Typical Questions

Question Insulation rarely ads to refractory life, and may even reduce
it due to the increased hot face surface temperature of the working
lining as a result of added insulation. The use of thermal insulation
products in furnaces is justified depending on four factors name. (8)

1. The anticipated fuel saving.

2. The increase or decrease in the output of the furnace.
3. The increase or decrease in refractory cost.
4. The cost of alterations to foundations or steelwork necessary to
permit insulation.

Question Name three types of thermal insulation products?

(3)
1. Bricks
2. Tiles
3. Shapes and monolithics

Question Discuss the three basic methods for producing ceramic fibre
and explain in short how?
(6)
1. Blowing – molten material is fiberized by a jet of high velocity air or
steam.
2. Spinning – molten material is fiberized by a set of spinning wheels or
discs.
3. Sol-gel process – fibres are drawn from gelatine solutions.
Question Mineral fibres are made out of two main chemical compositions,
namely? (4)
1. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
2. Silica oxide (SiO2)
Question Successful refractory system lifetime is dependent upon a variety
of internal and external factors. Failure of refractories is mainly
attributed to errors discuss them. (6)
1. Material selection and product quality
2. Mechanical design
3. Thermal design
4. Insulation and anchoring failure
5. Commissioning, curing drying and heating up errors
6. Operational factors related to chemical environment and thermal
cycling errors.
Question When using a monolithic refractory that is either cast or rammed
require very careful heat treatment on the first firing. Discuss the
two different types of water present in the lining? Also what will
happen with it when firing happen. (4)
1. The first is free water. When heated at 100C it will change to
steam.
2. The second water is chemical bound water that at 300-350C forms
steam.
Question What will happen to a monolithic layer/lining if, when the first
firing is done too fast?
(3)
1. Explosion spalling
2. Thermal expansion
3. Allotropic changes
Question Refractory linings performs primary four functions in the use in
furnaces, describe them.
(8)
1. The act as a heat buffer between the wall of the containing vessel
and the hot substance.
2. They conserve and reduce the amount of energy required in the
process by retaining a large proportion of the heat of the vessel.
3. Confined the molten metal so that its oxides is stable.
Question Silicon carbide bricks resists chemical attach better than carbon
and graphite products when exposed and has a good oxidation
resistance but in the acidic iron oxide it can oxidised. It can also
decompose into molten iron. Write the reactions for both
conditions. (4)

3FeO + SiC  3Fe + SiO2 + CO

SiC Fe Si + C

Question Magnesium-Carbon bricks can be oxidised by the iron oxide

containing slag. Write the reaction.
(2)
FeO + C(s)  Fe + Co
Question The testing of refractories usually just has to be done because a
lot of money could be saved by the early detection of either suspect
production set-ups or materials that do not conform to
specifications. What are the eight types of test that can be done.
(8)
1. Chemical analysis
2. Density
3. Porosity
4. Cold crushing strength
5. Thermal expansion
6. Thermal conductivity
7. Creep test
8. Chemical attack
Question Calculate the interface temperatures between the bricks of a
multi-layer refractory lining design with one Silica brick at the hot
face and two different insulated bricks as illustrated in the figure
below. (10)
 t h−t c F x
t x =t x−1−
F ( )
x

1500−120 50
t 1=1500−( )( )=1073,9C
85 1,9

t 2=1073,9− ( 1500−120
85 )( 0,413 )=547,4 C
4.2 What is the cold face temperature when calculated?
(5)

t c =547,4− ( 1500−120
85 )( 0,35 )=278C
4.3 Why is the cold face temperature value different from the measured
value of 120 C ?
(4)
1. construction errors
2. thermal properties that has change due to load under heat.

Question

Question

Question
Question Explain Permeability of refractory bricks and monolithics.
It is define as the volume of gas or air which will pass through a
cubic centimetre of the material under a pressure of 1cm of water
per second. (4)
Question Define BD of refractory bricks.
Bulk density (BD) is the ratio of the mass of the refractory specimen
to the bulk volume of the same specimen. (4)
Question Calculate the BD of a silicon carbide brick by means of the,
5.3.1 direct measurement method that has a mass of 0.06 kg and a
volume of 400 cm3?
(5)

weight of sample∈( g)
B . D= 3
volume of sample∈cm
60 g 3
3
=0.15 g /cm
400 cm

5.3.2 direct volume method when the dry mass is 0.06 kg and the
soaked weight is 0.47 kg and the suspended weight is 0.040
kg. (5)

Dry weight of sample∈( g)

B . D=
Soaked weight−Suspended weight
60 g
=0.14 g/cm3
470 g−40 g

5.3.3 Why is there a difference in values and what method

according to you is the most accurate?
(4)
The direct volume method – the porosity is taken in consideration.
Question Define CCS of refractory bricks.
(4)
Cold crushing strength (CCS) of a refractory brick represents its
strength that this brick can withstand during cold conditions.
5.4.2 Explain how this test is done. (4)
Load is to be applied uniformly and slowly, depending on the
standard testing method followed and a rate of between 35 – 100
N/mm2/min.
5.4.3 Give the two differed standard cube sizes of refractory bricks
used in the CCS tests.
(2)
230 mm or 75 mm cubes.
 5.4.4 You designed a test method to calculate the CCS of a test
refractory cube made of carbon material that has the
following test values, a total load of 120N and a surface area
of 80 mm2. Calculate the CCS of this carbon brick with your
values to design a furnace. (5)
Total load ( N )
CCS= 2
Total area ( mm )
120 N kg
¿ 2
=1.5 2
80 mm mm
5.4.5 What did you done wrongly when designing the practical?
(4)
You did not use a standard mold of 75 mm for the CCS experiment
resulting in a under load value resulting into a under design furnace.
Question The physical and chemical properties of a refractory product, as
shown on a data sheet, are characteristics which given an indication of
the product’s performance under specific operating conditions. Discuss
the 10 significant physical properties tests done for the data sheet?
(20)
1. Bulk density
2. Porosity
3. Cold crushing strength
4. Modulus of rupture at room and elevated temperatures
5. Reversible thermal expansion
6. Permanent linear change
7. Load subsidence or creep
8. Thermal conductivity
9. Abrasion resistance
10. Thermal shock resistance
Question Aluminosilicate monolithic depends on monolithic refractory
materials. The monolithic materials show a superior performance in some
applied fields compared to bricks.
2.1 Name six types of Aluminosilicate monolithic products available.
(12)
1. Castables
2. Gunning Materials
3. Spray materials
4. Ramming materials
5. Fettling materials
6. Plastics
7. Dry vibratables
8. Fillers
9. Mortars, grouts and plasters
2.2 Name five types of bonding systems used in monolithic products.
(10)
1. Clay
2. Precipitation (air set)
3. Chemical bond
4. Hydraulic
5. Non-cement
6. Carbon bond
7.
Question Alumina cement used in monolithic products is manufactured by
conventionally rotary kilns or fusion in electric arc furnaces and the product
is then crushed and milled to a surface area of ≥4000 cm2/g. Name the five
chemical components of this cement? (5)
1. Al2O3
2. CaO
3. MgO
4. SiO2
5. Fe2O3
Question Metallic fibers are added to monolithics to improve the thermal and
mechanical shock. Name three other improvements steel fibers has on
monolithics. (6)
1. Improve toughness
2. Improve tensile and bending strength
3. Improve impact strength

2.5 Name two types of refractories where anchorage is a requirement

when designing a furnace.
(4)
1. Monolithics
2. Mineral fibers
Question Silica refractories contain more than 93% of SiO 2. Name the
five types of raw silica quartzite that can be used for silica
refractories. (10)
1. Ganister
2. Diatomite
3. Vermiculite
4. Perlite
5. Fused silica

3.2 Which one of the types mentioned in question 3.1 is used primarily
for silica refractories?
(2)
Ganister
3.3 In what type of industry is silica refractories mainly used and what
type of ovens, name two?
(4)
Glass industry
Coke ovens and hot blast stoves
3.4 Name two properties that make silica refractories good to use in
some types of industry and furnaces.
(4)
Good creep and thermal shock properties
Question Fireclay bricks (Aluminosilicate bricks) still constitute to the
largest group of refractory products, consist in the simplest form of clay.
They are one of the most used for linings in the metallurgical and heat
insulation industry.

4.1 Name the three different types of fireclay available in industry?

(6)

1. High alumina bricks

2. Andalusite bricks
3. Bauxite bricks

4.2 Name the properties that make fireclay bricks good to be used in
most types of furnaces.
(12)
1. Resistance to abrasion
2. ….to spalling
3. … to impact or load
4. …. to high refractoriness
5. …..to corrosion of acid and neutral slags at high temperatures

4.3 One of the three types mentioned in question 4.1 have poor creep
resistance, name it.
(2)
Bauxite bricks
Question 5.1 Doloma (Dolomite) has a melting point of 2750 C and has the
potential to be a very good refractory material. Name the 4
properties that have a negative impact on this type of brick.
(10)
1. Low strength at high temperatures
2. High thermal expansion
3. High thermal conductivity
4. Poor thermal shock resistance
5. Sensitive to FeO in steelmaking slags

5.2 Doloma has a low hydration resistance. Write the chemical reaction
for this resistance.
(4)
2CaCO + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2  CaCO3 + H2O
5.3 Name the one advantage of Doloma in the burning zone of rotary
kilns ? (2)
Resistance to chemical attack.
Question Metals with very high melting points, generally above 2000C are
called refractory metals.

6.1 Name 5 of these types of metal refractories.

(10)
Molybdenum, Tungsten, Iridium, Rhodium, Osmium, Niobium,
Tantalum, Chromium, Titanium and Zerconium.
6.2 Which one of the metal refractories mentioned in question 6.1 is
mainly used in the nuclear industry?
(2)
Zerconium
Question 7.1 Refractories can be classified by means of two methods, name
them. (4)
1. Classification on the basis of composition
2. Classification on the basis of form

7.2 Calculate the CCS of a test refractory cube made of alumina

material that has the following test values, a total load of 500N and
a surface area of 75 mm2. (6)
Total load ( N )
CCS= 2
Total area ( mm )
500 N 2
¿ 2
=6.7 N /mm
75 mm

Question Calculate the interface temperatures, t1 and t2, between the bricks
of a multi-layer refractory lined steel production furnace. The first
40cm layer is a carbon brick with a heat conductivity of 1.8 W/mK
and an F factor of 10. After construction the real hot faces
temperature was 1450oC and the cold face 80oC. Insulation brick 1 is
15cm with a thermal conductivity of 0.9 W/mK and F factor of 14.
(10)
t h−t c F x
t x =t x−1−
F x( )
1450 ℃−80℃ 40 cm
t 1=1450 ℃−
24 1.8 ( )
¿ 1450−125
¿ 1325 ℃
1450 ℃−80℃ 15 cm
t 2=1325 ℃−
24 0.9 ( )
¿ 1325−952
¿ 373 ℃
7.4 Explain your answer in question 7.3 (5)
The following reasons may cause the difference from given 80C to
calculated value of 373C.
1. construction errors
2. thermal properties that has change due to load.
3. design error due to the selection of wrong refractory and
insolation bricks
Question What is a refractory with examples? (6)
A refractory is a material which can withstand high temperatures and does not fuse.
Examples are fireclay, alumina, chrome magnesite, chromite, etc.
Question Name four types of industry where refractories are used? (4)
Metal extraction
Cement
Glassmaking
Ceramic
Question Name and describe (definition style) seven properties of a refractory material.
(42)
1. Refractoriness (2)
Is when a refractory deform under its load. The refractoriness indicated by the PCE
(Pyrometric cone equivalent) should by higher in temperature than the application
temperature. (4)
2. Porosity and slag permeability
Is the amount of pores in the material. Porosity affects the chemical attack by the
molten slag, metal and gasses. Decrease in porosity increases the strength and
thermal conductivity.
3. Strength
It is the resistance of the refractory to compressive loads, tension and shear stresses.
Taller furnaces for example “corex” ones has a higher load and under elevated
temperatures has a bigger load.
4. Specific gravity
The specific gravity of a brick is related to the balk density of the brick. The higher
the specific gravity of a refractory brick the more costly the brick and more its
strength.
5. Spalling
Spalling is the rapture/cracking of a refractory brick under
 sudden heating or cooling of the brick,
 compression due expansion
 Variation in thermal expansion between the surface layer and body of the
brick due to slag penetration.
6. Permanent linear change (PLC) on reheating
The material undergo permanent change during heating due to
 Change in allotropic form
 Chemical reaction
 Liquid phase formation
 Sintering reaction
7. Thermal conductivity
 Is related to the balk density of the brick and is a function of the heat loss properties
of the material. Increase of porosity decreases the thermal conductivity but also
decrease its strength.
Question Fireclay is one of the common refractories used in the industry.
3.3.1 What is it chemical composition? (4)
25-45% Al2O3 and 50-80% SiO2
3.3.2 Name four properties of this refractory. (8)
1. High refractoriness
2. Better resistance to slag and spalling
3. High load bearing capacity
4. High fusion point 1850C
Question Monolithic linings are installed by casting the refractory in a mould or by spraying
the furnace shell. Name two largest problems with the use of monolithic refractories
in industry. (4)
Long drying time
Steam explosion
[39]
4.1 Maintenance can be done by gunning of the pre-worn areas with special gunning
mixtures. The vessel lining life can be extended by this technique. Flame gunning involves
simultaneous melting of a refractory powder and gunning it at the hot surface. Name the
advantages of using nano-particles in this method. (5)
 They are thermal shock and corrosion resistant
 They consist of mono spheres and improve the elasticity and strength
 Controlled molecular structures improve porosity distribution.

Question Refractory lining systems are dependent upon a variety of internal and external
factors. 80% of all refractories failures are due to poor engineering of the total system, rather
than the refractory failing itself. Discuss the six possible engineering errors made in industry.
(12)

Material selection and product quality

Mechanical design
Thermal design
Installation (which includes anchoring failure)
Commissioning (curing, drying, heat up)
Operational factors (chemical environment, thermal cycling, etc.)
Question New refractory brick lining is planned for a furnace. To improve the stability of
the brickwork one needs to apply certain aspects in consideration to get a good face brick
lining, discuss the seven aspects. (7)
Various brick patterns
Moulded bricks
Tongue and groove brick design
Wider footings of the walls
Cramping walls to steel armour plating
Arched walls
Consoles
Question Explain the difference in shrinkage and expansion of bricks and monolithic. Make
use if this suggested column to explain your answer. (6)

Type Shrinkage Expansion

All types All refractories shrink with increasing temperature and are
permanently shrink on fired and expand when heated after
firing.
Bricks Pre-fired brick shapes will It will expand when heated
not shrink, it happen during in a furnace
firing.
Monolithic After installation when After firing it will start to
heated up it will shrink expand

Question Describe the method that is used to manufacture aluminium oxide fibres.
(8)

Ceramic fibers with an Al 2O3 content > 60 % cannot be produced by spinning or blowing
from molten material as known for standard ceramic fibers (amorphous ceramic fibers or
alumino silicate fibers). The reason for this limitation is the rising Al 2O3 content which
increases the surface tension of the melt too high at spinning viscosity. The production
technique for Al2O3 fibres is based on a process in which the fibers are obtained from an
aqueous solution consisting of aluminium salt, silica sol and an organic polymer. Fibers
obtained from this solution during the first production step still contain inorganic salts and
organic. The organic compounds are burned and the inorganic salts disintegrate at
temperatures of 500 -1000°C. Subsequently, the fiber is crystallized at temperatures up to
1400°
Question 7.1 How is SiC produced to manufacture SiC refractory bricks. (2)
Silicon carbide, produced by the reaction of silica sand & coke in an electric furnace
7.2 Discuss the Physical Properties if SiC refractory bricks. (7)
SiC has a high abrasion resistance, high strength at elevated temp, low creep, low thermal
expansion coefficient, very high thermal conductivity and therefore has a very good thermal
shock resistance
Question
When a refractory brick is made the manufacturer generates a manufacturer’s data sheet
for that batch. Discuss the five of the properties displayed in this data sheet.
(5)
Chemical composition
Balk density
Relative density
Porosity
Cold crushing strength
Question 9.1 Slag resistance is a very important property of a refractory material. What is
slag? (4)
Slag are relatively concentrated solutions of oxides mainly Si, Mg, CA and Al together with
the oxides of the metals in the furnace.

9.2 Explain what happen with slag attack in a furnace. (4)

All the oxides in the slag interact with each other and are generally corrosive to refractories.
The oxide phases of the slag must be saturated with oxide and the refractory lining must
also be saturated with oxides and an equilibrium condition achieved lesser the slag
corrosion.

9.3 How can one get an equilibrium condition in the furnace to lesser the slag corrosion?
(4)

By extensive stirring and Long holding periods

Question 10.1 What type of refractory material is Corundum classified as?

(1)

10.2 Why is Corundum refractories expensive? (2)

The natural availability of tabular and fused corundum

10.3 For what conditions are corundum refractories mainly used? (2)

High temperature applications

Resistant to CO attack

10.4 What is the chemical composition of corundum? (2)

90 – 99% Al2O3

10.5 Name the three components that corundum can react with. (3)

SiO2

FeO

MnO
Question
The zoning of the refractory lining is carried out by either varying the thickness of refractory
or by different qualities. As a rule, the thicker or better quality refractories are used in
excessive wear areas, while lower quality refractories provide for economy in less worn
areas. Discuss the types of furnaces where it’s done.
(5)
Cement rotary kilns
Blast furnaces
Steel casting ladles and LD converters
Electric arc furnaces
Glass furnaces and regenerators
Question Expansion joints must be allowed in brick structures (unlike with monolithics),
otherwise deformation or structural spalling will result. Joints should be sufficiently wide to
accommodate expansion. Explain the formula to calculate the expansion allowance.
(4)
Expansion = thermal expansion coefficient x distance x thermal difference
Question
What are the desirable characteristics of insulation bricks? (5)

Light weight
Low thermal conductivity
Low thermal mass
Good thermal and mechanical shock
Ease of installation
Question
Natural graphite is classified into three categories, discuss them. (6)

Flake graphite (flat plate-like crystalline particles)

Vein graphite (pod-like deposits either crystalline or microcrystalline)
Amorphous graphite (microcrystalline in appearance)
Question Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Doloma as refractory product. (6)
Advantages:
1. Relatively inexpensive
2. Low oxygen potential – clean steel

Disadvantage:
1. Free CaO-hydration
2. Inversion of di-calcium silicates
3. Sensitive to FeO rich slags

Question Discuss the physical advantages of monolithic in relation to refractory bricks. (6)
Design flexibility and ease of construction
Readily available, eliminates stocking of bricks and precast shapes
Rapid installation in different shapes of furnaces
Freedom from joints
Excellent resistance to thermal shocks
Question Can a monolithic be stored for long periods of time and why? (2)
No due to hydration.
Question In order for a new furnace design to be successful, great care must be taken in the
choosing of a suppliers, as the design often demands the use of top quality materials. The
refractory producer is required to give his product the greatest attention in order to control the
chemical and physical properties thereof independently and to remain up to date with regard to
all innovations and improvements to his industry. Explain the five aspects that are most important
parameters to consider when selecting refractory materials.
(5)
Chemical environment.

Temperature

Atmosphere

Physical and mechanical properties

Economical

Question Explained what is meant by zoning or balanced linings of refractory linings. (4)
A design that incorporates the use of refractories zoned according to various wear
mechanisms in the furnace is called balanced lining or zoned lining. The operation of the
furnace is monitored over a long time period of several campaigns to determine wear
mechanism and wear pattern. If the wear profile is not uniform and substantial wear pattern
differences are established, a need for zoned lining arises.
Question Elaborate on the properties of a Carbon refractory brick that makes it a good
refractory brick. (7)
High thermal conductivity
High refractoriness 3500°C (reducing conditions)
High electrical conductivity
Low thermal expansion
Excellent thermal shock resistance
High resistance to wetting by molten metals and slags
Increased strength at elevated temperature
Question
7.1 What is the chemical composition of pure Doloma. (2)
CaO.MgO

7.2 Name the chemical for what Doloma is sensitive to and what can be added to the
balk material to overcome the problem? (4)
FeO
MgO
Question Explain the seven methods that can be used to overcome spalling in a furnace. (7)

Uniform heating
Slow heating rate
Low external load
Small component size
Low thermal expansion
High thermal conductivity
High strain to failure
Question Describe what happens when a refractory brick is fired or tempered. (8)

The dried green bricks are fired at temperatures between 1250 ᵒC and 1800 ᵒC depending
on the brick shapes and type.
In the early stage of firing the volatile components such as water are expelled.
With the firing the actual structure of the brick are formed.
The brick shrinks depending on the chemical and physical properties of the brick.
During firing sintering occurs.
Fuse sintering happens at the viscous liquid-melt phase or in other words ceramic bonded or
chemical bonded.
The time can differ from three days to three weeks of firing.
Question Silicon Carbide is made synthetically. Describe the method how it’s made. (5)
In the production, Silica sand, petroleum coke and graphite is used. The sand and coke is
mixed together and the graphite forms the core of the furnace conductor end acts as
heating element. The furnace is heated to 1600 to 2000 ᵒC for 8 to 10 days during this time
the chemical reacting form the silicon carbide.
Question

In a coal-fired power plant the furnace wall consists of a 12.5 cm refractory brick (1.6W/mK,
F factor=40), an air gap of 1.5cm (0.024W/mK, F factor=30), a firebrick of 11 cm (0.3W/mK, F
factor=25 and a plaster surface of 8cm (0.8W/mK, F factor=25) thick.

1.1 Calculate the internal temperatures t1, t2, t3 between the multi layers of this furnace.
(15
)
t h−t c F x
t x =t x−1−
F( ) x
1700 ℃−25 ℃ 12.5 cm
t 1=1700 ℃−
120 ( 1.6 )
¿ 1700−109.34
¿ 1591℃
1700℃−25 ℃ 1.5 cm
t 2=1591℃−
120 ( 0.024 )
¿ 1591−875
¿ 716 ℃
 1700 ℃−25℃ 11 cm
t 3=716 ℃−
120 0.3 ( )
¿ 716−513.3
¿ 203 ℃

1.2 Determine the cold face temperature t4. (5)

1700℃−25 ℃ 8 cm
t 4=203℃−
120 0.8 ( )
¿ 203−140
¿ 63 ℃

1.3 Explain what can be the reason for an air gap design in this furnace. (4)

1. It’s a cheaper method to control the heat than insulation bricks

2. The airflow in the air gap can be increased with an air pump to prevent
stagnant heat flow conditions and by doing so control the heat loss in
the furnace.

1.4 Explain the type of gas environment in the furnace. (2)

The emission gasses generated in the furnace will be:

1. Ash
2. Mainly CO gas.

1.5 What type of refractory brick will you use for the inner surface (face brick) of the
furnace and explain why?
(4)

Aluminosilicate bricks - Fireclay brick It used in cupola and boiler furnaces and
excellent for coal burning.

Question Pyro-metallurgy involves high temperature. Explain the three methods how
thermal conductivity is transferred from one medium to another.
(3)

It is done via Radiation, Convection and conduction

2.2 Determine the thermal conductivity coefficient through this refractory brick. (5)

QL
k=
A×∆T
60 ×0.3 m
¿ 2
0.005 m ×60
W
¿ 60
m. K

0.6 W
¿ .K
cm
Question Explain what is meant with the term “freeze lining” in refractory furnaces. (4)

The term "freeze lining" refers to the refractory system's ability to maintain a temperature
profile that is low enough to freeze a layer of process material on its hot face, which
insulates the refractory and prevents direct contact with molten metal and slag.

3.2 Explain what benefits it has on the hot face refractory brick. (6)

In doing so, the common wear mechanisms found in the submerged arc furnace - chemical
attack, erosion, and thermal stress - can be prevented. These wear mechanisms are all
related to high temperature; thus, they are prevented by maintaining low temperatures.
Also cost saving.

3.3 Explain what is not a freeze lining? (4)

If a lining contains any components that do not support optimum heat transfer, it cannot be
called a freeze lining. Any barriers in the system will force refractory temperatures higher,
which only reduces the ability to freeze the skull and encourages wear mechanisms.
1Question 4 [6]

4.1 From the picture, a refractory brick is manufactured to have high insulation
properties. It weigh 0.54kg with dimensions 40cm×40cm×40cm. How will you
determine the balk density (BD) of this brick?
(2)

Take the brick and place it in water, determine the water displacement volume and
use that value as the volume since the surface are is much bigger as that of a solid
mass.

4.2 If this brick was solid and without pores, determine the bulk density. (4)

weight of sample∈( g)
B . D= 3
volume of sample∈cm
540 g 3
3
=0.45 g/cm
1200 cm

Question 1

Describe this phase diagram in detail (28)