndrome (XXY)
environment of evolutionary adaptation).
- A ects 1 in every 750 males. In addition to having a Y
chromosome, these men also have an additional X on
Critical Evaluation
the 23rd chromosome, leading to the arrangement XXY.
- Deterministic approach which implies that men and
women have little choice or control over their
- Physically, the e ect of the additional X chromosome
causes less body hair and underdeveloped genitals.
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 GAD101
behaviours: women are natural ‘nurturers’ and men are - Western Societies view gender as having two categories,
naturally aggressive and competitive. masculine and feminine, and see man and women as di
- The in modern society equal opportunities policies are erent species.
doomed to fail as men are
‘naturally’ more competitive, risk taking and likely to Empirical Evidence
progress up the career ladder. - Rubinet al, 1974, interviewed 30 parents and asked them to
use adjective pairs to describe their babies. Although
Biosocial Approach to Gender there were no measurable di erences in size between
- The biosocial approach (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972) is an the babies, parents consistently described boy babies as
interactionist approach whereby nature and nurture better coordinated, stronger and more alert than
both play a role in gender development. daughters. This shows that parents label their babies.
- John Money’s (1972) theory was that once a biological
male or female is born, social labeling and di erential I. Shaywitz et al (1995) used MRI scans to examine brain
treatment of boys and girls interact with biological while men and women carried out language tasks, found out that
factors to steer development. This theory was an women used both hemispheres, and only the left hemisphere is
attempt to integrate the influences of nature and used by men.
nurture.
II. It appears that in males brain hemispheres work more
Gender role preferences determined by a series of critical events: independently than in females, and testosterone influences this
lateralization.

III. Empirical Evidence. The e ects of testosterone have been

confirmed in animal studies. Quadango et al. (1977) found that
female monkeys who were deliberately exposed to testosterone
during prenatal development later engaged in more rough and
tumble play than other females.
Prenatal: exposure to hormones in the womb
(determined by chromosomes). It states that biology caused by
genetics, XY for a boy and XX for a girl will give them physical sex.

Postnatal: Parents and others label and react towards a child on

the basis of his or her genitals.
- Parentsand other people label and begin to react to the
child based on his or her genitals. It is when their sex has
been labelled through external genitals, they gender
development will begin.
- The social labeling of a baby as a boy or girl leads to di
erent treatment which produce the child/s sense of
gender identity.
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 GAD101
VI. Therefore, the results might not be generalizable outside of
the lab, to a more naturalistic setting.

The normal human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. A

chromosome is a long thin structure containing thousands of
genes, which are biochemical units of heredity and govern the
development of every human being. Each pair of chromosomes
controls di erent aspects of development, and biological sex is
determined by the 23rd chromosome pair.
Chromosomes physically resemble the letters X and Y.
Males = XY Females = XX

I. Young believed that the exposure had changed the sexually

dimorphic nucleus (SDN) in the brain, as male rats had a
larger SDN than females.

II. The results have proven to be highly replicable.

Atypical Chromosomes
III. Critical Evaluation. Because this study was conducted in a lab
- Individuals with atypical chromosomes develop di
it has low ecological validity.
erently than individuals with typical
chromosomes-socially, physically and
IV. For example, in the lab hormones are injected in one single
cognitively.
high dose.
- Studying people with atypical sex chromosomes and
comparing their development with that of people with
V. Whereas in real life, hormones tend to be released by the
typical sex chromosomes able to establish which types
body in pulses, in a graduated fashion.
of behaviour are genetic (e.g. determinedby
chromosomes)

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4 - GENDER SCHEMA THEORY Cross-sex typed individuals – process and integrate information
according to their schema for the opposite gender.
Sandra Bem in 1981 formally introduced the Gender Schema
Theory, explaining how individuals become gendered in society, Androgynous individuals – process and integrate information
and how sexlinked characteristics are maintained and based on their schema for both genders
transmitted to other members of a culture.

Undi erentiated individuals – have di culty processing

information based on any gender schema

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Gender-associated information is predominantly transmuted

through society by way of schemata, or networks of information
that allow for some information to be more easily assimilated
than others.

This theory of gender development says that gender is a product

of the norms of one’s culture. It suggests that people process
information, in part, based on gender-typed knowledge. It
proposes that children create cognitive schema or gender that
they derive from the norms of their culture.

It is a theory of process, focusing on the way people process and

utilize the information their culture provides about masculinity
and femininity. Bem suggests that people fall into one of four
gender categories.

Four Gender Categories

Sex-typed individuals – identify with the gender that corresponds

to their physical sex. These individuals process and integrate
information according to their schema for their gender.

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