Parts and Functions of the Male Reproductive System

1. Urethra
- The tube that passes through the penis to the outside of the body which carries urine
and sperm
2. Penis
- A soft, tubular organ that hangs front of the body and is the external sexual organ of the
male through which the sperm are delivered into the female’s body
- Contains erectile tissue in which the penis becomes larger and stiffer due to increase
flow of blood during ejaculation
3. Testes
- Made up of coiled tubules in which the sperm are produced
- Produced testosterone for the production of sperm
4. Epididymis
- A coiled J-shaped tube located on the back of each testicle
5. Vas Deferens
- The tube that receives sperm from the epididymis of each testicle
6. Scrotum
- A pouch of skin that hangs from the penis which houses the testes and it protects the
sperm by keeping the temperature of the testes slightly lower than the normal body
temperature in order for the sperm to survive

Parts and Functions of the Female Reproductive System

1. Ovaries
- Small and almond-shaped organs
- Secrete estrogen and progesterone to produce mature egg cells
- During puberty, the ovaries produce and release one ripened egg every 28 days, This
process is called ovulation
2. Fallopian Tubes
- Two tubes that extend from each ovary into the uterus
- Their main function is to house the egg until fertilization
3. Uterus
- A hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ located between the two ovaries
- It is where the fertilized egg will develop and grow into offspring
4. Cervix
- A narrow structure within an inch-long canal connecting the lower end of the uterus to
the upper portion of the vagina
5. Vagina
- The hollow tube leading from the cervix to the outside of the body
6. Vulva
- The external genitalia
a. Mons Veneris
- The hairy skin-covered pad of fat over the pubic bone
b. Labia Minora
- The small lips covered with modified skin
c. Labia Majora
- The large lips covered with pubic hair
 d. Clitoris
- The small almond-shaped erectile tissue located below the junction of two
minora
e. Vaginal Orfice
- The opening into the vagina

Hormone

1. Testosterone
- It regulates the development of the male sex organs while still an embryo
2. Estrogen
- It controls sex drive and regulates the development of female secondary sex
characteristics at puberty
3. Progesterone
- It controls the development of the endometrium during the menstrual cycle and the
maintenance of the uterus during pregnancy
4. Prolactin
- Stimulates the production of milk in the mammary glands
5. Luteinizing Hormone
- In females, it stimulates ovulation, maturation of egg cells, and progesterone
production; whereas in males, it stimulates sperm and testosterone production
6. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
- In females, it stimulates the maturation of egg cells in the ovary and estrogen
production; whereas in males, it stimulates sperm and production

Development of Life

1. Gametogenesis
- The formation of the gamete
2. Fertilization
- The next stage when the sperm penetrates an egg then fusion of their nucleus takes
place
3. Cleavage and Blastulation
- The third stage when the fertilized egg undergoes series of mitotic cell divisions and
later becomes the early embryo
4. Gastrulation
- The next stage to organize cell migration patterns in the embryo to form the three germ
layers
5. Organogenesis
- A process of cell differentiation and formation of all major organs once the germ layers
have formed
6. Growth and Tissue Specialization
- The last stage when the organs acquire their unique structure and chemical properties
The Fetus

- After 2 months, the embryo is about 1.2 inches or 3 centimeters long

- At 4 months, the fetus slightly moves and can be recognized
- At 7 months, the baby’s eyelashes are formed, and eyelids are recognizable
- At 9 months, all the organs are well developed

Hormone

1. Hypothalamus
- It is connected to the pituitary gland by blood vessels to regulate body temperature,
blood pressure, and the use of water
- A small gland located at the base of the brain
- It regulates activities of the body, metabolism, and reproduction
a. Releasing Factors
b. Oxytocin
- To control muscle contractions of the uterus and milk production
c. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Increases water uptake in the kidney

2. Pituitary
a. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
- Stimulates the adrenal gland to release specific hormone
b. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Stimulates the thyroid gland to release specific hormones
c. Growth Hormone
- Regulates the growth of the skeletal system
d. Prolactin
- Stimulates milk production in the mammary glands

3. Adrenal
a. Adrenalin
- It triggers the “fight or flight” response
- It is released into the bloodstream when a person is in dangerous or stressful
situation
b. Aldosterone
- It increases the uptake of sodium and water in the kidney

4. Thyroid
- It is located in front of the neck and below the voice box
a. Thyroxine
- It regulates the rate of metabolism
b. Calcitonin
- It controls calcium levels in the bloodstream

5. Parathyroid
- These are four tiny glands connected to the back of the thyroid gland
a. Parathyroid Hormone
 - It regulates the minerals in the body-calcium and phosphorus in the
bloodstream

6. Pancreas
- It is located beneath the stomach
a. Insulin
- It controls the level of sugar in the blood
b. Glucogen
- It stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose

Hypoglycemia can occur if there is low sugar in the blood

7. Thymus, Ovaries, and Testes

- It is located in the upper chest behind the breastbone
a. Estrogen
b. Progesterone
c. Testosterone

Positive and Negative Feedback Coordinated by the Different Systems of the Human Body

Homeostasis

- It is responsible for the regulation and miantenance of the internal environment of the
body
- It regulates body temperature, fluids, salts, acids, gases, and nutrients that help support
human life

1. Sensors
- Receptors that are responsible for gather information about the conditions inside and
outside of the body

2. Control Center
- It is the brain which is part of the nervous system
- The brain receives information from the sensors

3. Communicating Systems
- The nervous system and the endocrine system are the communicating systems of the
body
- They carry the information to all parts of the body

4. Targets
- It is any organ, tissue, or cell that is responsible for the changes in the activity of the
body in response to the message received
Amino Acid

- The building blocks of proteins

- There are 20 different amino acids
a. 9 Essential Amino Acids
- It must be obtained from the dietary food intake
b. 11 Non-Essential Amino Acids
- It can be made by the body

The Three Kinds of RNA in Protein Synthesis

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

- It travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where ithe information in
the copy is used for a protein product
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- It is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 73 to 93 nucleotides in length that
brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to a ribosome to help the make the growing
protein
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- It provides a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acid and interacts with tRNA

Processes of Producing Protein from DNA

1. Transcription
- The genetic information or code is copied into the mRNA through the process of
transcription
- The RNA polymerase is responsible for the alignment and binding together of the
ribonucleotides that will create the RNA molecule

2. Translation
- It is the final step in the synthesis of a protein through the help of the mRNA
- It is the conversion of the information from the RNA into a protein

Mutation

- It is the change in genetic material

Chromosome Mutations

- Departures from what is the normal or desirable set of chromosomes either for an
individual or from a species
1. Insertion
- It happens when genetic material from another chromosome is added
2. Translocation
- It happens when a part of a chromosome breaks off and is combined with another
chromosome
3. Deletion
- It happens when there is a loss of a part of chromosome
4. Duplication
- It happens if there are extra copies of a part of a chromosome
5. Inversion
- It happens when the direction of a part of a chromosome is reversed
Genetic Disorders

1. Recessive Disorders
- It happens when a child receives two defective genes from each parent
 Carrier
- A person who receives one defective recessive gene

a. Sickle Cell Anemia

- It is a genetic blood disorder
- Abnormally shaped red blood cells
b. Tay-Sachs Disease
- It is characterized by the lack of an important chemical in the brain
- Infants who have this kind of disease usually die within their first five years
c. Phenylketonuria or PKU
- A rare genetic disorder that can cause serious mental retardation in infants
- An infant who has this kind of disorder cannot break down phenylalanine
d. Cystic Fibrosis
- A disease in which some glands produce too much mucus that it clogs and
damages the lungs

2. Sex-Linked Disorders
- These are most common in men because they have only one X chromosome
- Since women carry two X chromosomes, a recessive defective gene on one X
chromosome can be covered by a normal gene on the other X-chromosome
- The most common sex-linked disorder is color blindness and hemophilia

3. Human Genetic Syndrome

- There are some genetic disorders that may have few or too many chromosomes

a. Cri Du Chat
- Caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5
- Babies who have this disease have wide-set eyes and small heads and jaws
b. William Syndrome
- The result from the loss of a segment in chromosome 7
- They have large ears and facial features that make them look like elves
c. Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)
- Known as Mongolism
- A child receives an extra chromosome (21) and has a distinctive physical
appearance
- It is the most common cause of mental retardation
d. Edward Syndrome (trisomy 18)
- It happens when there is an extra number 18 chromosome
- Children with this syndrome show mental retardation and physical abnormalities
and only a small number of children with this syndrome can live beyond one
year
e. Patau’s Syndrome (trisomy 13)
- It is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 13
- About 90% of babies with this syndrome do not survive infancy
 f. Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY)
- A male who has this syndrome has two or more X-chromosomes in addition to
their Y-chromosomes
- They lack facial hair, and their testes, including the prostate gland, are
underdeveloped
g. Turner’s Syndrome
- Has 45 chromosomes
- It is a genetic disorder disorder that affects only women
- Those who survived this condition have no menstruation, have narrow hips,
underdeveloped breasts, and broad shoulders and neck

1. Silence Mutation
- A mutation that has no effect on the protein
2. Missense Mutation
- It happens when a point of mutation, in which a single nucleotide changes, results in
different codes of amino acid

Causes of Mutations

1. Smoking can raise the risk of genetic mutation

2. Effects of old age on offspring
- When a female conceives at old age, this has effect on the offspring’s intelligence and
personality
- Older mothers are at a higher risk of having a baby with down syndrome, patau’s
syndrome, and edwward’s syndrome
3. Chemotherapy
4. External Influences

Evidence of the Evolution

1. Embryology
- It refers to the scientific study of embryos and their development
2. Homologous Structure
- It refers to the physical structures of the organisms that have the same evolutionary
origin and positions
3. Vestigal Structure
- It refers to the structure of animals which is gradually disappearing like the pelvic bone
of a snake
- It is a structure of an organism with few or no functions but is clearly homologous to the
structure of another organism
4. Genetics
- Has shown that all life consists of similarities in nucleotide sequence and proteins
5. Fossils
- The preserved remains of plants and animals

Occurrence of Evolution

1. Living things produce more offspring that actually survive

 - The environment cannot support every living thing that is born
2. Each organism has the ability to survive
- Not all organisms can survive if there are not enough food resources and shelter
3. Variation within a species
- Members of a species have variations and differences
4. Variation of members of a species
- When organisms possess good traits to survive or reproduce, they are better than others
5. Living things that survive and reproduce pass their genetic traits to their offspring
- Animals’ and plants’ genetic traits are passed on to their offspring

Factors That Can Lead to Evolution

a. Gene Flow
- The transfer of alleles from the former population to another population
b. Genetic Drift
- A change in allele frequencies that affect an organism to be eliminated
c. Mutation
- New alleles can form through mutation that will create another genetic variation needed
for evolution
- Occurs in the DNA sequence, which causes a nucleotide base to be inserted, deleted, or
substituted
d. Sexual Selection
- Unique traits of many animals improve mating success for evolution
- Mating is an important effect on the evolution of a population
1. Intersexual selection
- Happens when a male displays unique traits that attract the female
2. Intrasexual selection
- Happens when there is competition among males

Survival of Organisms in Changing Environments

1. Water
- The most essential abiotic factor which helps most living things survive
2. Temperature
- The heat and cold equilibrium in combination with many environmental factors that
governs several physiological and biological process of the earth
3. Light
- The main source of energy for all plants and algae
4. Atmospheric Pressure
- Due to the gravitational force of Earth in which the atmospheric gases are pulled toward
the surface which produces air pressure
5. Chemical Components
- Chemical Components such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, are essential of
life

Adaptation

- It happens when a gene mutates or changes by accident

Structural Adaptation
 - Refers to the physical characteristics of an organism that help them to survive in its ecosystem

Examples of body parts of animals that help them survive

1. The shape of a bird’s beak helps them to procure food from their surroundings
2. The number of fingers helps them to feed themselves
3. The color of the fur and skin helps them to protect themselves from fast-changing weather
conditions
4. The thickness or thinness of the body covering and other derivatives protect themselves in
case of danger

Adaptations for Unfavorable Conditions

1. Hibernate
- Winter Sleep
- To be safe from cold weather that could freeze them to death
2. Estivation
- Summer Sleep
- Animals that live in deserts go into a kind of deep sleep during summer

Levels of Biological Diversity

No living organism can create something out of nothing

Biodiversity

- The sum of all the different species occupying a wide variety of ecosystems and the
foundation of life on Earth

a. Species Diversity
- It refers to the different species within a region or community
b. Genetic Diversity
- It refers to the variation of genes within species
c. Ecosystem Diversity
- It refers to the different biomes which are called the world’s major communities which
are characterized by adaptations of organisms in a particular environment

Carrying Capacity

- The maximum number of individuals of a given species that an area’s resources can sustain
without significantly

1. The number of resources available in the ecosystem

2. Environmental conditions and amount of living space
3. Overpopulation

Factors That Affect Population

If available resources are in limited supply, the population may decrease in size
 1. Immigration
- The transfer of individuals from one population to another due to weather conditions in
the environment and lack of food supply
2. Emigration
- The transfer of individuals out of a population and into another population
3. Birth
- It refers to the emergence of a young animal or a human into the outside world
4. Deaths
- The size of a population declines when individuals die

Struggle for Survival

Thomas Malthus

- An English Economist
- Wrote “An Essay on ther Principle of Population”
- Describes a forthcoming population catastrophe

Impact of Human Activities on Biodiversity Loss

1. Global Warming
- It is the rapid increase of temperature in the atmosphere due to greenhouse gases such
as cabron monoxide, sulfur oxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides

Major Human Activities that Contribute to Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere

- Burning natural gas, coal, and oil use

- Farming practices and land use
- Factories and industrial plants
- Deforestation

2. Population Growth
- The faster the increase of the human population, the more it contributes to the emission
of greenhouse gases

3. Pollution
- The most abundant air pollution comes from the waste products produced by burning
fossil fuels like coal and natural gas

4. Habitat Destruction
- It is the main threat to biodiversity and can lead to animal and plant extinction

Causes of Habitat Destruction

1. Logging
- It is the act of trimming and transporting trees
2. Agriculture
- Wildlands are converted for agriculture and farming
3. Forest Fires
- It happens when humans illegally clear an area of trees
4. Building Roads and Bridges
 - Humans are cutting down trees and clearing wild lands to build roads and bridges

a. Marine Biodiversity
- The oceans and seas are our richest sources of biodiversity
- The Philippines has the largest recorded number of coral species
b. Freshwater Biodiversity
- Freshwater biodiversity is very essential for humans’ livelihood and consumption
c. Terrestrial Biodiversity
- Forest and mountain ecosystems have a high level of biodiversity

Ways to Minimize Human Impact on the Environment

1. Forest Management
- It is the practice of stewardship and the proper use of forest resources in a sustainable
manner
2. Soil Management
- Soil is a constituent part of the ecosystem and a substrate for most of Earth’s flora,
especially for vegetable and root crops
3. Air Quality Management
- It pertains to the different uses of innovative processes and technologies to maintain
healthy air in the environment
 Air Pollution
- It is the main cause of acid rain which affects coral bleaching, functional
impairment, and/or death of many living organisms
4. Marine Water and Freshwater Management
- We can do simple means in managing a good quality of marine and freshwater
- Do not throw any trash in the different bodies of water, and follow rules and regulations
once you go for a swim