Learning Objectives
Chapter 5
• Describe the role that need deficiencies play in motivating
Motivation employees.
• Compare the major differences between the four content
approaches of motivation.
• Give examples of how the three process approaches affect
employee motivation.
• Examine how the changing nature of the psychological
contract influences employee motivation.
• Summarize the action steps that managers can take to
motivate employees.
Determinants of Job Performance
– The capacity to perform relates to the degree to which
an individual possesses task-relevant skills, abilities,
knowledge, and experiences.
Willingness
to perform – Having the opportunity to perform is also a critical
ingredient in the performance recipe
– Willingness to perform, relates to the degree to
which an individual both desires and is willing to
Job performance
exert effort toward attaining job performance
Capacity to Opportunity
perform to perform
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• Motivation is made up of at least three
distinct components: direction, intensity,
and persistence. – The intensity component of motivation refers to
– Direction relates to what an individual chooses the strength of the response once the choice
to do when presented with a number of possible (direction) is made.
alternatives.
The Starting Point: Needs Motivate Employees
I. Need deficiencies
– Persistence is an important component of
motivation. Persistence refers to the staying VI. Need deficiencies
II. Search for ways
reassessed by the
power of behavior or how long a person will employee to satisfy needs
Employee
continue to devote effort.
V. Rewards or III. Goal-directed
punishments behavior
IV. Performance
(evaluation of goals
accomplished)
The Motivational Process: A General Model
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• Needs: The deficiencies that an individual experiences at a • Three main areas that affect employee motivation:
particular point in time. – Organizational issues such as compensation, benefits,
• Needs are viewed as energizers or triggers of behavioral career opportunities, and company reputation;
responses. – Job issues including work schedules, opportunities to
• The implication is that when need deficiencies are present, learn new skills, and challenging work;
the individual is more susceptible to a manager’s – Leader issues such as whether their leaders/supervisors
motivational efforts are trustworthy, good motivators and coaches, and
flexible in solving problems.
Managerial Perspective of Content and Process Theories of Motivation
Theoretical
Base
Theoretical Explanation Founders of the Theories Managerial
Application Content Approaches to Motivation
Content Focuses on factors within the person Maslow—five-level need hierarchy Managers need to be aware of
that energize, direct, sustain, and Alderfer—three-level hierarchy (ERG) differences in needs, desires,
stop behavior. These factors can Herzberg—two major factors called and goals because each
only be inferred. hygiene factors and motivators
McClelland—three learned needs
individual is unique in many
ways.
• Focus of Content Approaches
acquired from the culture: achievement,
affiliation, and power – The content theories of motivation focus on the
factors within the person that energize, direct,
Process Describes, explains, and analyzes Vroom—an expectancy theory of Managers need to understand
sustain, and stop behavior.
how behavior is energized, directed, choices the process of motivation and
sustained, and stopped. Adams—equity theory based on
comparisons that individuals make
how individuals make choices
based on preferences, rewards,
• Important Content Approaches
Locke—goal-setting theory that and accomplishments.
conscious goals and intentions are the – Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
determinants of behavior
– Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Content approaches focus on identifying specific motivation factors.
• Process approaches focus on describing how behavior is motivated.
– Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
– McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
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SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
ESTEEM
• Description of Theory
– The crux of Maslow’s theory is that needs are BELONGINGNESS, SOCIAL, AND LOVE
arranged in hierarchy. The lowest-level needs
are the physiological needs, and the highest-level SAFETY AND SECURITY
needs are the self-actualization needs.
• Maslow’s Needs PHYSIOLOGICAL
– Physiological, safety and security, belongingness,
social, and love, esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
1. A satisfied need ceases to motivate Alderfer’s ERG Theory
– Flexible (cafeteria) benefits plans: Plans that allow
employees to choose benefits that suit them and to
Alderfer’s Hierarchy of Needs
make adjustments to meet their changing needs.
2. Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration, conflict, 1. Existence: Need satisfied by such factors
and stress. as food, pay, and working conditions.
3. Maslow assumes that people have a need to grow
and develop and, consequently, will strive 2. Relatedness: Needs satisfied by meaningful
constantly to move up the hierarchy in terms of social and interpersonal relationships.
need satisfaction.
3. Growth: Needs satisfied by an individual
making creative or productive contributions.
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• Maslow proposed that unfulfilled needs are predominant Implication
and that the next-higher level of needs isn’t activated or
triggered until the predominant need is adequately
satisfied. • Alderfer’s ERG explanation of motivation provides an
• Alderfer’s ERG theory suggests that, in addition to the interesting suggestion to managers about behavior. If a
satisfaction-progression process that Maslow proposed, a subordinate’s higher-order needs (for example, growth) are
frustration-regression process is also at work. being blocked, perhaps because of a company policy or
lack of resources, then it’s in the manager’s best interest to
attempt to redirect the subordinate’s efforts toward
relatedness or existence needs by assigning him or her to
projects with desired co-workers.
• The ERG theory implies that individuals are motivated to
engage in behavior to satisfy one of the three sets of needs.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Herzberg’s Two Factors • Herzberg’s Two Factors (continued)
– Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) and motivator factors – Motivator factors:
(satisfiers)
• Second, a set of intrinsic conditions-the job content-
• Explanation of Two Factors when present in the job, builds strong levels of
– Hygiene factors: motivation that can result in good job performance.
• First, Hygiene factors are extrinsic conditions from the job context. When If these conditions are not present, they do not prove
present, employees reach a point where they are “not dissatisfied” with their
job; however, this condition is not sufficient to motivate high levels of highly satisfying.
employee performance – Motivators include achievement, recognition,
– Hygiene factors include salary, job security, working conditions, status, company responsibility, advancement, the work itself,
procedures, quality of technical supervision, and quality of interpersonal relations and the possibility for growth.
among peers, superiors, and subordinates
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Traditional versus Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction
I. Traditional Job Satisfaction Theory
High job dissatisfaction High job satisfaction
II. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Examples of Hygiene Factors and Motivator Factors No job satisfaction High job satisfaction
Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors Based on Motivators
• Feeling of achievement
• Meaningful work
• Opportunities for advancement
1. Salary 1. Achievement • Increased responsibility
• Recognition
2. Job security 2. Recognition • Opportunities for growth
3. Working conditions 3. Responsibility High job dissatisfaction No job dissatisfaction
4. Status 4. Advancement Based on Hygiene Factors
• Pay
5. Company procedures 5. The work itself • Status
• Job security
• Working conditions
6. Quality of technical supervision 6. The possibility of growth • Fringe benefits
• Policies and procedures
• Interpersonal relations
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
• Job enrichment is defined as the process of building personal achievement,
recognition, challenge, responsibility, and growth opportunities into a person’s
• Description of Theory
job. – McClelland believed that many needs are acquired from
the culture. Three of these learned needs are:
• This has the effect of increasing the individual’s motivation by providing her with • Need for achievement (n Ach)
more discretion and accountability when performing challenging work.
• Need for affiliation (n Aff)
• Need for power (n Pow)
– For example, having a high n Ach encourages an individual to set challenging goals,
to work hard to achieve the goals, and to use the skills and abilities needed to
achieve them
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Need for achievement Need for affiliation
Set of factors that reflect a high need for achievement. These are: • The need for affiliation reflects a desire to interact socially with
people.
1. The person likes to take responsibility for solving problems. • A person with a high need for affiliation is concerned about the quality
2. The person tends to set moderate achievement goals and is inclined of important personal relationships, and thus, social relationships take
to take calculated risks. precedence over task accomplishment.
3. The person desires feedback on performance.
Need for power
• McClelland’s theory is that these needs are
• A person with a high need for power, meanwhile, concentrates on learned through coping with one’s
obtaining and exercising power and authority.
• He or she is concerned with influencing others and winning
environment.
arguments. • Since needs are learned, behavior that is
rewarded tends to recur at a higher
frequency.
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A Graphic Comparison of Four Content
Approaches to Motivation Process Approaches
Maslow Herzberg Alderfer McClelland • The process theories of motivation are concerned with answering the
Self- The work itself
questions of how individual behavior is energized, directed,
Growth Need for
actualization - Responsibility achievement
maintained, and stopped.
Higher - Advancement
Esteem Motivators
order needs - Growth Need for power • Three process theories: expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal-
Belongingness, Achievement setting theory
social, and love Recognition Relatedness
Quality of inter- Need for
Safety and personal relations affiliation
Basic
security Hygiene among peers, with
needs conditions supervisors
Existence
Physiological Job security
Salary
Expectancy Theory E P EXPECTANCY P O EXPECTANCY VALENCE
Probability that effort Probability that Preference for outcomes
will result in desired performance will lead as seen by the individual
level of performance to desired outcomes
Expectancy theory: A theory of motivation that
suggests employees are more likely to be motivated
when they perceive their efforts will result in
successful performance and, ultimately, desired
rewards and outcomes. Effort Performance
Desired Outcomes
(e.g., pay raise,
promotion, recognition)
Expectancy Theory
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Four important terms in this theory are:
Equity Theory
1. Person. The individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived.
2. Comparison other. Any group or persons used by Person as a referent
• Equity theory: A theory of motivation that examines how a person regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes.
might respond to perceived discrepancies between her input outcome
3. Inputs. The individual characteristics brought by Person to the job.
ratio and that of a reference person.
These may be achieved (e.g., skills, experience, learning) or ascribed
(e.g., age, sex, race).
• This theory of motivation is based on the assumption that individuals 4. Outcomes. What Person received from the job (e.g., recognition,
are motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at work. fringe benefits, pay)
OP ORP
= = (equity)
IP IRP
Change Procedures to Restore
The Equity Theory of Motivation
Equity
1. Changing inputs.
OP ORP
= = (equity) 2. Changing outcomes
The person (P) IP IRP
A person (P) with Compares his or then regards 3. Changing attitudes.
certain inputs (I) and her input/output the reference and OP ORP
person’s (RP) perceives < = (inequity) 4. Changing the reference person.
receiving certain ratio to reference IP IRP
outcomes (O) person inputs (I) and
outcomes (O) 5. Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person.
OP ORP
IP
>
IRP
= (inequity) 6. Leaving the field.
IP—Inputs of the person
OP—Outcomes of the person
IRP—Inputs of reference person
ORP—Outcomes of reference person
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• Goals is a process that includes the attributes or the mental (cognitive)
processes of goal setting.
Goal Setting – Goal specificity is the degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the
goal.
– Goal difficulty is the degree of proficiency or the level of performance
• Goal A specific target that an individual is trying to achieve; a goal is that is sought.
the target (object) of an action – Goal intensity pertains to the process of setting the goal or of determining
• A goal is a result that a person, team, or group is attempting to how to reach it
accomplish through behavior and actions – Goal commitment is the amount of effort used to achieve a goal
• Goal-setting theory emphasizes the importance of conscious goals in Ex: Increasing sales of existing customers by 10 percent over the next 12
explaining motivated behavior months
Goal Setting Applied to Organizations
Goal Characteristics Performance Rewards
• Clarity Desired by Preferred by
• Meaningful organization individual or • Goal setting can be a very powerful
• Challenging team
technique for motivating employees.
• When used correctly, carefully monitored,
and actively supported by managers, goal
Moderators setting can improve performance.
• Ability
• Commitment
• Feedback
• Neither goal setting nor any other technique
can be used to correct every problem.
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