In situ leaching of copper: Challenges and future prospects

Laura Sinclair, John Thompson

PII: S0304-386X(15)30076-1
DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.hydromet.2015.08.022
Reference: HYDROM 4157

To appear in: Hydrometallurgy

Received date: 10 March 2015

Revised date: 29 July 2015
Accepted date: 28 August 2015

Please cite this article as: Sinclair, Laura, Thompson, John, In situ leach-
ing of copper: Challenges and future prospects, Hydrometallurgy (2015), doi:
10.1016/j.hydromet.2015.08.022

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In Situ Leaching of Copper: Challenges and Future Prospects

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a b
Laura Sinclair , John Thompson
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a
School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Snee Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
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School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Snee Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
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Key words: Copper, Leaching, In Situ, Porphyry, Geochemistry, Groundwater

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Corresponding Author: Laura Sinclair

Address: Snee Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca NY, 14853
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Phone Number: (Country Code 1) 607 279 5199

Email: [email protected]
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Abstract
In situ leaching offers a potentially attractive way to extract copper from the subsurface without costly
fragmentation and processing. Applicability of in situ leaching is limited to deposits where sufficient permeability
exists and where the copper and gangue mineralogy is amenable to leaching. A key challenge from past projects is
establishing uniform contact between the fluid and the formation in fractured environments, particularly if
fractures become blocked by gypsum and jarosite precipitation during leaching. Previous projects have

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demonstrated that in situ leaching of copper sulfides is feasible by regenerating ferric iron using atmospheric
bacteria cultures, pressurized oxygen gas, or chemical oxidants. Oilfield technologies, including polymer injection
for permeability modification and nanoparticle tracers, may have future applications for diagnosing and mitigating

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short circuiting between wells. Geophysical techniques such as electrical resistance tomography have the potential
to provide real-time data on lixiviant movement in the subsurface, thus aiding in both recovery optimization and
environmental control. In this review, data from past copper in situ leaching projects are assembled, with a focus

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on recovery without prior permeability enhancement. The resulting database includes key operating variables
from copper in situ leaching projects ranging from field scale pilots to commercial operations.

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1 Introduction
In situ leaching (ISL) is the circulation of a fluid through an ore deposit to dissolve a target metal or mineral, with
subsequent return of the liquor to the surface for processing. In some cases, lixiviant is applied to formations using
a system of injection and recovery wells (see Figure 1). In other cases, lixiviant is flooded or sprinkled onto residual
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ore in open pits or underground workings, often after the use of explosives to fragment the ore and increase the
surface area exposed to the lixiviant (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983). ISL has been commercially applied to a range of
commodities, most notably in the extraction of uranium from roll front sandstone deposits. Both sulfuric acid and
carbonate-based lixiviants are used for uranium ISL, typically resulting in mineralization recoveries ranging from
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70% to 90% for acid and 60% to 70% for carbonate (Taylor et al., 2004). ISL has also been used for the recovery of
evaporites such as soda ash, potash, and salt (Bartlett, 1998). In situ leaching has been applied for supplemental
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recovery of copper from established open pit and underground mines using both sulfuric acid and acidic ferric
sulfate solutions. No commercial greenfield copper ISL projects have been constructed to date (Ahlness and Pojar,
1983).
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Figure 1: Idealized diagram of an in situ leaching system for intact material

Copper ISL has the potential to address many of the cost and environmental challenges resulting from declining
ore grades and increased stripping ratios. Average U.S. copper ore grades, for example, have dropped from 3.5% in
1900 to less than 0.7% today (Classen et al., 2007). Low grades result in greater excavation, haulage, and
comminution costs, and also pose environmental challenges including greater volumes of waste rock and tailings
(Liu and Brady, 1998; Norgate et al., 2007; United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment, 1988). ISL is
therefore well suited to low grade deposits because stripping, mining, hauling, and comminution are
circumvented. It is potentially applicable to low grade deposits at a range of scales which would be uneconomical
with conventional open pit or underground methods, or at existing mines for extraction of copper ore below the

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cutoff grade (Hiskey, 1994; Rawlings and Johnson, 2006, pp. 58–59; United States Bureau of Mines, 1989). The
major economic challenge of ISL is limited exposure of copper minerals to the leach solution in complex subsurface
flow paths, which has generally resulted in lower recoveries compared to established processing methods (United
States Bureau of Mines, 1989). Commercial copper ISL operations have reported estimated recoveries in the range
of 20%-70% (Bernal and Venero, 1985; Lewis et al., 1976; Niemuth, 1994; O’Gorman et al., 2004), whereas
conventional heap leaching generally results in 65%-90% recovery (Young, 1999). Both recovery and reagent

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consumption over the life of an ISL project are subject to considerable uncertainty, as modeling and bench scale
test work are more challenging than for conventional processing routes.
From an environmental perspective, ISL comes with its own unique set of risks, but could result in significant

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environmental advantages over conventional mining if these risks are addressed. The greatest environmental
challenge for ISL is the containment of the leaching fluids in the target ore zone to prevent contamination of
groundwater outside of the leached area (Bhappu, 1985; United States Bureau of Mines, 1989). Certain geological

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settings may be unsuitable if containment cannot be reliably achieved through the presence of natural low-
permeability zones and/or by the hydrogeological management (for example, by maintaining an inward flow of
groundwater). If solutions can be contained, however, major environmental benefits of ISL relative to conventional

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mining could include reduced energy consumption, near-elimination of waste rock and tailings, reduced land
disturbance, reduced dust and noise, and potentially lower water consumption (Committee on Technologies for
the Mining Industry et al., 2002; Hiskey, 1994; O’Gorman et al., 2004; United States Bureau of Mines, 1989).
This review includes a discussion of lessons from past commercial and experimental copper ISL work, with a focus
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on leaching without prior fragmentation. A review of this topic is important at this time because over 30 years
have passed since the last comprehensive compilation of data from copper ISL projects (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983).
Since then, there have been several new experimental and commercial endeavors, including three major pilot field
leaching projects by the United States Bureau of Mines (Schmidt and Earley, 1997; Schmidt et al., 1994; Weber et
al., 2000) Additionally, there has been recent renewed interest in copper ISL as the mining industry turns its focus
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away from growing production volumes towards cost reduction (Lopez and Carter, 2010). Proposed commercial
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operations include Florence (Zimmerman et al., 2013), Gunnison (Huss et al., 2014), Santa Cruz (Amrich Minerals,
2013), and Van Dyke (Copper Fox Metals, 2014). All of these properties are in Arizona and have been classified as
porphyry deposits within the Laramide porphyry province of southwestern North America. Additionally, there is an
interesting parallel between ISL and lixiviant injection as a secondary recovery method in heaps, which has recently
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been shown as a promising method for recovering copper from low-permeability areas in leach pads (Rucker and
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Calendine, 2014).

1.1 Current and Past Operations

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1.1.1 Intact Formations

In situ leaching of intact formations requires drilling wells and injecting lixiviant, then returning the solution to the
surface using recovery wells. Wells can be drilled from the surface, from pits, or from underground workings.
Some examples are shown in Figure 2.
There are no current operations employing copper in situ leaching of intact material. Significant past evaluation
projects include three detailed field tests conducted by the Bureau of Mines: Santa Cruz, Casa Grande, and Mineral
Park. Projects undertaken by industry include Kimbley, Nacimiento, San Manuel, Florence, Mina Sur, and Safford.
Of these, only San Manuel developed a commercial scale ISL system, which involved injection of lixiviant from the
benches of an open pit. Available data from past projects are listed in Table A-1 in the Appendix.

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Figure 2: Some illustrations of ISL of intact material. Left: the Mineral Park test site (Arizona, USA), in which wells were
drilled into a hill adjacent to an open pit. Right: the Casa Grande well field (Arizona, USA), in which wells were drilled from an
underground drift underneath a block caved leaching area. Drawings adapted from (Schmidt and Earley, 1997) and (Friedel,

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1993).

1.1.2 In Situ Leaching with Permeability Enhancement

In addition to in situ leaching of intact material, there have also been numerous commercial and experimental
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projects in which copper ore was leached in place after blasting (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983; Asarco Grupo Mexico,
2014; Guilfoyle and Moore, 1992; Schmidt et al., 1995; Thorne, 1983), hydraulic fracturing (Ahlness and Pojar,
1983; Huff et al., 1988; Pallauta, 1985), block caving (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983; Ahlness and Tweeton, 1989; Beard,
1989a; Hicks, 1986; Ovalle, 1987), and/or partial underground mining (Bampton et al., 1983; Bernal and Venero,
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1985; Doyle et al., 1997; Ito, 1976; Miller, 1986; Sand et al., 1993; Thorne, 1983). Some examples are illustrated in
Figure 3. These types of leaching systems are not the focus of the present study but are noted here for
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completeness.
ISL with permeability modification is currently conducted by ASARCO at the Silver Bell mine (Asarco Grupo Mexico,
2014), and by BHP Billiton at the Pinto Valley Miami Unit (BHP Billiton, 2014). The Mopani copper mine in Zambia
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uses in situ leaching in parallel with conventional underground mining (Steven, 2009). Another operation was
conducted by Mercator Minerals at the Mineral Park mine as recently as 2013, but a recent bankruptcy has made
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the current status of this operation unclear (Simmerman, 2013). Operating data from past copper ISL projects with
permeability modification and/or partial underground mining is tabulated in Table A-2 in the Appendix.
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Figure 3: Some examples of previous copper ISL projects with previous fragmentation and/or underground mining. Left: Big
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Mike mine (Nevada, USA). Right: East Avoca mine (Ireland). Fragment size and distribution are not to scale. Drawings are
adapted from (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983) and (Thorne, 1983).

2 Standard Practices for Copper in Situ Leaching

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2.1 Site Selection

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2.1.1 General Desirable Characteristics

Not all deposits are amenable to intact in situ leaching. Mineralogical requirements are similar to those for
conventional heap leaching: oxide copper minerals which dissolve quickly in sulfuric acid are desirable. Copper
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sulfides have been leached in situ, but sulfide mineralization poses additional challenges, as an oxidant such as
ferric sulfate must be delivered to the ore (see section 4.3). As with heap leaching, low gangue acid consumption is
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desirable.
In addition to mineralogical requirements, certain hydrologic conditions must be present. The ore must be
sufficiently permeable to allow for fluid flow. Generally, permeability on the order of hundreds of millidarcies is
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considered to be the minimum; therefore either interconnected pore structures or natural fracture networks are
required (Johnson and Johnson, 1994). If sufficient permeability does not exist, artificial fracturing or rubblization
of the formation may be necessary.
Additionally, the risk of groundwater contamination limits the applicability of ISL to formations in which flow can
be contained within the targeted area. Major long-range fractures can serve as short circuiting pathways that will
channel the solution outside of the leach zone, either horizontally or vertically (Berkowitz, 2002). Though in some
cases wells can be arranged to avoid these channels, formations with more homogenous permeability are
preferable. Low-permeability strata above or below the targeted zone are desirable to provide additional
protection against vertical movement of solutions (Kreis, 1994). For example, uranium ISL in roll front deposits
often takes advantage of overlying and underlying clay or mudstone strata to aid in confining leach solutions to the
mineralized host unit (Bartlett, 1998; Hiskey, 1994).
Saturated deposits are desirable because fluid flow is more easily controlled. Unsaturated formations will result in
unconstrained downward percolation of the fluid (Friedel and Schmidt, 1992; Graybeal, 1994). The test campaigns
at Florence (Brewer, 1998) and Santa Cruz (Kreis, 1994) were in groundwater-saturated formations, whereas San
Manuel (Williamson, 1998), Kimbley (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983), and Casa Grande (Earley and Jones, 1992) were
unsaturated with groundwater. Mineral Park was partially above and partially below the water table (see Figure 2)
(Schmidt and Earley, 1997).

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2.1.2 Porphyry Copper Deposits

Porphyry copper deposits account for approximately 60% of global copper production. These generally consist of
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large volumes (10 to 100 km ) of hydrothermally altered rock centered on an intrusion (Seedorff et al., 2005;
Sillitoe, 2010). A significant portion of the alteration system may contain copper, with grades varying from sub-
economic (typically <0.2% copper) to high grades (>1% copper) in restricted volumes.
The majority of the mineralized zones contain fractures and quartz veins (typically 0.1-5 cm thick) in varying but

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locally preferred orientations surrounded by haloes of alteration minerals (typically 0.1-10 cm thick). Vein density
varies from <5% to >50% of the rock volume. Copper sulfides occur in the veins and can also occur as disseminated
grains within rocks dominated by alteration minerals.

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In porphyries which have undergone weathering, horizontal leached and enriched zones can be present across
length scales of 100s to 1000s of meters. Often an upper copper-depleted zone will overlay a secondary
enrichment zone dominated by chalcocite. In other cases, oxidation in place results in a suite of soluble secondary

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copper minerals, which can include chrysocolla, malachite, atacamite, cuprite, and others. In addition to horizontal
layering, many systems have concentric zones from the mineralized core of the system out to progressively less
altered rocks over length scales of 100s to 1000s of meters.

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Porphyry deposits can therefore be well suited to ISL because they are globally abundant, the mineralization
process results in a high density of uniformly distributed mineralized fractures, and subsequent weathering may
result in soluble copper mineralization (Graybeal, 1994; Hackman, 1982). For this reason, almost all copper ISL in
intact formations has taken place in porphyry copper deposits. This includes San Manuel (Williamson, 1998), Santa
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Cruz (Kreis, 1994), Mineral Park (Schmidt and Earley, 1997), Florence (Zimmerman et al., 2013), and Casa Grande
(Schmidt et al., 1994). However, the fractured nature of porphyry deposits may be disadvantageous relative to
non-fractured deposits of equivalent permeability, as large-scale fractures can make hydrologic control more
challenging.
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2.1.3 Exotic Copper Deposits

Exotic copper deposits contain supergene copper transported by hydrothermal fluids away from a source (often a
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porphyry deposit) and re-precipitated at a nearby location such as alluvial paleochannels downstream from the
source. These deposits often consist primarily of chrysocolla, which is easily leachable (Hackman, 1982). Depending
on the location of the re-precipitation event, sufficient permeability for in situ leaching may be present. Several
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exotic copper deposits have been leached in situ, including Emerald Isle (D’Andrea et al., 1977) and Mina Sur
(Pallauta, 1985).
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2.1.4 Sediment-Hosted Deposits

Sediment-hosted copper deposits account for approximately 25% of global copper. These deposits are hosted by
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sedimentary units with reduced chemistry (typically organic-rich) that have reacted with oxidized copper-rich fluids
to produce disseminated copper sulfide mineralization (Hitzman et al., 2005, 2010). Deposits consist of relatively
thin sulfide-bearing zones ranging from <1 m to 30 m. Geometries include laterally extensive sheets, tabular
geometries, or irregular geometries that can be flat lying to steeply dipping.
Sedimentary copper deposits with soluble mineralization and sufficient matrix permeability can allow for ISL, as
illustrated by the Nacimiento operation in New Mexico (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983). The form of sediment-hosted
copper deposits within sedimentary sequences is similar to some uranium deposits that are exploited by in situ
leaching. However, whereas sandstone-hosted uranium deposits typically have significant and predictable
permeability, sediment-hosted copper deposits may contain variations in host lithologies, including conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone, shale and locally carbonate-rich units. This may limit or complicate permeability.

2.2 Test Work

2.2.1 Measuring Hydrologic Parameters
Permeability is one of the most important hydrologic parameters with in situ leaching. Permeability can be
measured with standard hydraulic field testing methods, including both single well and multi well pumping tests in
which water level changes are measured in response to fluid injection or withdrawal (Bartlett, 1998). Results of
these tests have been used to give information about the dynamic response to flow in specific depth intervals or

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even individual fractures (BHP Copper Growth and Technology Group, 1997; Cathles et al., 1978; Schmidt and
Earley, 1997; Weber et al., 2000; Williamson, 1998).
Tracer tests using chloride or bromide salts are commonly used to characterize hydrogeology. The tracer is injected
in one well and recovered in a nearby well, and the breakthrough curve is used to indicate effective porosity,
degree of channeling, and other parameters. Halide tracer tests were used at Van Dyke, Santa Cruz, Florence, Mina
Sur, and Mineral Park (Huff et al., 1988; Pallauta, 1985; Schmidt and Earley, 1997; Weber et al., 2000; Zimmerman

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et al., 2013).

2.2.2 Measuring Fracture Spacing

Fracture spacing is a key variable when leaching in porphyry formations, as high fracture densities result in both a

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higher surface area for leaching and a higher permeability (Cathles et al., 1978; Hackman, 1982). Reported fracture
spacing for past copper ISL projects have ranged from 1 fracture per meter at Mineral Park (Yegulalp and Kim,

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1996) to 30 fractures per meter at Florence (Davis, 1997).
Many copper ISL projects have used fractures counting on drill cores to quantify fracture spacing, a process which
implicitly assumes isotropic fracture orientation (O’Neil, 1991; Williamson, 1998). There have also been cases
where both fracture spacing and orientation were measured from drill cores (Dahl, 1989; Davis, 1997; Sainath,

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1991), imaging of borehole walls (Cathles et al., 1978; Dahl, 1994; Nelson, 1991; Schmidt and Earley, 1997), or
from surface outcrops (Dahl, 1994). If a preferred orientation exists, hydraulic conductivity will be higher in the
direction parallel to fracture alignment. Hydrologic field tests can help test the degree of anisotropy in the fracture
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network (BHP Copper Growth and Technology Group, 1997; Dahl, 1994).

2.2.3 Bench Scale Leaching Tests

Bench scale leaching coupled with petrographic examination can be valuable in recognizing the rate limiting steps
to copper leaching, as well as identifying issues with side reactions.
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Some intact copper ISL projects have attempted to use column leaching of fragmented ore (Brewer, 1998; Huss et
al., 2014; Isaacson et al., 1990; Schmidt and Earley, 1997), but this approach has limited ability to emulate leaching
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of an intact formation for several reasons. Crushing exposes fresh mineral surfaces to the lixiviant, whereas the
fluid will exclusively contact existing fractures in the formation. This can significantly impact the chemistry (Paulson
and Kuhlman, 1989; Sainath, 1991); for example, by increasing acid consumption due to reactions with matrix
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minerals. Another issue is the higher void fraction in a column of crushed ore relative to subsurface conditions
(Huss et al., 2014).
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The most commonly accepted bench test work method is to pump lixiviant through intact drill cores (Cook and
Paulson, 1988; Hiskey et al., 1992; Hjelrnstad, 1990; Oner and Hiskey, 1992; Paulson and Kuhlman, 1989; Sainath,
1991; Zimmerman et al., 2013). This approach has also been used for uranium ISL test work (Schmidt et al., 1981).
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Some experimental designs involve sealing the drill core inside a cylinder and flowing leaching fluid in an axial
direction, similar to a Hassler sleeve; another design involves pumping lixiviant perpendicular to the axis of the drill
core (see Figure 4). Some designs also allow for permeability to be calculated from pressure and flow rate data
(Hjelrnstad, 1990; Oner and Hiskey, 1992; Paulson, 1994). One interesting approach combined leaching of intact
drill core with X Ray Computed Tomography to detect the presence of fractures both before and after leaching
(Oner and Hiskey, 1992).
Several core leaching tests can be conducted in series in order to observe the effect of long leaching path lengths
on lixiviant chemistry. This is especially important because precipitation reactions which rob copper and block
solution flow paths often occur over longer length scales (Bartlett, 1998; Schlitt, 1992, p. 1520).

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Figure 4: Axial whole core leaching experiments (Paulson and Kuhlman, 1989). Right: plastic box with drill cores being
2.3 Modeling
sealed for test leaching. Note the acid inlet piping on the left.
2.3.1 Kinetic Modeling

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Some of the porphyry deposits from previous ISL projects contained copper mineralization that was almost entirely
fracture hosted (Paulson, 1994; Schmidt and Earley, 1997). In these cases, surface reaction control is expected to
dominate the leaching rate, unless leach residues or precipitates develop on the leached surface (Earley and Jones,
1992).
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Some porphyry deposits targeted for ISL contained both fracture hosted copper mineralization and copper
minerals disseminated within alteration haloes or in small mineralized dead-end fractures (Beane and Ramey,
1995; Ramey and Beane, 1995; Schmidt et al., 1994). This implies that surface reaction rate-controlled leaching of
surface minerals may occur at short time scales, followed by diffusion-controlled leaching of material away from
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the path of flowing lixiviant (Brink et al., 1991; Earley et al., 1990; Ramey and Beane, 1995). Bench scale test work
can aid in identifying these rate-controlling mechanisms. For example, Santa Cruz ore leached on the bench scale
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showed a gradually decreasing recovery rate, and petrographic examination after 6 months of leaching revealed
that copper had been leached within 5 mm from fractures (Earley et al., 1990).
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2.3.2 Hydrologic Modeling

Though bench scale leaching can give valuable insight into the chemical reactions governing copper recovery and
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reagent consumption, this test work must be coupled with hydrologic modeling, as the degree of contact between
the lixiviant and the ore is most often the critical rate-limiting factor. There are several approaches for modeling
fracture-driven flow patterns and each must be specific to the geologic setting given natural variation in fracture
geometry.
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2.3.2.1 Continuum Models

The classic continuum model of flow in a porous medium relies on the premise that the fluid velocity at any point
will be proportional to the pressure gradient. This model requires identifying a length scale over which hydraulic
properties such as permeability are statistically homogeneous and can be represented as an average value. For
example, in sandstones, variations in pore size are often statistically averaged at the length scale of a well spot
(tens of meters), and therefore a continuum model of fluid flow can be applied (Brantley et al., 2008, p. 549;
Friedel, 1993).
In some cases it is possible to effectively apply continuum modeling approaches to fractured media. This requires a
very dense and highly interconnected fracture network, with an absence of macrofractures on the scale of the well
field (Berkowitz, 2002). For example, continuum modeling was combined with tracer test data to forecast long-
term fluid flow patterns at Santa Cruz (Dahl, 1994).
However, many fractured formations exhibit fractal-like scaling properties, in which fracturing exists on the order
of millimeters all the way up to hundreds of meters. In these systems, no characteristic length scale exists, and
therefore continuum models cannot be used. In these cases, a wide range of stochastic approaches have been
applied, using probability distributions of hydraulic properties. One major advantage of stochastic models is the
ability to quantify uncertainty (Berkowitz, 2002; Friedel, 1993). Stochastic modeling was used at Casa Grande
(Friedel, 1993) and Mineral Park (Yegulalp and Kim, 1996).

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2.3.2.2 Discrete Models

Discrete fracture network modeling has been proposed for modeling in situ leaching systems, however to date it
has never been applied to copper ISL (Dershowitz, 2011). The central problem is that both the fracture mapping
process and the modeling process become extremely complicated as the complexity of the fracture network
increases. Therefore these models are generally only useful for formations with a small number of fractures, and
such settings are poorly suited to in situ leaching because they will result in poor contact between the solution and

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the ore (Berkowitz, 2002; Daemen and Farmer, 1989).
Fortunately, options exist for constructing continuum/discrete hybrid models, such as a continuum embedded with
zones of high permeability (Berkowitz, 2002; Schmidt et al., 1990).

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2.3.2.3 Modeling in Unsaturated Formations
Modeling fluid flow in unsaturated formations is more complex because it requires incorporating the flow of both

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gaseous and aqueous phases, and because flow is primarily driven by gravity. For some flow path geometries, the
hydrologic conditions may be similar to a heap leach system, and similar modeling approaches may be applicable
(Bartlett, 1998; Schmidt and Earley, 1997).

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2.4 Well Field Design
In situ leaching is generally conducted using a series of injection and recovery wells in a modular pattern with well
spacing on the order of tens of meters, similar to configurations used for environmental ground water remediation
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(see Figure 5). In formations with anisotropic permeability, the orientation of the well patterns can be chosen such
that flow paths are not parallel to the most permeable direction, in order to avoid flow channeling between wells
(Kreis, 1994; Ramey and Beane, 1995).
The five spot pattern is most commonly used for in situ leaching. Some operations such as San Manuel have used
the seven spot well pattern, which has a higher ratio of recovery to injection wells. The seven spot pattern results
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in more uniform flow, whereas the five spot pattern requires fewer wells and therefore has lower capital costs
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(Bartlett, 1998; Burt et al., 1994; Ramey and Beane, 1995).

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Figure 5: Well patterns. Left: five spot pattern. Right: seven spot pattern.

Wide well spacing is desirable to reduce the overall number of wells and thus minimize capital costs of the project
(Huss et al., 2014; Zimmerman et al., 2013). However, wider well spacing will require higher pumping pressure,
and decreases the flexibility for operators to adjust the pressures at various wells to compensate for variations in
permeability. Wider well spacing also increases the probability that a fluid will encounter a high-aperture fracture
and short circuit the deposit. Additionally, the leaching agent (acid and/or ferric iron) may become depleted as the
fluid travels along subsurface flow paths if the wells are too far apart. Simply increasing the concentration of
injected acid or ferric iron is not always possible. Excessive acid concentration can increase gangue mineral
leaching which results in high acid consumption and issues with precipitation. Similarly, excessive ferric iron
concentrations in the injected fluid can lead to precipitation of jarosite or ferric hydroxide (see section 4.1.1)
(Bartlett, 1998).

3 Environmental Considerations

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3.1 Containment of Leach Solutions

Effective containment of leach solutions requires multiple layers of protection. The first is selection and
characterization of an appropriate deposit as noted in section 2.1. The pumping, monitoring, and restoration
system must also be designed for containment of the leaching solutions to within the targeted area and for
subsequent return of groundwater quality.

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3.1.1 Lixiviant Pumping System Design for Solution Containment

3.1.1.1 Below the Water Table

The design of the pumping system for containment can draw upon existing groundwater remediation technology.

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Containment of leach solutions below the water table generally requires maintaining constant inward flow of
groundwater by applying a production pumping rate that exceeds the injection rate. As a result, excess solution

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must be bled from the leaching cycle. Though this stream can be treated and discharged, it is often evaporated if
the climate is favorable (Huss et al., 2014; Kreis, 1994; Zimmerman et al., 2013). Net inward groundwater flow was
used at the Santa Cruz pilot leaching project (Kreis, 1994) and the 1997 pilot leach at Florence (Zimmerman et al.,
2013).

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ISL operations can also make use of density differences between the leach solution and native groundwater to help
prevent vertical migration.

3.1.1.2 Above the Water Table

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Unsaturated formations represent an additional challenge for solution containment due to the downward gravity-
driven movement of leach solutions. For example, the pilot leaching project at San Manuel saw 13.5% of injected
solutions lost during well-to-well leaching above the water table (Beane and Ramey, 1995). ISL with fragmentation
at the Ilba mine in Romania saw about one third of the applied fluid lost to a combination of seepage and
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evaporation, despite attempts to seal fractures with resin-coated concrete (Sand et al., 1993); similar loss rates
were observed at the East Avoca mine in Ireland (Thorne, 1983).
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Leaching in unsaturated settings will also lead to some leach solution remaining in pore spaces due to attenuation
of the solution to the rock by capillary forces, as observed at both Casa Grande (Friedel and Schmidt, 1992) and
San Manuel (Williamson, 1998). The solution must be removed with rinsing after leaching has stopped.
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3.1.2 Well Completion

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Well construction and completion must include casing and cementation to prevent leakage of the leach solution
from above or below the targeted area. Testing of the wells after completion can help ensure integrity targets are
met; these include pressure tests and sonic testing of cementation. There has been considerable development in
well completion and testing in the oil and gas sector, much of which is directly applicable to ISL (Pugliese, 1995;
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United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1999).

3.2 Monitoring
Monitor wells with regular sample collection are an essential part of in situ leaching in order to confirm solution
containment. In some historical copper ISL operations, there is limited documentation of groundwater monitoring
measures (Sand et al., 1993; Thorne, 1983). However, most modern in situ copper leaching operations have
implemented a monitoring system, and in some cases monitoring continues years after cessation of leaching and
remediation (Bampton et al., 1983; D’Andrea et al., 1977; Kreis, 1994; Schmidt and Earley, 1997; Simmerman,
2013; Zimmerman et al., 2013). In addition to detecting any horizontal excursions away from the leach site,
monitor wells can also serve to detect any vertical excursions of solution above or below the zone targeted for
leaching. For example, at Santa Cruz, monitor wells were used to sample a stratum above the leached zone
separated by a low-permeability layer of granite (Weber et al., 2000), and a monitor well below the solution
collection point at Mineral Park was used to confirm vertical confinement (Schmidt and Earley, 1997). Strata above
or below the target are also generally monitored in uranium ISL operations (Bartlett, 1998).

3.3 Restoration
Many previous copper and uranium ISL operations did not attempt any groundwater restoration, in some cases
resulting in aquifer contamination that required major cleanup operations. Examples include the Nacimiento

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copper ISL operation in New Mexico (Cowart et al., 2004), and the Soviet-era Königstein uranium ISL operation in
East Germany (Lottermoser, 2003, p. 207; Gavin M. Mudd, 2001). Some acid uranium ISL operations continue to
operate without post-leach restoration, relying instead upon natural geochemical reactions to precipitate
dissolved species within the aquifer over time. This process can be very slow; data from existing operations and
geochemical models indicates that several tens of years are sometimes required for return to pre-leach
groundwater quality (Taylor et al., 2004).

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Post-leach restoration draws upon existing environmental groundwater remediation technologies, including water
treatment technology, hydrologic geochemical modeling, and well configurations. Past experience in uranium ISL
illustrates the range of options available for aquifer restoration. In general, most uranium ISL operators begin the

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restoration process by withdrawing water from the wellfield to stimulate inward flow within the formation. This
water may be treated at the recovery plant to recover additional uranium, and then sent to disposal wells or
evaporation ponds. At later stages, water is continuously pumped from the field to a water treatment plant

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(typically reverse osmosis) and recirculated to the formation. Finally, reducing agents such as hydrogen sulfide or
reducing bacteria may be added to the formation to counteract the effect of the oxidants added during the
leaching phase. Establishing reducing conditions decreases the solubility of key contaminants such as uranium and

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heavy metals (Davis and Curtis, 2007; Taylor et al., 2004). In contrast to traditional uranium ISL chemistry, ISL of
copper oxides does not require an oxidant and therefore the addition of reducing agents is not generally necessary
during restoration. However, since copper sulfide ISL requires an oxidizing lixiviant such as ferric sulfate, rinsing
might include the introduction of a reducing agent.
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Formation rinsing is complicated by a range of geochemical interactions which can result in mobilization or
sequestration of ions. Re-mobilization of ions will lengthen the time required for restoration, whereas
sequestration may reduce the rinsing time necessary. Examples of mobilization reactions include the re-dissolution
of gypsum precipitates formed during the leaching phase (Earley and Johnson, 2012; G M Mudd, 2001) and the
release of ions adsorbed onto clays (Davis and Curtis, 2007). Examples of sequestration reactions include
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neutralization of residual acid by basic minerals, and attenuation of metals through precipitation and sorption
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mechanisms (Marcozas and Callahan, 1994). Bench scale test work and computer modeling can be used to
anticipate these fluid-rock interactions which can affect the rinsing process (Doyle et al., 1997; Earley and Johnson,
2012; Marcozas and Callahan, 1994).
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4 Challenges for Copper ISL

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4.1 Side Reactions

4.1.1 Gangue Dissolution/Precipitation Reactions
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Gangue dissolution is often problematic in copper hydrometallurgy. Leaching of gangue minerals such as biotite
and carbonates results in accumulation of undesirable cations in the solution, including magnesium, aluminum,
potassium, and calcium. Because gangue cations are not removed in solvent extraction, continuous recycling of
raffinate can lead to significant accumulation of these ions and cause re-precipitation to occur, thus resulting in
blockage of flow channels. Two common precipitates are gypsum resulting from excessive calcium buildup, and
jarosite caused by excessive levels of ferric iron and alkali metals (Bartlett, 1998). As noted in section 3.3, re-
dissolution of these precipitates during the rinsing process can lengthen the restoration time necessary.
In conventional mining and leach processing, mined ore can be segregated by composition, and ore with high
gangue acid consumption can be rejected as waste rock or blended with ores from other parts of the deposit.
However, depending upon the well configuration, in situ leaching often allows for much less precision in targeting
certain areas within the ore body, and therefore it may be difficult or impossible to avoid areas with high gangue
mineral dissolution. Several in situ leaching field tests have experienced significant subsurface precipitation,
including Casa Grande (Schmidt et al., 1994) and Safford (Cathles, 2014). Geochemical modeling software,
commonly used in environmental groundwater remediation projects, have been used on several occasions to
analyze the degree of ion saturation in leach fluids as part of bench and field test interpretation (Doyle et al., 1997;
Marcozas, 1989; Schmidt et al., 1994).
There are limited options for addressing gangue dissolution and precipitation. Maintaining a bleed stream to
reduce cation buildup or the use of chemical inhibitors (such as gypsum inhibitors) have the potential to reduce

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precipitation problems. Gangue mineral dissolution is generally positively correlated with acid concentration, and
therefore lower acid concentrations may aid in reducing side reactions (Bartlett, 1998; Beane and Ramey, 1995;
Zimmerman et al., 2013). Several acidic uranium ISL operations have used high acid concentrations followed by
lower acid concentrations after several months of leaching to reduce gangue acid consumption at longer time
scales (Gavin M. Mudd, 2001; Taylor et al., 2004).
Alkaline systems represent another alternative for reducing side reactions. In uranium ISL, alkaline lixiviants have

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been found to be much more selective for uranium than sulfuric acid systems, and are generally used when
carbonate rock levels in the formation exceed 2% (Taylor et al., 2004; World Nuclear Association, 2014). Alkaline
systems have also been tested for copper ISL. For example, the Safford test in the 1970s employed an ammonium-

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based lixiviant (Bartlett, 1998). However, future prospects for these types of systems are doubtful, as previous
attempts to leach uranium with ammonium-based lixiviants resulted in ion exchange reactions which led to
difficulties restoring ground water quality after closure (Davis and Curtis, 2007).

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4.1.2 Clays
Several previous copper ISL projects have noted significant levels of clays within the target formation (Paulson,
1994; Schmidt and Earley, 1997), which can cause a range of problems. At Safford, petrographic examination of

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leached ore showed sequestration of aqueous copper by ion exchange reactions with clays and/or zeolites
(Bartlett, 1998; Cathles, 2014). During bench scale test work on Santa Cruz ore, ion exchange reactions with clays
sequestered acid (Paulson and Kuhlman, 1989; Paulson, 1994). The ions released by clays can lead to precipitation;
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for example, at Casa Grande, calcium released from clays was found to exacerbate the formation of gypsum
(Schmidt et al., 1994).
Another potential deleterious effect is swelling and even disintegration of clays if the lixiviant is less saline than the
pre-existing groundwater. This can lead to decreased permeability (Hjelrnstad, 1990; Ramey and Beane, 1995;
Schlitt, 1992, p. 1520). However, the opposite effect has been observed: clays can shrink and open up new flow
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paths if the lixiviant is more saline than the groundwater (Schmidt and Earley, 1997).
Preflushing with specialized solutions may be able to pacify clays prior to leaching. For example, a sodium chloride
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preflush could exchange calcium with sodium. There are also cationic polymers that can form more stable bonds
with the clay and thus prevent clay swelling and disintegration over a wide range of pH values, although the
practicality of this approach has not been demonstrated on a field scale (Hjelrnstad, 1990; Marcozas, 1989).
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4.1.3 Copper Precipitation, Secondary Enrichment, and Sorption

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Re-precipitation of copper ions has the potential to significantly impact recovery (Ramey and Beane, 1995). For
example, exposure of aqueous copper to primary sulfides can result in precipitation of secondary sulfides such as
covellite (Bartlett, 1998; Mallio et al., 1981, p. 344). In some cases copper can also be lost through sorption
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mechanisms. For example, at Santa Cruz, the silica gel left behind by chrysocolla leaching adsorbed copper ions,
and a decrease in pH was required for desorption (Brink, 1994).

4.1.4 Effect of Chemical Reactions on Permeability

Permeability can either increase or decrease during in situ leaching, depending on the net effect of flow channel
widening from mineral dissolution and flow channel constriction from precipitation reactions and/or clogging with
suspended particles (Paulson, 1994). The net effect of all of these mechanisms is highly dependent upon the
geology and mineralogy of the ore deposit (see Figure 6).
Several in situ leaching field and bench scale tests have noted a net increase in permeability (Ahlness and Pojar,
1983; Hiskey et al., 1992; Oner and Hiskey, 1992; Pallauta, 1985; Paulson, 1994; Sainath, 1991; Weber et al., 2000).
For example, in the atacamite ore at Santa Cruz, permeability increased in both bench scale and field scale tests
due to rapid dissolution of fracture-hosted copper minerals and lack of precipitation reactions (Paulson, 1994;
Weber et al., 2000).
Other in situ leaching tests have observed a net decrease in permeability (Paulson, 1994; Schmidt et al., 1994;
Williamson, 1998). For example, bench tests on the Santa Cruz chrysocolla ore found that permeability initially
decreased from gypsum precipitation, then increased as copper leaching progressed, and then decreased over
long time scales as gangue ions reached saturation and precipitated (Paulson, 1994). Field tests at Casa Grande
indicated an overall decrease in permeability, which was attributed to significant fracture blockage with
precipitation of gypsum, jarosite, allophane, amorphous silica, and other solids (Earley and Jones, 1992; Schmidt et

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al., 1994). Precipitation was likely exacerbated by the use of raffinate from commercial leaching operations at the
mine site, which contained high concentrations of Al, Fe, Na, Mg, and K. It is interesting to note that although a
permeability loss was seen in the field, an increase in permeability was noted during bench scale leaching test
work (Sainath, 1991; Schmidt et al., 1994).
Precipitation reactions also cause flow channeling in conventional heap leaching. However, precipitation in an
intact formation is potentially much more detrimental, as leach solution flow paths can be extremely narrow (on

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the order of microns to millimeters for Santa Cruz and Casa Grande) (Brink, 1994; Earley and Jones, 1992) and
therefore only small amounts of precipitate are required to block a flow path and render a portion of the deposit
inaccessible. It should be noted however, that if the fracture network is very dense and the formation is saturated,

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blockages may be less consequential as there could be multiple flow paths to an area.

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1 mm 1 mm

Figure 6: Photomicrographs illustrating the competing effects of leaching on permeability. Left: empty leached vein
previously filled with atacamite from the Santa Cruz deposit (Photo taken by Drummond Earley/Susan Brink, United States
Bureau of Mines. Used with permission). Right: gypsum from bench scale leaching of Florence ore.
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4.2 Short Circuiting

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The effect of leaching and precipitation on overall permeability is related to short-circuiting. One of the primary
challenges of intact in situ leaching in fractured deposits is spatial variation in permeability. Naturally fractured
systems have high permeability in areas of high fracture density or wide fracture aperture, which causes the leach
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solution to channel along these preferential pathways. This limits contact with the ore (Ramey and Beane, 1995).
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Kennecott’s experimental in situ leaching program at their Safford Property (Now Freeport-McMoran’s Lone Star
resource) is one of the best illustrations on the potential effect of short circuiting on in situ leaching of naturally
fractured systems. Major high conductivity pathways intersected the ore body at approximately 20 meter
intervals. It was found that there was no viable way to prevent flow from migrating to these channels and
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bypassing the ore body. The combination of short circuiting and the slow rate of diffusion-limited leaching of
chalcopyrite in the rock matrix resulted in recovery rates that were too slow and too uncertain for economic
viability (Cathles, 2014; Cathles et al., 1978).

4.2.1 Detecting or Predicting Short Circuiting

There are several ways that short circuiting can be predicted or detected. Prior to leaching, logging of fracture
density and orientation across the deposit can help to identify areas of potential short circuiting as noted in section
2.2.2. If there is prior knowledge of the fracture system geometry, the wellfield can be strategically designed to
minimize short circuiting. This was done at both Santa Cruz (Kreis, 1994) and Mineral Park (Schmidt and Earley,
1997).
During or before leaching, spinner flowmeters, differential temperature flowmeters, or hydrophysical logs in
boreholes can measure the distribution of flow over the perforated interval of the well, although this does not
necessarily correspond to channeled flow far from the borehole. This technique was used at Safford, Santa Cruz,
San Manuel, Mineral Park, and Florence. All found significant non-uniformity in flow rate (BHP Copper Growth and
Technology Group, 1997; Cathles et al., 1978; Nelson, 1991; Schmidt and Earley, 1997; Weber et al., 2000;
Williamson, 1998). At both Casa Grande and San Manuel, pressure and flow rate data between wells was used to
develop statistical models of the spatial variation in hydraulic conductivity (Schmidt et al., 1994; Williamson, 1998).
This technique requires a large population of wells and can only detect permeability variations over the length
scale of a well spacing.

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After leaching, collecting drill cores of the leached area and counting the number of leached fractures can help to
quantify the degree of solution contact. At Casa Grande, post-leach drill cores revealed that most fractures had
seen no contact with leach solution (Schmidt et al., 1994), and post-leach drill cores at Safford revealed that about
half of the vuggy veins in the core had been contacted with leach solution, and that the core with vuggy veins
represented about one quarter of the total core (Cathles et al., 1978).

4.2.2 Effect of Prolonged Leaching on Short Circuiting

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Evidence from several projects seems to suggest that ISL of porphyry systems results in increased flow channeling
as leaching progresses, just as flow channeling increases over time in conventional heap leaching (Bartlett, 1998;
Catanach, 1976). This is likely due to the combined effect of dissolution reactions (which widen flow channels) and

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precipitation reactions (which can constrict flow) as discussed in section 4.1. For example, comparison of pre-
leaching and post-leaching bromide tracer tests at Santa Cruz indicated that leaching decreased the time required

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for the tracer to travel from the injection well to the recovery well, implying that leaching had enhanced
connectivity of primary flow paths (Weber et al., 2000). At Casa Grande, an analysis of well pressure and flow rate
data over a two year leaching period was used to generate estimates of the hydraulic conductivity at each well
location. The data showed that the statistical distribution of hydraulic conductivity became bimodal as leaching

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progressed, indicating that flow had become less uniform (Schmidt et al., 1994).

4.3 Sulfides
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4.3.1 Secondary Sulfides
Although most previous copper ISL projects have focused upon leaching copper oxide minerals, there have been
some attempts to leach copper sulfide minerals in situ (Browne and Miller, 2002; Cathles et al., 1978; Doyle et al.,
1997; Schmidt and Earley, 1997). Secondary copper sulfides (e.g., chalcocite) require oxidation in order to dissolve,
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generally provided by ferric iron. In conventional heap leaching, ferric iron is continuously regenerated on the
surface of the ore particles by dissolved oxygen in a bacteria-catalyzed reaction (Bartlett, 1998; Schlesinger et al.,
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2011, p. 289). Biological oxidation on the surface of the ore particles has also been used in ISL of fragmented
copper ore when atmospheric contact was sufficient (Bernal and Venero, 1985; Fletcher, 1972; Rossi et al., 1986;
Sand et al., 1993), and in situ bio-oxidation of sulfide minerals is also currently being developed for ISL of gold ores
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(Kaksonen et al., 2014).

In principle, bacterial oxidation could be maintained in the subsurface for intact ISL of copper sulfides. It has been
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shown that the required bacterial cultures can withstand hydrostatic pressures on the order of tens of MPa, which
implies that bacterial activity could be sustained at subsurface leaching depths on the order of thousands of
meters (Davidson et al., 1981). However, this would require overcoming a number of issues. Co-injection of oxygen
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would be required, which could cause problems with permeability. Fractures could also become clogged with the
bacteria themselves, as sometimes observed in uranium ISL (Yates et al., 1983). Finally, elevated temperatures
from the natural geothermal gradient combined with the exothermic reactions in situ could inhibit the growth of
the microorganisms. Until these issues are resolved, ISL of intact copper sulfide formations presently requires an
alternative method for regenerating ferric iron.

4.3.1.1 Bacterial Ferric Iron Regeneration on the Surface

Bacterial cultures have been used to regenerate ferric iron in the solvent extraction raffinate prior re-injection. For
example, in the Mountain City experimental block-caving and leaching program, dissolution of iron-containing
water treatment sludge as well as exposure to air in surface ponds was used to enrich the solution with ferric
sulfate, therefore helping to leach the predominantly chalcocite ore body (Catanach, 1976). Laboratory bioreactors
were tested to oxidize ferrous iron for Keweenaw Peninsula chalcocite (Johnson and Johnson, 1994) and Miami
chalcocite (Neira et al., 1997).

4.3.1.2 Pressurized Oxygen Gas

Exposing the solvent extraction raffinate to oxygen overpressure on the order of tens of bars is sufficient to
regenerate ferric iron without bacterial catalysis (Chmielewski and Charewicz, 1984). Because the deposits are
generally hundreds of meters below the surface, the hydrostatic head in the subsurface is sufficient to drive the
oxygen into solution and regenerate ferric iron. Such an approach has never been used for secondary copper

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sulfides, though it was used at Safford for primary chalcopyrite (see section 4.3.2). Oxygen gas is also commonly
used to oxidize ferrous iron prior to re-injection during uranium ISL (Venter and Boylett, 2009).
In a modified version of this approach, the White Pine mine in Michigan used oxygen gas in a high-pressure
autoclave at the surface to regenerate ferric iron prior to reinjection (Doyle et al., 1997; Hoffmeyer, 2013).

4.3.1.3 Chemical Oxidants

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In uranium ISL, chemical oxidants are often used. These include manganese dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, and
sodium chlorate (Venter and Boylett, 2009). Hydrogen peroxide and manganese dioxide were evaluated for copper
sulfide ISL at White Pine but were found to be too costly (Hoffmeyer, 2013).

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4.3.2 Primary Sulfides
Like secondary sulfides, primary sulfides require oxidation in order to dissolve. However, primary sulfides leach

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much more slowly than secondary sulfides due to a combination of slower leaching kinetics and competition for
the oxidant by pyrite. While leaching of primary sulfides in dumps can provide supplementary revenue,
atmospheric leaching rates are generally too slow to be an economical primary recovery route. Specialized
biological or pressurized leaching systems are required for high recovery rates (Bartlett, 1998; Dreisinger, 2006).

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There have been two major attempts at leaching primary copper sulfides in situ, only one of which reached the
field testing stage.
In the 1960s, an experimental program was conducted at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory to investigate
rubblizing chalcopyrite deposits with nuclear explosives for in situ leaching. Although nuclear fragmentation is not
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acceptable due to environmental and health risks, this system had some other interesting features. The plan
involved rubblizing primary sulfide deposits below the water table, allowing it to flood with ground water, and
initiating leaching using direct injection of oxygen. The high confining pressure at 500-750 m depth and the
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elevated temperature (90 C) from the exothermic reactions was anticipated to accelerate the reaction kinetics. In
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the proposed approach, water would become acidic over time through the dissolution of pyrite, and the copper-
rich liquor would then be pumped from a recovery well. Although extensive laboratory-scale experimentation was
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conducted, no field leaching tests were performed due to environmental concerns (Bartlett, 1998; Braun et al.,
1974; Hansen and Jager, 1968; Lewis, 1972).
The Safford project was the only major field project attempting to leach primary copper sulfides in situ. An alkaline
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solution involving ammonium sulfate emulsified with ammonia and oxygen was used. Depletion of dissolved
oxygen as solutions diffused into the matrix resulted in precipitation of secondary copper sulfides (Bartlett, 1998;
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Cathles, 2014). However, the major barrier to economic recovery rates at Safford was a lack of adequate flow
distribution as noted in section 4.2.
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5 Future Prospects

5.1 Geophysics
Geophysical exploration techniques present interesting possibilities for tracking solution flow in real time. For
example, lixiviant movement can be tracked in the subsurface using various geophysical techniques which respond
to the high conductivity of lixiviant. This has the potential to diagnose short-circuiting or complement monitoring
wells to detect any fluid excursions outside of the leach area (Tweeton, 1981). This would have the benefit of real-
time data acquisition and potentially early detection of escaping solutions. Such techniques have also been
recently used to monitor secondary recovery in heaps, a system which closely resembles ISL in unsaturated
formations (Rucker and Calendine, 2014).
Geophysical tracking of lixiviant movement was done at San Manuel by BHP (Williamson, 1998), and at a uranium
ISL mine by the Bureau of Mines (Tweeton, 1981). Surveys have also been done at the pilot scale with a synthetic
solution to simulate lixiviant. For example, controlled source audio-magnetotellurics, time-domain electromagnetic
induction, and frequency-domain electromagnetic induction surveys were conducted to detect salt tracer injection
at the San Xavier site in Arizona by the Bureau of Mines (Dahl, 1994; Tweeton et al., 1991). BHP also made use of
3-dimensional electrical resistance tomography to detect the movement of high-conductivity brine at Florence in
preparation for pilot leaching (Stubben and LaBrecque, 1998).
Additionally, seismic tomography can be used to detect saturated areas and can thus be useful for monitoring the
passage of fluid during ISL in unsaturated formations (Tweeton et al., 1991).

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5.2 Nanoparticle Tracers

Chemical tracers have been used in several in situ leaching projects as noted in section 2.2.1, generally to test
connectivity between wells, detect short circuiting issues, and quantify effective porosity. However, there are
other parameters that can be measured using mixtures of chemical and nanoparticle tracers. Because salts are

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able to diffuse into the matrix material and nanoparticle tracers are not, comparing the tracer test results of salts
and nanoparticles has been used to provide information about the extent of chemical tracer diffusion into fracture
walls (Cathles et al., 1974). This can help to quantify the surface area exposed to flow and thus serve as a key input

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for modeling. In the future, it may be possible to engineer nanoparticle tracers that will adhere to specific minerals
and therefore give information about the mineral composition of fracture surfaces.

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5.3 Mitigation of Short Circuiting
One of the simplest and most successful methods for mitigating short circuiting is simply to reconfigure the flow
field after recovery begins to decrease. Reconfiguration of injection and recovery wells has been found in several

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cases to temporarily increase copper recovery (Schmidt et al., 1994; Williamson, 1998). A sequential approach
involving alternating injection and recovery cycles has also been found to enhance leaching (Weber et al., 2000).
Polymer injection has been used extensively in the oil industry to control flow into fractures or to restrict water
inflow from high permeability areas (Seright and Lee, 1998; Stavland et al., 2011; Tweight et al., 1997). Polymer
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injection has also been used in some instances for mitigation of short circuiting during copper ISL on both the
bench scale (Hiskey and Oner, 1993) and on the field scale (Weber et al., 2000).
Inflow control devices are another oilfield advancement that may have applications in mitigating short circuiting
issues, although the cost effectiveness of this technology has not been demonstrated for ISL.
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5.4 Artificial Barriers

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As described in section 5.3, polymer injection has been used as mitigation to short circuiting. Polymer injection
could also theoretically be applied before leaching to construct a macro scale artificial subsurface barrier and thus
provide additional protection against solution excursions and/or aid in the targeting of specific ore zones. This has
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never been done for in situ leaching, although the idea has been patented (Huff et al., 1987).
This has parallels to operations in which non-polymeric materials were used to block the flow of groundwater. One
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interesting example is the ground freezing system at the McArthur River and Cigar Lake underground uranium
mines in Saskatchewan, in which freezing of water in rock pore spaces is used to mitigate groundwater infiltration
to underground mining operations (Newman et al., 2011; Yun et al., 2011). However, it is unlikely that ground
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freezing for ISL will be more cost effective than conventional near-surface mining and processing routes for copper
with the current state of technology.

6 Conclusion
As illustrated by past commercial and experimental endeavors, in situ leaching represents an opportunity for low
cost copper recovery at both existing and new mines if geological and mineralogical conditions are favorable.
In situ leaching has been used successfully in conjunction with open pit or underground excavation. Just as dump
leaching has allowed for recovery of supplemental copper from stockpiled waste rock, ISL could represent an
opportunity for low-cost recovery of copper from low grade material that has not been excavated (Bartlett, 1998).
Targeted areas may include underground workings and pits, both with and without fragmentation. This material
may be uneconomical for conventional mining due to a combination of low grades and mining issues (for example,
high strip ratios and geotechnical constraints). In situ leaching at existing mine sites could benefit from pre-existing
facilities, including solvent extraction and electrowinning processing systems. There are also several past projects
in which pre-existing pits and underground workings were integrated as part of the solution recovery system (for
example, by using underground workings to collect percolating leach solutions) (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983; Schmidt
et al., 1994; Williamson, 1998).
Greenfield copper ISL is a much more challenging proposition that has not yet operated at a commercial scale. In
areas below the water table in which natural permeability exists and the mineralization is accessible, in situ
leaching is a possible option. In areas in which natural permeability is not sufficient for effective flow and contact,

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permeability enhancement could in principle provide an economic option. As conventional blasting or block caving
would incur most of the mining cost up front while recovery would be delayed, these methods are unlikely to
make marginal deposits viable. With the recent developments in shale gas technology, hydraulic fracturing could
provide the needed access for the ISL of copper (du Plessis, 2014) or other metals (Roberts et al., 2010). A
sufficient margin between drilling costs and the value of the recoverable metal would need to be demonstrated,
and this will depend on the characteristics of the particular target deposit.

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Though in situ leaching of sulfides is more chemically challenging than oxidized deposits, regeneration of ferric iron
at the surface or co-injection of dissolved oxygen gas, as commonly practiced for uranium ISL, are technologies
with promise. A wide range of oxygen delivery possibilities have yet to be explored. For example in a very

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permeable deposit or above the water table, oxygen could be introduced from below the deposit and allowed to
travel vertically through the flowing liquid. This could be applied at existing underground mines, where the
combination of pre-existing tunnels, caving, and/or blasting could be exploited.

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Flow control is the critical challenge for ISL because macroscale fractures are common. Permeability modification
through injection of polymers or other material is a promising technology for addressing this challenge. Polymer
injection can also be done after leaching has already begun, and thus can mitigate short-circuiting as it develops.

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Use of such techniques in conjunction with geophysical monitoring for real-time solution tracking in three
dimensions can be envisioned as a future integrated technology. Recent work using geophysical monitoring for
secondary recovery in heaps provides an example.
Forecasting recovery and costs is one of the most critical challenges in commercial implementation of ISL. This
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challenge must be addressed through modeling, test work, and field scale experiments, employing a wide range of
disciplines. A combination of research, adoption of advancements from the oilfield industry, and targeting the
most suitable sites is the most likely path to success in the medium to long term.
The primary copper industry faces challenges that include declining grades, increasing mining costs, limited
availability of water and energy, and increased societal expectations for environmental impact. These challenges
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could be partially met by the careful, realistic application of ISL techniques.

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7 Acknowledgements
Funding provided by Florence Copper and the Cornell Energy Institute is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also
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wish to thank Lawrence Cathles, Jeff Tester, David Dixon, Ray Huff, Steve Axen, and Dusty Earley for providing
material, advice and guidance.
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Appendix: Data from Previous Copper in Situ Leaching Projects

Table A-1: Data from previous copper in situ leaching projects in intact material

Fracture Spacing

Porosity (vol. %)
Average Copper

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization
Minor Copper
Major Copper

Area Involved
Grade (wt. %)

(fractures per

Consumption
Permeability

(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
1
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate
Depth (m)

1
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Pregnant
Location

Reagent
1

(kg/day)
Copper
(L/min)
meter)
2 1

(mD)
(m )

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190

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injected,
Limey 0.8
sediments recovere
intruded by 0.32% Injection and recovery 110 80.8 Sulfuric d 0.15

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biotite (Ahlness wells drilled and leached (Ahlnes (Ahlness acid (Ahlness 6029 (Ahlness
porphyry Chalcocite and above an old exploration s and and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and 1970-1971
(Ahlness and (Ahlness and Pojar, drift (Ahlness and Pojar, Pojar, Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and

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Kimbley NV, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983)
0-70 for
vuggy
veins. Non-vuggy
Bornite, Two "pads" leached: one A pad: A pad: Major Ammoniu material: 0.

D
brochantite, with four wells and one 900. B 980. B fractures m sulfate, 100 Vuggy 0-1.6 for
chalcocite, 0.41% with five wells. One pad: pad: were 20 ammonia, (based on zones: ~0.1. A pad. 0- 5 (based

TE
Andesitic covellite, (Ahlness additional angled leach 4000 1100 m apart. and B pad >1000 for 0.2 for B on B pad
volcanics chrysocolla and well drilled outside of (Cathle (Cathles (Cathles oxygen gas tests) 3% channels. pad. tests) 1971-1978
Safford (Lone (Ahlness and Chalcopyrite (Ahlness and Pojar, pad area. (Cathles et al., s et al., et al., et al., (Cathles, (Cathles, (Cathles, (Cathles et (Cathles, (Cathles, (Cathles et al.,

P
Star) AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) (Bartlett, 1998) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1978) 1978) 1978) 1978) 2014) 2014) 2014) al., 1978) 2014) 2014) 1978)

CE
10.0 kg
acid/kg
Sulfuric copper, 2.75
Dioptase, 1.0% 2612.9 20 acid pH 440 0.65 kg iron/kg 339
tenorite, (Ahlness
AC
Bottom of pit leached. (Ahlnes (Ahlness 6.2 1.10 (Ahlness (Ahlness copper (Ahlness
Conglomerate Chrysocolla cuprite and Solution recovered in 7 s and and (D’Andrea (Ahlness and and (Ahlness and 1974-1975
Emerald Isle (1 (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and Pojar, recovery wells. (Ahlness Pojar, Pojar, et al., and Pojar, Pojar, Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and
of 2) AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) and Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1977) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983)
Sandstone
overlain by Sandston 300-3000
shale and Leaching conducted via e (not Ferric before
underlain by 0.3% 9 contiguous five spot 120 fractured) sulfate 21% leaching
mudstone Chalcocite (O’Gorm patterns drilled into (Cowart (Ahlness (Schlitt, (Cowart (Ahlness 1984-1991
NM, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and an et al., bottom of the open pit. et al., and Pojar, 1992, p. et al., and Pojar, (Cowart et al.,
Nacimiento USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 2004) (Schlitt, 1992, p. 1517) 2004) 1983) 1517) 2004) 1983) 2004)
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Fracture Spacing

Porosity (vol. %)
Average Copper

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization
Minor Copper
Major Copper

Area Involved
Grade (wt. %)

(fractures per

Consumption
Permeability

(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
1
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate
Depth (m)

1
Pregnant
Location

Reagent
1

(kg/day)
Copper
(L/min)
meter)
2 1

(mD)
(m )

PT
The two
wells
measured First test:

RI
2.9 and 3.5 9.4.
Wells before Second

SC
were leaching, test: 11
12 m 5% 4.6 and 4.8 for first 3.3 kg
apart Sulfuric effective after 48 hours, acid/kg
Gravel-filled 1.38% (Pallaut 227 acid 200 porosity leaching then 4-5 copper

NU
Chuquicamata paleochannels Atacamite Chrysocolla (Pallauta, 2 well leaching near a, (Pallauta, (Pallauta, (Pallauta, (Pallauta (Pallauta, (Pallauta, (Pallauta, 1985 (Pallauta,
(Mina Sur) Chile (Axen, 2014) (Axen, 2014) (Axen, 2014) 1985) open pit (Axen, 2014) 1985) 1985) 1985) 1985) , 1985) 1985) 1985) 1985) 1985)
Quartz

MA
monzonite
intruded by Over 1,000 injection and About About 1986-2002
granodiorite 0.4% (as recovery wells drilled Sulfuric 20,000- 0.5-3.5 20,000 (Niemuth,
porphyry Chrysocolla of 1992) from benches of open 9.2 acid pH 1.6 30,000 (Williams (William 1994; Parker
San Manuel (1 (Wiley et al., (Wiley et al., (Niemut pit (Parker and Braun, (Williams (Williamso (Williams on, son, and Braun,

D
of 2) AZ, USA 1994) 1994) h, 1994) 2004; Williamson, 1998) on, 1998) n, 1998) on, 1998) 1998) 1998) 2004)
Injected:

TE
49 in year
1, 43.5 in
year 2. 0.89 in

P
Recovere first
d: 12.9 in year,

CE
58 wells drilled from Sulfuric year 1, 0.80 in About
Casa Grande 0.8%- underground tool 20.3 acid pH 19.3 in 5% 0.016 second 10
(also known as Granodiorite 1.2% storage crib. Each could
AC 5000 300 (Ellenberg 0.88-1.6 year 2. (Earley (saturated year (Earley
Lakeshore and porphyry (Schmidt serve as an injection or a (Schmid (Schmidt er and (Schmidt (Schmidt and permeabilit (Schmidt and 1989-1991
Tohono) (1 of (Sainath, Chrysocolla et al., recovery well. (Schmidt t et al., et al., Jones, et al., et al., Jones, y) (Friedel, et al., Jones, (Schmidt et al.,
2) AZ, USA 1991) (Sainath, 1991) 1990) et al., 1990) 1994) 1994) 1994) 1994) 1994) 1992) 1991) 1994) 1992) 1994)
Sulfuric 361-594
acid 1147 before
Quartz averaging injected, leaching,
monzonite 24.2 g/L 999 9.52-747 6.05 kg About
intruded by 0.799% Pilot study using 3 864 150 acid recovere after 1.39 acid/kg 2000
2
granodiorite (Beane recovery wells and 16 (Beane (Beane (Beane d (Beane leaching (Beane copper (Beane
porphyry Chrysocolla and injection wells on bench and and and and (Beane and and (Beane and and 1992-1993
San Manuel (2 (Wiley et al., (Wiley et al., Ramey, of open pit (Beane and Ramey, Ramey, Ramey, Ramey, Ramey, Ramey, Ramey, Ramey, (Beane and
of 2) AZ, USA 1994) 1994) 1995) Ramey, 1995) 1995) 1995) 1995) 1995) 1995) 1995) 1995) 1995) Ramey, 1995)

1
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Fracture Spacing

Porosity (vol. %)
Average Copper

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization
Minor Copper
Major Copper

Area Involved
Grade (wt. %)

(fractures per

Consumption
Permeability

(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
1
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate
Depth (m)

1
Pregnant
Location

Reagent
1

(kg/day)
Copper
(L/min)
meter)
2 1

(mD)
(m )

PT
Sulfuric
acid (50
g/L for 66 1.3-2.0%

RI
acid cure, recovere effective 23 in
Quartz 0.41% 4 injection wells and 4 pH 0.5-2 d porosity chalcocite 0.42

SC
monzonite (Schmidt recovery wells drilled 7000 91 1.06 for (Schmidt (Schmidt zone (Schmidt
porphyry Chalcocite Chalcopyrite and into sloped surface next (Schmid (Schmidt (Yegulalp leaching) and and (Schmidt and 23 1997 (Schmidt
Mineral Park (Schmidt and (Schmidt et al., (Schmidt et al., Earley, to open pit (Schmidt and t et al., et al., and Kim, (Earley, Earley, Earley, and Earley, Earley, (Earley, and Earley,
(1 of 2) AZ, USA Earley, 1997) 1995) 1995) 1997) Earley, 1997) 1995) 1995) 1996) 2014) 1997) 1997) 1997) 1997) 2014) 1997)

NU
610 6%
Quartz Tenorite, About injection, effective 0.15
monzonite neotocite, 200 720 porosity maximu

MA
intruded by cuprite, native 0.358% 4 injection wells, 9 (Stubben recovery (Zimmer m (Earley
Florence (also granodiorite copper, clays, (Zimmer recovery wells, and 6 40,000 and (Zimmer man et 42 to 367 and 1997-1998
known as dikes (Davis, Chrysocolla brochantite man et observation wells (Brewer LaBrecqu 30 (Davis, man et al., (Brewer, Johnson, (Zimmerman
Poston Butte) AZ, USA 1997) (Davis, 1997) (Davis, 1997) al., 2013) (Brewer, 1998) , 1998) e, 1998) 1997) al., 2013) 2013) 1998) 2012) et al., 2013)
Granite 2.5%-

D
intruded by 13% 30-200
3
granodiorite Copper in Sulfuric 49-80 (Lantz before 0.3-1.8 51.3 1997-1998

TE
porphyry Atacamite and plagioclase, 0.6% One injection well with 1500 539 20 acid (Amrich and leaching (Amrich (Amrich (Amrich
dikes (O’Neil, chrysocolla chalcocite (O’Neil, four recovery wells (Kreis, (Kreis, (O’Neil, (Weber et Minerals, Statham, (Weber et Minerals, Minerals Minerals,
Santa Cruz AZ, USA 1991) (Nelson, 1991) (Nelson, 1991) 1991) (Kreis, 1994) 1994) 1994) 1991) al., 2000) 2013) 1994) al., 2000) 2013) , 2013) 2013)

P
1

CE
All data has been converted to SI units, retaining the number of significant figures from the original source
2
From recovery/control well pumping tests without injection
3
Source specified production rate in “t” or “tons”. These were assumed to be short tons as imperial units were used throughout the source article.
AC

2
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table A-2: Data from previous copper in situ leaching projects in fragmented and/or partially mined material

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization

Fragment Size
Minor Copper

Copper Grade
Major Copper

Area Involved

Consumption
(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate

1
Pregnant
Depth (m)

1
Location

Reagent
Average

(kg/day)
Copper
(wt. %)

(L/min)
1
2 1
(m )

(cm)
PT
RI
Naturally draining water Started 1670,
and some intentionally continued until at
Massive pyrite in Chalcocite 3% channeled water pumped Water least late 1800s

SC
volcanic rocks (Goodrich, (Goodrich, to the surface (Webber, (Webber, (Havlík, 2008, p. 12;
Rio Tinto Spain (Goodrich, 1914) 1914) 1914) 1911) 1911) Webber, 1911)
Mixture of

NU
secondary Thin "black
sulfides, copper"
Metamorphosed predominantly layer, up to Started as early as
greywacke and chalcocite 50% Cu Water pumped through Water 1850. End date

MA
schist (Emmons (Emmons and (Channing, underground workings (Channin unknown (Channing,
Eureka TN, USA and Laney, 1926) Laney, 1926) 1911) (Channing, 1911) g, 1911) 1911)
Mine
water

D
Oxide 79 (Ahlness
Porphyry Primary sulfide (Ahlness 0.38% Underground drifts leached (Ahlness and 0.2-0.6 Approximately 1906-

TE
(Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, (Ahlness and with water from mine sump and Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and 1909 (Ahlness and
Medler AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983)
Quartzite Creek

P
intruded by and mine
quartz Malachite, Block caved material 10 water 1.0 kg

CE
monzonite azurite leached from launder with 78,000 580 (Ahlness (Ahlness iron/kg
porphyry Chalcocite (Ahlness 0.3% (Ahlness drilled holes. Solution (Ahlness (Ahlness and and 4500-5300 2.02 copper 9000 (Ahlness 1923-1937 (Utah
Bingham (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, recovered from tunnel. and Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, State Historical
Canyon UT, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Society, 2013)
AC
Very little Block caved material Water
Consolida oxide leached with water and 110 (Ahlness Startup date 1925.
ted Monzonite Sulfide (Ahlness 0.3% (Ahlness collected in underground (Ahlness and 1.0 (Ahlness End date unknown.
Copper (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, workings (Ahlness and and Pojar, Pojar, and Pojar, (Ahlness and Pojar,
Company NV, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983)
Block caved crater leached
Fractured with surface irrigation. 1.12 kg
andesite and Bornite, Solution distributed with Fresh 732 iron/kg
El breccia bodies chalcopyrite pipes and recovered from water recovered copper
5
Teniente (Weed et al., (Weed et al., underground workings (Ovalle, (Ovalle, 2.69 (Ovalle, (Ovalle, 4071 (Ovalle, 1926-1940 (Ovalle,
(1 of 2) Chile 1916, p. 247) 1916, p. 247) (Ovalle, 1987) 1987) 1987) 1987) 1987) 1987) 1987)
Sulfuric
Bornite, Backfilled stopes leached acid pH
azurite, with old access points and 2.1
Quartz Chalcopyrite, malachite some injection holes. 2000 (Ahlness 3000
monzonite chalcocite (Ahlness 0.8% (Ahlness Solution recovered via (Ahlness and maximum 0.50-0.75 15,000
Butte (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, underground workings and Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and 1930s-1964 (Ahlness
Montana MT, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) and Pojar, 1983)

3
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization

Fragment Size
Minor Copper

Copper Grade
Major Copper

Area Involved

Consumption
(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate

1
Pregnant
Depth (m)

1
Location

Reagent
Average

(kg/day)
Copper
(wt. %)

(L/min)
1
2 1
(m )

(cm)
PT
Fresh
Chrysocolla Water applied to block water pH
Schist intruded , malachite, caved area with rotating 7 1.15 kg

RI
by granite azurite sprinklers. Solution 40,400 90 (Ahlness iron/kg Startup date 1937.
porphyry Chalcocite (Ahlness 1.0% (Ahlness collected via concrete dams (Ahlness (Ahlness and 1300-2000 9.23 copper 9000 (Ahlness End date unknown.
(Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, in underground drifts. and Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, (Ahlness and Pojar,

SC
Ray AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983)
Chrysocolla
, covellite,

NU
chalcopyrit
e, bornite,
Quartz azurite, Block caved areas leached Water
monzonite, malachite with water. Solution (Ahlness

MA
Burro porphyry, Chalcocite (Ahlness recovered in underground and
Mountain granite (Ahlness (Ahlness and and Pojar, workings. (Ahlness and Pojar, 1941-1949 (Ahlness
Branch NM, USA and Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) and Pojar, 1983)

D
272 (as of
1999) Sulfuric

TE
Chalcopyrit (United acid pH
e, some States 1.5 (as of 27,000 10,000-
Conglomerate oxides 0.31% Environm 1983) recovered 15,000 (as of

P
2
Pinto overlying schist Chalcocite (Carstense (measured ental (Ahlness (as of 1997) 0.835 (as of 1997) 1942-present (BHP
Valley and granite (Carstensen n and resource) Protection and (Carstensen 1983) (Carstensen Billiton, 2014;

CE
Miami (Carstensen and and Neira, Neira, (BHP Billiton, Old block caved area Agency, Pojar, and Neira, (Ahlness and and Neira, Carstensen and
Unit AZ, USA Neira, 1997) 1997) 1997) 2014) leached (Beard, 1989a) 1999) 1983) 1997) Pojar, 1983) 1997) Neira, 1997)
Tunnels in old underground
AC
mine blasted. Solution
sprinkled onto broken ore
and also poured from
uppermost mine levels.
Massive and Collected from
stockwork underground wooden Sulfuric
sulfide hosted in Chalcopyrite, launders and pipe lines. acid pH 0.35-0.5 in 2.7 kg Startup date 1947.
rhyolite breccia chalcocite, 0.25% Bacterial leaching with 2-3 1.7-2 5320 high grade iron/kg 2000 (Gentina End date unknown.
3
(Urabe and Sato, bornite (Ito, (Takamura et month cycles. (Ito, 1976; (Ito, recovered solution (Ito, copper (Ito, and Acevedo, (Takamura et al.,
Kosaka Japan 1978) 1976) al., 1972) Takamura et al., 1972) 1976) (Ito, 1976) 1976) 1976) 2013) 1972)

4
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization

Fragment Size
Minor Copper

Copper Grade
Major Copper

Area Involved

Consumption
(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate

1
Pregnant
Depth (m)

1
Location

Reagent
Average

(kg/day)
Copper
(wt. %)

(L/min)
1
2 1
(m )

(cm)
PT
Recycled
Marcasite, raffinate
chalcopyrit and

RI
e, bornite, various 8000
luzonite, Caving and tunneling used mine applied.
Phyllites with Enargite, chalcocite, to increase surface area for 640 waters 6000 Startup date mid

SC
calcerous beds tennantite, covellite leaching in old underground (Bernal (Bernal recovered 1960s. Continued
2,4
and shales tetrahedrite (Bernal and 0.5% (Bernal mine. Solution pumped and and (Bernal and 0.85 (Bernal 10,000 until at least 1985
Cero de (Bernal and (Bernal and Venero, and Venero, from underground ponds. Venero, Venero, Venero, and Venero, (Bernal and (Bernal and Venero,

NU
Pasco Peru Venero, 1985) Venero, 1985) 1985) 1985) (Bernal and Venero, 1985) 1985) 1985) 1985) 1985) Venero, 1985) 1985)
Chalcopyrit
e,
chalcocite, Sulfuric

MA
Azurite, cuprite, Block caved stopes leached 12,000- acid 720-2100 2.5 kg
malachite, covellite with injection holes. 16,300 260 (Ahlness yearly 1.8 initially, iron/kg
Granitic schist chrysocolla (Ahlness 0.5% (Ahlness Solution collected in (Ahlness (Ahlness and average 0.7 at end copper 2400 (Ahlness
Inspiratio (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, underground workings. and Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, 1967-1974 (Ahlness

D
n AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) and Pojar, 1983)
Massive sulfide Sulfuric 1.74 kg

TE
above tuff Rubblized ore acidified with 370 acid pH iron/kg Startup was before
breccia and Chalcopyrite, sprinklers, solution (Takamur 3.0-3.5 copper 1971. End date
2
Tsuchihat rhyolite (Ito, chalcocite (Ito, 0.39% (Ito, collected from underground a et al., (Ito, 811 applied 0.583 (Ito, (Takamura et unknown. (Takamura

P
a Japan 1976) 1976) 1976) workings (Ito, 1976) 1972) 1976) (Ito, 1976) 1976) al., 1972) et al., 1972)
Coyote blast of hillside

CE
using old and new
underground mine
Chalcanthit workings, terraced. Solution
AC Sulfuric 5.0 kg
Chalcocite, e, azurite, applied with Rain Bird acid pH acid/kg
Breccia pipe in chalcopyrite, native sprinklers, then with 22 1.7-2.3 4000-4200, copper, 2.4
andesitic malachite, copper sprinklers and injection 22,800 200 (Ahlness (Ahlness then 2000- 1.8 initially, kg iron/kg 9000 design
volcanics chrysocolla (Ahlness 0.84% holes. Solution collected (Ahlness (Ahlness and and 3000 0.4 at end copper capacity 1972-1974, 1979-
Old (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, (Ahlness and from basin. (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and 1981 (Ahlness and
Reliable AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983)
Sulfuric 1.5 kg
Massive sulfide Pit walls and bottom acid pH acid/kg
in volcanic rocks, Cuprite, blasted. Solution applied 20 1.6-2.0 copper, 1.75
chert, argillite, tenorite, with Rain Bird sprinklers 11,300 49 (Ahlness (Ahlness 2.0 initially, kg iron/kg 2000
and limestone chalcopyrite 1.18% and collected from recovery (Ahlness (Ahlness and and 662-800 0.8 at end copper maximum 1973-1974, 1978-
(Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and well. (Ahlness and Pojar, and Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and 1979 (Ahlness and
Big Mike NV, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983)

5
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization

Fragment Size
Minor Copper

Copper Grade
Major Copper

Area Involved

Consumption
(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate

1
Pregnant
Depth (m)

1
Location

Reagent
Average

(kg/day)
Copper
(wt. %)

(L/min)
1
2 1
(m )

(cm)
PT
Sulfuric
Azurite, Pit walls and bottom 36,200 acid pH 15 kg acid/kg
malachite, blasted. Solution applied (1st blast 30 -36 2.0-2.2 copper, 2.1

RI
tenorite with Rain Bird sprinklers only) 73 (Ahlness (Ahlness kg iron/kg 2000
Shale, andesite Chrysocolla (Ahlness 0.2% (Ahlness and recovered from well in (Ahlness (Ahlness and and 2000-4000 0.8-2.0 copper maximum
(Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, pit bottom. (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and (Ahlness and 1973-1975 (Ahlness

SC
Zonia AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) and Pojar, 1983)
Chalcopyrit
e, cuprite,

NU
malachite,
chrysocolla
, azurite, Sulfuric
native acid

MA
Phyllite and copper Solution injected into block 5050 100 (Ahlness
quartzite lenses Chalcocite (Ahlness 0.93%-1.10% caved area and collected via (Ahlness (Ahlness and 1000-2000 0.5-0.6 2200 (Ahlness
Mountain in shale (Ahlness (Ahlness and and Pojar, (Ahlness and underground mine sump and Pojar, and Pojar, Pojar, (Catanach, (Ahlness and and Pojar, 1974 (Ahlness and
City NV, USA and Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1976) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983)

D
15.0 kg
Dioptase, Bottom of open pit blasted. Sulfuric acid/kg

TE
tenorite, Lixiviant applied with acid pH copper, 4.7
cuprite perforated pipes and 411 20 <3 1.18 kg iron/kg
Emerald Conglomerate Chrysocolla (Ahlness 1.0% (Ahlness collected with recovery (Ahlness (Ahlness (D’Andre (D’Andre 240 (Ahlness 0.59 copper 111 (Ahlness

P
Isle (2 of (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, well. (Ahlness and Pojar, and Pojar, and Pojar, a et al., a et al., and Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, 1974 (Ahlness and
2) AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1983) 1977) 1977) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983)

CE
Open pit and underground Mine
workings leached with mine water,
Azurite, water applied via rotating
AC pH 7
malachite head sprinklers and 550 (Ahlness
2
Quartz porphyry Chalcocite (Ahlness 0.29% collected in underground (Ahlness and 2000 0.6 2600 (Ahlness 1975-1985 (Ahlness
Copper (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, (Ahlness and workings (Ahlness and and Pojar, Pojar, (Ahlness and (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, 1983;
Queen AZ, USA Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) Beard, 1986)
Wells drilled and
hydraulically fractured.
Solution recovered from
wells. First test involved
water injection between 2
wells for hydraulic testing.
Azurite, Second test involved Sulfuric About 100
malachite leaching in 5-spot pattern. 900 400 acid 2- 1040 (Copper Fox
Chrysocolla (Ahlness 0.5% (Ahlness All data in this row refers to (Ahlness (Ahlness 4% (Huff (Copper Fox Metals, 2014;
Van Dyke Schist (Ahlness (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, the 2nd test. (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, et al., Metals, 2.5 (Huff et Huff et al., 1976-1980 (Ahlness
(1 of 2) AZ, USA and Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) 1988) 2014) al., 1988) 1988) and Pojar, 1983)

6
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization

Fragment Size
Minor Copper

Copper Grade
Major Copper

Area Involved

Consumption
(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate

1
Pregnant
Depth (m)

1
Location

Reagent
Average

(kg/day)
Copper
(wt. %)

(L/min)
1
2 1
(m )

(cm)
PT
Azurite,
malachite Single five spot pattern 40 31
Chrysocolla (Ahlness 0.5% (Ahlness drilled below water table (Ahlness (Ahlness

RI
Schist (Ahlness (Ahlness and and Pojar, and Pojar, and hydraulically fractured and Pojar, and Pojar, 1979 (Ahlness and
Bluebird AZ, USA and Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) (Ahlness and Pojar, 1983) 1983) 1983) Pojar, 1983)
Acid percolated from ponds

SC
Atacamite, at first. 6 m blasted
azurite, boreholes added to
malachite, increase percolation rate. Sulfuric

NU
Gneisses, schists, chrysocolla, 1.84% (based Acid infiltrated into acid 1.6 kg
amphibolite, and cuprite in on one bulk abandoned underground 76 pH<2.5 450 1.2 tinplate/kg
5
pegmatite oxide zone sample) workings and pumped to (Bampton (Bampto recovered maximum copper 100
South (Bampton et al., (Bampton et (Canterford the surface from boreholes. et al., n et al., (Bampton et (Bampton et (Bampton et (Bampton et 1980-1982 (Bampton

MA
Mutooroo Australia 1983) al., 1983) et al., 1985) (Bampton et al., 1983) 1983) 1983) al., 1983) al., 1983) al., 1983) al., 1983) et al., 1983)

Sulfuric
acid.

D
Solution percolated through Ferrous
Massive sulfide underground fragmented sulfate <0.002

TE
in quartz- ore pile. Collected and added initially,
feldspar- pumped from underground after 8 gradually 1740 kg
amphibole- workings. Ore inoculated 616 25 months 60 applied increased to acid/kg

P
South biotite gneisses Chalcopyrite 0.18% (Miller, with bacteria after 6 (Miller, (Miller, (Miller, (Miller, 0.08 (Miller, copper 0.1 (Miller, Early 1980s (Miller,
Prieska Africa (Miller, 1986) (Miller, 1986) 1986) months. (Miller, 1986) 1986) 1986) 1986) 1986) 1986) (Miller, 1986) 1986) 1986)

CE
Previously broken ore and
freshly blasted stope
leached using water with
AC
Bornite, sprays and agricultural 5-10 (in 2000 1200 kg/day
digenite irrigators. Solution collected test Fresh recovered in first year.
Gunpowd Quartzites and Chalcocite, and in underground bulkhead stope water pH during first 5959 kg/day
er Queensla sandstones chalcopyrite covellite and pumped to the surface. only) 6.7 phase About 4 - 12 in last year
Mammot nd, (Middlin and (Middlin and (Butler et 1% (Butler et (Brock et al., 1998; Butler et (Butler et (Butler et (Butler et (Butler et (Brock et al., 1979-1982 (Brock et
h (1 of 2) Australia Meka, 1993) Meka, 1993) al., 1981) al., 1981) al., 1981) al., 1981) al., 1981) al., 1981) al., 1981) 1998) al., 1998)
Sulfuric
acid pH
2.0 for
first
stage, 0.5 for first
1.8 for stage,
Section adjacent to second mostly >1
Chalcopyrite Covellite, underground workings <15-100 stage for 2nd
Volcanic tuffs (Burton et al., chalcocite 0.45% blasted. Solution sprinkled (Burton (Burton 18 applied stage
East (Burton et al., 1983; Thorne, (Burton et (Burton et al., on top. Liquor pumped et al., et al., (Burton et (Burton et Approximately 1981-
Avoca Ireland 1983) 1983) al., 1983) 1983) from sump. (Thorne, 1983) 1983) 1983) al., 1983) al., 1983) 1983 (Thorne, 1983)

7
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization

Fragment Size
Minor Copper

Copper Grade
Major Copper

Area Involved

Consumption
(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate

1
Pregnant
Depth (m)

1
Location

Reagent
Average

(kg/day)
Copper
(wt. %)

(L/min)
1
2 1
(m )

(cm)
PT
8400 (average
1984-1992)
(Beard, 1992,

RI
Casa 1990, 1989a,
Grande 1989b, 1987,
(also 1986; Hicks,

SC
known as Block caved areas leached. 1986;
Lakeshore Solution pumped from Niemuth,
and Granodiorite Chrysocolla 1.00% underground sumps and 1994; Phillips 1983-1994 (Cyprus

NU
Tohono) porphyry (Sainath, (Niemuth, dams to the surface. (Hicks, and Niemuth, Tohono Corporation,
(2 of 2) AZ, USA (Sainath, 1991) 1991) 1994) 1986) 1993) 2013; Hicks, 1985)
100 (first
test) and 150 (first 4.5 kg

MA
Fractured and 526 test), 160 acid/kg
brecciated Chalcocite, (second (second 90 applied copper
5
El andesite (Weed chalcopyrite, Irrigation of block caved test) test) (second 2.24 (second (second test) About 150 1983 (first test), 1984
Teniente et al., 1916, p. oxides (Ovalle, 0.50% area with shallowly buried (Ovalle, (Ovalle, test) (Ovalle, test) (Ovalle, (Ovalle, (second test) (second test) (Ovalle,

D
(2 of 2) Chile 247) 1987) (Ovalle, 1987) drippers (Ovalle, 1987) 1987) 1987) 1987) 1987) 1987) (Ovalle, 1987) 1987)
Naturally

TE
Bornite, Acidic groundwater and draining
cubanite, recirculated cementation 39 acidic
vallerite, outlet solution drained (meters groundw

P
Mafic-ultramafic chalcocite, through underground below ater pH Startup date
San rocks – ophiolite Chalcopyrite covellite workings and pumped from adit) 2.6 approximately 1984.

CE
3
Valentino Northern (Rossi et al., (Rossi et al., (Rossi et 1-2% (Rossi underground tank (Rossi et (Rossi et (Rossi et 0.2 (Rossi et 80.6 (Rossi et End date unknown
di Predoi Italy 1986) 1986) al., 1986) et al., 1986) al., 1986) al., 1986) al., 1986) al., 1986) al., 1986) (Rossi et al., 1986)
AC Sulfuric
Azurite, acid 1500
malachite (Ahlness applied 2 (Ahlness About 310-
Chrysocolla (Ahlness Leaching of rubblized block and (Ahlness and and 340 (Ahlness
Van Dyke Schist (Ahlness (Ahlness and and Pojar, 0.5% (Huff et caved stopes (Ahlness and Tweeton, Tweeton, Tweeton, and Tweeton, 1988-1989 (Beard,
(2 of 2) AZ, USA and Pojar, 1983) Pojar, 1983) 1983) al., 1988) Tweeton, 1989) 1989) 1989) 1989) 1989) 1990, 1989b)
2000 (as of
Chalcocite, Ore drilled and blasted at Acidic 1992) (Beard,
Quartz chalcopyrite depth. Solution applied via ferric 1992, 1990;
monzonite (Schmidt and network of sprinklers and sulfate Niemuth, Began in 1980s –
Mineral porphyry Earley, 1997; recovered from ponds at (Schmidt 1994; Phillips present status
Park (2 of (Schmidt et al., Schmidt et al., the bottom of nearby pits. et al., and Niemuth, unclear (Beard, 1990;
2) AZ, USA 1995) 1995) (Schmidt et al., 1995) 1995) 1993) Simmerman, 2013)

8
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Solution Grade
Leach Solution

Leach Solution
Mineralization

Mineralization

Fragment Size
Minor Copper

Copper Grade
Major Copper

Area Involved

Consumption
(g/L copper)

Years Active
Mine Name

Description

Production
Maximum
Host Rock

Flow Rate

1
Pregnant
Depth (m)

1
Location

Reagent
Average

(kg/day)
Copper
(wt. %)

(L/min)
1
2 1
(m )

(cm)
PT
Leach solution initially
pumped through existing Sulfuric
Bornite, broken ore stocks by acid pH 21,000

RI
digenite injection, spraying, and 1.3 expanded to
5
Gunpowd Quartzites and Chalcocite, and flooding. Some ore later (Guilfoyl 4200 38,000
er Queensla sandstones chalcopyrite covellite blasted and leached. (Brock e and recovered (maximum) Approximately 1989-

SC
Mammot nd, (Middlin and (Middlin and (Butler et et al., 1998; Middlin and Moore, (Brock et al., 3.5 (Brock et (Brock et al., 1996 (Brock et al.,
h (2 of 2) Australia Meka, 1993) Meka, 1993) al., 1981) Meka, 1993) 1992) 1998) al., 1998) 1998) 1998)
Chalcopyrite,

NU
covellite,
bornite, Underground stope Mine
Massive sulfide marcasite 0.1918% prepared by blasting and 30 (Sand <30 water
(Sand et al., (Sand et al., (Sand et al., inoculated with bacteria. et al., (Sand et (Sand et 0.028 (Sand Early 1990s (Sand et

MA
Ilba Romania 1993) 1993) 1993) (Sand et al., 1993) 1993) al., 1993) al., 1993) et al., 1993) al., 1993)
Quartz Covellite,
monzonite digenite, Ore from sides of open pit Sulfuric
2,4
porphyry dikes Chalcopyrite, bornite rubblized and leached. acid 5-8 31,000 3 kg acid/kg 59,000

D
2 2 2
and stocks chalcocite (Browne 0.273% Solution collected from g/L recovered 1.50 copper (Asarco
(Browne and (Browne and and Miller, (ASARCO, pond at pit bottom. (ASARCO (ASARCO, (ASARCO, (ASARCO, Grupo 1990s-present

TE
Silver Bell AZ, USA Miller, 2002) Miller, 2002) 2002) 2008) (O’Gorman et al., 2004) , 2008) 2008) 2008) 2008) Mexico, 2014) (ASARCO, 2008)
Underground flooded Sulfuric
leaching of rubblized pillars. acid 7%. 1.15 kg

P
Shale and Native Raffinate oxidized in <5 (Earley, iron/kg
conglomerates Chalcocite copper 1.04% autoclave to generate ferric 500,000 (Lankton, 2014; copper

CE
White (Doyle et al., (Doyle et al., (Doyle et (MarketWatc iron. (Lankton, 2010, p. (Earley, 90 (Earley, 2010, p. Hoffmey 5-12 (Doyle (Earley, 9000 (Earley,
Pine MI, USA 1997) 1997) al., 1997) h, 2013) 296) 2014) 2014) 296) er, 2013) et al., 1997) 2014) 2014) 1996 (Johnson, 2014)
Sulfates, AC
Quartzites and malachite, Sulfuric acid injected into Sulfuric 10,000
5
carbonaceous chalcocite, drill holes to leach 650 acid recovered 33,000
shales (Steven, oxides backfilled stopes (Steven, (Steven, (Steven, (Steven, 3-7 (Steven, (Steven, 2003-present
Mopani Zambia 2009) (Steven, 2009) 2009) 2009) 2009) 2009) 2009) 2009) (Simpere, 2010)
1
All data has been converted to SI units, retaining the number of significant figures from the original source
2
Indicates that parameter applies to combined solution from both in situ and heap/dump leaching operations
3
Assuming 24 hours/day constant operation
4
Source specified production rate in “t” or “tons”. These were assumed to be short tons as imperial units were used throughout the source article.
5
Source specified production rate in “t” or “tons”. These were assumed to be metric tonnes as metric units were used throughout the source article.

9
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

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Highlights for In Situ Leaching of Copper: Challenges and Future Prospects

We review pilot and commercial in situ leaching of copper.
We include a table of key variables from previous operations.
We review challenges with flow channeling, precipitation, and groundwater monitoring.
We discuss future prospects of geophysics, tracers, and polymer injection.

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