6

Ubiquitous Computing
David Ley, Becta

The most profound technologies are those that disappear. They weave themselves into
the fabric of everyday life until they are indistinguishable from it.
Mark Weiser1
18 Mainframe (one computer, many people)
Ubiquitous computing is a vision of computing
16 PC (one person, one computer)
power ‘invisibly’ embedded in the world around
Ubiquitous Computing
14
us and accessed through intelligent interfaces: ‘Its (one person, many computers)
highest ideal is to make a computer so embedded, 12

so fitting, so natural, that we use it without even 10

Sales/Yr

thinking about it.’ii This is about a shift to human- 8

centred computing, where technology is no longer a 6

barrier, but works for us, adapting to our needs and 4
preferences and remaining in the background until
2
required. This implies a change in our relationship
0
with ICT to a much more natural way of interacting
1940

1945

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1955

1960

1965

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1975

1980

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2005
and using the power of networked computing
systems which will be connected not just to the The three waves of computing [Source: http://sandbox.
internet or other computers, but to places, people, xerox.com/ubicomp/]

everyday objects and things in the world around us. Implications

If achieved, such a vision would be transformational The increasing maturity, performance and miniaturisation
and have profound implications for how we live, work, of processors, networking technologies, memory,
interact and learn. When Mark Weiser wrote about displays and sensors is enabling a move towards
ubiquitous computing in 1991, his vision of computing pervasive computing, ubiquitous connectivity and more
power deeply embedded in objects, places and devices adaptable interfaces that are sensitive and responsive.
seemed some way off. Today, various elements of Many objects and devices already have embedded
ubiquitous computing are beginning to appear and processors and sensors. Some cars, for example, use
be useful in their own right, as increasing numbers of sensors to monitor wheel slippage and apply the brakes
devices and objects become addressable (have a unique to stop us skidding. Radar-controlled cruise control will
ID) and connected (usually wirelessly). automatically keep the distance with the car in front.
Just as with the rapid development of the internet and However, these systems tend to be stand-alone and do
web technologies, many applications of ubiquitous not necessarily interact with other connected objects
computing cannot be predicted today and rely on these and devices. Washing machines have sophisticated
technologies reaching a critical mass. Weiser saw three electronic programmes, but we need to explicitly control
waves of computing: the mainframe age when many them. In the ubiquitous computing world, the washing
people shared a computer; the personal computer wave machine would automatically interrogate tags embedded
when one person has one computer (the focus of many in our clothes and adjust the wash cycle accordingly.
initiatives); moving to the ubiquitous computing wave Increasingly then, connections are not just people–
when each person shares many computers. The current people or people–computers, but between people–
internet age is seen as a transitional phase between the things and most strikingly, things–things.3
PC and ubiquitous waves.

1 Weiser, M. (1991): The Computer for the 21st Century. In: Scientific American 265, Nr. 3, S. 94-101.
2 Weiser, M http://sandbox.xerox.com/ubicomp/
3 ‘Things’ here means objects and devices that are not computers 64
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This is what the International Telecommunication Many parts of ubiquitous computing are still in
Union (ITU) calls the ‘internet of things’4. These new development and many of the possible uses and
connections create the possibility of new interactions implications of the technologies are still unknown.
and access to enormous amounts of information. However, there are already clear possibilities for
This changes the web from being a purely virtual, improving learning both through individual technologies
online space to a system that can provide appropriate and increasingly through using these technologies
information, help and services in the real world. If in unison. As will be explored, ubiquitous computing
properly harnessed this information will make us better technologies can lower the barriers to using the power
informed and enable smarter decisions by both people of ICT, enable much more personalised, context-aware
and machines.
interactions and help with a move to more experiential
These technologies have modes of use that can be learning: learning by doing, interacting and sharing.
implicit or explicit. Explicit interactions are those where a
conscious action by a user enables an interaction. Implicit
interactions are automatic and can happen without any
direct user intervention. Our opportunities for explicit Key elements of ubiquitous
interactions with the real world are increasing, but it is the computing
implicit, unseen interactions that will provide a real shift in
The key elements that devices/objects/nodes in
how we use and gain benefit from computer systems.
a ubiquitous computing environment need are:
Ubiquitous computing encompasses most areas of identification, location, sensing and connectivity
IT and achieving the vision will rely on several factors
coming together: Identification
• Miniaturisation (smaller, lower power processors, In order for objects and devices to usefully become
sensors and wireless technologies.) part of a wider intelligent, information sharing network,
• Ubiquitous connectivity it is vital that each one has a unique identity. This not
only enables more things to be interconnected, it also
• Interoperability (standards for networks and devices;
means that objects that surround us can become
identification; network and device discovery; self-
resources and act as interfaces to other resources. Two
configuring, seamless networks etc.)
important technologies used to provide identity are Radio
• Improved intelligent interfaces (natural interfaces;
Frequency Identification (RFID) tags and visual barcodes.
intelligent agents; display technologies etc)
• Intelligent systems (including sensor networks; RFID
context awareness; location; semantic networks; data Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a type of
handling; and search etc.) auto identification system and refers to technologies
• Security and reliability (reliable, secure systems; and that use radio waves to identify objects, locations or
privacy features) people. RFID is a generic term and does not refer to a
particular technology. However, more recently, the term

4 ITU Internet Reports 2005: The Internet of things (ITU 2005 7th edition) 65
 6
has become associated with a form of the technology ABI Research5 believes that by 2009 50 per cent of
called RFID tags. These are tiny microchips attached to mobile phones will have embedded RFID chips to
antennae (transponders). The data on these chips can access services and pay for goods. This technology is
be read by a wireless reader (transceiver) and the data already being used in Japan [http://www.nttdocomo.
passed back to computer systems. There are two main com/presscenter/pressreleases/press/pressrelease.
types of RFID tags: passive (energy harvested from the html?param[no]=474].
reader) and active (with their own power supply). The In education the main use of RFID tags so far has been
more sophisticated tags offer read/write capabilities. in library management systems, for asset tagging and
RFID chips can be as small as 0.05 mm2 and can be ID/tracking purposes. However, a number of more
embedded in paper. More recently, printable tags have innovative education projects have shown the value of
been developed. RFID systems do not require line learners being able to interact with tagged objects in
of sight and work over various distances from a few the real world. For example, an object’s ID could trigger
centimetres to 100 metres depending on the frequency information or sounds to be sent to a learner’s device.
used and type of system. Standards for tags and Such systems are increasingly being used in museums
electronic product codes (EPC) are being overseen by [http://www.rfid-weblog.com/50226711/rfid_in_
EPC Global [http://www.epcglobalinc.org]. museums_another_growing_market.php].
The ability to identify, locate and track RFID tags is seen RFID tags can also play a part in creating intelligent
as a transformational technology, potentially allowing classrooms (see below).
any object to be interrogated by computer systems. RFID readers can now also be included in mobile
However, high costs, technical issues and concerns phones, potentially making the readers as ubiquitous
about privacy will need to be overcome before RFID tags as the tags are expected to become. However, RFID
become widespread. Currently, the main area of use is tags can operate without user intervention, automating
in the retail supply chain, but analysts predict that 50 per many applications and providing huge amounts of data,
cent of the uses for RFID in 2012 have not even been which creates a need for more sophisticated systems to
thought of yet. support them (see data handling).
The retail/supply sector is only one area of use for the
technology. Some examples of other uses are: security,
authentication of goods/banknotes [http://networks.
silicon.com/lans/0,39024663,39122553,00.htm],
asset tagging, document tagging, library book tagging,
road tolls, safety systems, and payment systems. RFID
is already in use in contactless card systems for door
entry and on public transport such as the London
Underground [http://www.rfida.com/nb/oyster.htm].

An example of a RFID tag

Source: PolyIC GmbH & Co. KG

5 ABI Research http://www.abiresearch.com 66

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Visual bar codes - hyperlinking the world Future Experience Workshop, Takeyama Laboratory,
A simpler way of giving an object an identity and Keio University [http://www.childresearch.net/
allowing a user to interact with it is through a visual or RESOURCE/RESEARCH/2005/TAKEYAMA.HTM].
2D ‘bar code’. These are printed ‘pictures’ containing
data, which when photographed by a cameraphone
will provide information about the object or, more often,
act as a ‘smart URL’ taking the user to a particular web
page. Examples include Semacode, Bango spots and
Shot codes. Software for creating these 2D barcodes
can be downloaded from the relevant websites. Newer
versions such as those from Fujitsu (Fine Picture
code) allow the ‘barcode’ to be invisibly embedded
into photographs or pictures. NTT DoCoMo has also
developed a system that allows URLs to be embedded
in sounds or music, which can be interpreted by some
mobile phones.
In Japan, a type of 2D barcode, called QR (quick
response) codes, is widely used to save having to enter An example of a QR code. This QR code is a link to the Becta website
information such as addresses into mobile phones or (Source: http://qrcode.kaywa.com/)
even to purchase goods. They are found in advertising,
in the print media, on business cards, products, websites The BBC/Open University used a similar system for
and vending machines. Some teachers in Japan are their Coast project. Data Matrix 2D barcodes were
using QR codes to distribute resources to learners placed on signs around the coast allowing walkers with
cameraphones to connect to related text, directions,
[http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1190000/1181244/
images and audio [http://www.gavitec.com/fileadmin/
p123-fujimura.pdf?key1=1181244&key2=621498461
template/main/downloads/CaseStudy_EN_BBC_
1&coll=ACM&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=
CoastMobile_F0608.pdf]
6184618]
The drawback of visual bar codes is that they are not
or in more innovative projects to allow interaction with
wirelessly linked, so rely on explicit user interaction rather
real world objects (as with RFID) – see for example,
than the automatic, implicit use that is the real vision of
ubiquitous computing.

IPv6
An alternative technology that could be used for identification is Internet Protocol version 6. IPv6 is the next
generation protocol designed by the IETF6. Currently the internet and most networks rely on IPv4 addresses which
have a limit of 232 addresses. IPv6 provides 2128 potentially allowing billions of unique IP address. IPv6 also offers
other advantages over IPv4 such as support for auto-configuration of devices, Quality of Service (QoS), mobility
and security. However, adoption of IPv6 is expected to happen relatively slowly, with most interest currently coming
from government/military and research organisations.

6 IETF: Internet engineering task force 67

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Location ‘event’ could be relevant learning materials downloaded

The ability of objects and devices to have location to a users’ device, or automatic connection to a large

information adds another important level of intelligence, display, for example. Other location services are about

allows the discovery of people, objects and resources knowing your relationship to other people or devices.

and enables location based tools and services. Indeed, MIT’s iFind service allows students and staff to let other

location services are expected to be increasingly people know their location on campus [http://ifind.mit.

important over the next few years. It is predicted that edu/]. Mobile location based services are increasingly

there will be 70 million GPS enabled phones in Europe combining presence (information about the status of a

by 2010 (IMS Research7). Tim O’Reilly, who coined user) with location information [http://www.mologogo.

the term Web 2.0, has now started a new annual com/]. Some countries are using these technologies to

conference called Where 2.08, underlining the potential track students for safety and control reasons, but these

for innovation in this area. raise concerns over privacy (see issues). For example
the Japanese government is piloting a system using
Devices and objects can establish their location in a
RFID, GPS and mobile phones to track students and
variety of ways and to varying levels of accuracy. At a
keep parents informed of their whereabouts [http://
basic level an RFID tag can be recognised as it passes
ubiks.net/local/blog/jmt/archives3/005856.html
a fixed wireless reader. Devices with accelerometers can
and http://www.sankei.co.jp/seiji/seisaku/070103/
detect motion and know their orientation. Wi-Fi enabled
ssk070103000.htm]
devices can be tracked to a reasonable degree of
accuracy (for example Ekahau9 systems). Mobile phones Real world search
can also be pinpointed, but the accuracy can vary
More recently, location systems allow the user to point
considerably. It is with the advent of inexpensive satellite
cameraphones at an object or location and receive back
positioning technologies that location can be determined
relevant information from a database. Nokia researchers
to within a few metres and absolute geographic locations
have developed a Mobile Augmented Reality Application
can be accurately established. Global Positioning System
(MARA) that is able to overlay digital information onto
(GPS) chips now provide better coverage and can be
cameraphone feeds of the real world. It uses GPS,
found in many consumer devices such as PDAs, mobile
an accelerometer, digital compass and database of
phones and even school bags [http://ubiks.net/
locations [http://research.nokia.com/research/
local/blog/jmt/archives3/2004/10/index.php]. GPS
projects/mara/index.html].
can be coupled with navigation and personal locator
services (likely to appear in UK in 2007 according to ABI Japanese mobile phone networks offer a similar system

Research[http://www.abiresearch.com/abiprdisplay. developed by GeoVector Corporation. It enables users

jsp?pressid=766]). An alternative European satellite to point their devices at buildings or other locations

positioning system, Galileo , is also in development and

10 in order to retrieve information and services related to

should provide greater reliability and accuracy that place. A variety of innovative uses from mapping,
tourist information, local search, mobile commerce,
Proximity devices like RFID chips rely on a user or device
entertainment/shopping guides and advertising are
coming near to them before an event is triggered. This
envisaged [http://www.geovector.com/appdemos/].

7 IMS Research http://www.imsresearch.com/

8 O’Reilly Where 2.0 Conference, http://conferences.oreillynet.com/where2007/
9 Ekahau http://www.ekahau.com/
10 Galileo European satellite navigation system http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/energy_transport/galileo/index_en.htm 68
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Tagging the world Sensor networks
Location based and visual recognition systems have also Attaching sensors to RFID tags or other wireless
been used in educational projects to allow learners to nodes enables much more information to be gathered
access context related content (text, sounds, photos, and analysed as well as adding more ‘awareness’ to
video and websites) about objects and places in ubiquitous networks. This awareness means that the
museums or in especially created learning environments network can detect and respond to the environment,
(see for example EQUATOR projects such as Ambient often without any human interaction. Typically sensors
Wood [http://www.mrl.nott.ac.uk/]). For more can measure things like pressure, temperature, speed,
information on innovative projects in these areas see air/water quality, stress, humidity, or acceleration.
Bill Sharpe’s article in Emerging technologies for learning Wireless sensors consist of sensor(s) connected to
(Becta, 2006). micro-controllers, memory, batteries and radios.
These ‘mediascapes’ or learning trails are relatively Each wireless sensor node usually forms part of peer to
straightforward for teachers to create, for example peer, mesh network (routing data through other nodes)
[http://createascape.org.uk/] or CAERUS that is self-configuring and has inbuilt redundancy. These
[http://portal.cetadl.bham.ac.uk/caerus/default.aspx]. autonomous networks are very scaleable and flexible,
Students then navigate and interact with these learning allowing self-discovery of new nodes and can cover large
environments using mobile devices. Often a record of areas without the need for extensive fixed infrastructure
the learner’s route and interactions can be recorded. It (for example a sensor mesh network monitoring island
is also possible for learners to tag their own content to weather conditions off Korea covers 80 square miles).
particular locations so that others can access it when Sensor networks can now be deployed very quickly and
they are at that location, or it can be explored in more can use web services to integrate with other IT systems.
detail in the classroom. This ‘digital graffiti’ (such as Many sensor networks require little power and could
photos, text, video or audio files) is ‘geotagged’ data potentially be deployed for a number of years.
that can be uploaded to the web and shared. Mappr
MEMS
[http://www.mappr.com] is one website that combines
tagged photos from Flickr with Google Earth maps. This Micro Electro-mechanical Systems (MEMS) are moving
is part of Web 2.0, using the power of communities to parts on chips that are used to sense the environment
add value to data. Indeed, combining location-based and potentially to initiate an action, allowing systems
information with digital maps can be a powerful learning to respond to the real world around them. For example
tool. For example pollution levels could be tracked and these are already used in cars to detect collisions and
overlaid on maps. By adding sensors to the environment, deploy airbags. Inertia sensors have been embedded in
this could be done in real-time. some mobile phones and games controllers (such as the
Nintendo Wii) to allow users to interact with the device
Sensing through movement.
Having an identity and location information enables a Research from InStat suggests that MEMS in mobile
variety of applications and uses, but adding a sensing handsets will be worth $1 billion by 2010 [http://www.
capability can give systems ‘eyes and ears’ creating instat.com/newmk.asp?ID=1671&SourceID=0000036
intelligent networks that can collect a range of data and 6000000000000].
even respond to events.

69
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Motes/smart dust Context awareness
A development of sensor networks variously known One of the main goals of ubiquitous computing is to
as motes, smart dust, and speckles, involves extremely provide relevant information, in the right form, at the
small sensor nodes, potentially the size of a grain of time and place it is needed. If objects and devices
rice. These ‘smart dust’ networks are very robust can recognise you and know about their location and
and can be scattered or sprayed into an environment environment and automatically discover other devices
or on an object. These systems are still very much and resources (multi-sensorality), then the potential
in development, but are being researched by various for delivering the appropriate, ‘just in time’ information
organisations around the world [http://www.specknet. increases. Learning systems would be able to adapt
org/publications/Steven4_ICSE04.pdf]. their output based on a range of unique characteristics.
This is key to customised and personalised information
Connectivity
systems that remain invisible until needed.
Wireless connectivity is key to enabling ubiquitous
Already, our attention is being taken up by streams of
computing, but the increasing range of technologies is
often unmediated information. Context- aware systems
beyond the scope of this article. You can keep up with
should help filter information and make IT work for us
developments in wireless technologies through Becta’s
without us having to actively interrogate systems. This
TechNews www.becta.org.uk/technews.
allows learners to concentrate on the task rather then
the technology.
Potential for learning
In education the ability to receive and manipulate real- Intelligent agents
time data and interact with objects and devices in the
Intelligent agents are proactive, autonomous, software
real world has a range of benefits. Science, for example,
tools and systems that can determine appropriate
involves measuring the world, analysing data and testing
actions based on a range of data from multiple sources.
hypotheses. By accessing sensors embedded in the
Often they can ‘learn’ from experience. They enable
environment, learners have the opportunity to conduct
systems to become ‘aware’ and respond intelligently to
their own investigations, develop analytical/critical
events. Sometimes this will mean informing or alerting
thinking skills and model concepts. The Coastal Ocean
a human user, but in other cases the system will make
Observation Laboratory based at Rutgers University
decisions. These systems may respond to environmental
(USA) can be accessed online by schools enabling
data (much as the thermostat in your home controls the
learners to use and manipulate real time data collected
central heating), but for learning it means systems that
from sensors in the ocean [www.coolclassroom.
know who you are, what your preferences and learning
org/home.html]. In this experiential learning learners
styles are, where you are, what device you are using and
have the opportunity to use exactly the same data as
what you are doing. This allows systems to become much
professional researchers. This is part of what Bruner calls
more human/learner centred. [http://agents.umbc.edu/].
‘learning to be’11 rather than ‘learning about’.

11 Bruner, J. (1969) The Process of Education, Harvard University Press, US 70

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Service discovery and follow me services The acknowledgment of the user’s affective state might
Increasingly, devices and systems will be able to discover play an important role in improving the effectiveness
tools and services automatically. At a simple level this of e-learning. The emotional unawareness has been
could mean being able to locate and use nearby printers, considered one of the main limits of the traditional
or large-screen displays, but increasingly this will allow e-learning tools (especially the ones where learning
content to recognise and follow the user (rather then takes place mostly individually). In fact, while skilled
the device), seamlessly moving from device to device or teachers can modify the learning path and their teaching
display to display as a user moves from home, to a car to style according to the feedback signals provided by
a classroom or office. Some of this is already beginning the learners (which include cognitive, emotional and
to happen: automatic connection to Wi-Fi hotspots; motivational aspects), e-learning platforms cannot
the ability to access remote content/devices through generally take account of these feedbacks resulting
any device with a browser; follow me phone services; often too rigid and weakened.
presence capabilities in instant messaging applications. The Potential of Affective Computing in E-Learning:
However, it is not yet seamless or personal enough and MYSELF project experience (Centre for Research in
usually relies on some user action. Communication Science, University of Milan paper for
INTERACT 2005 Conference) [http://images.1-to-x.com/
Emotional/social awareness acse/artMySelf02.pdf].
Initial applications are likely to make interfaces behave
more socially by knowing where you are or what you are
doing. This could mean, for example, that your phone
won’t ring during an exam or while you are in the cinema, Human Computer Interaction (HCI)
and devices will switch on when you pick them up and off We have seen how location- and context-aware
when you put them down. technologies can help provide the right information in the
Research is also looking at ‘affective computing’, through right place and at the right time, but for this to be truly
detecting the emotional state and attention of the learner. transformational it also requires a shift in the way that we
Voice analysis (already used in call centres), gaze tracking, interact with computer systems themselves.
skin conductivity, facial expression analysis (machine Despite major advances in computer technology, human
vision) [http://web.media.mit.edu/%7Ejackylee/ computer interaction is still largely based on mice,
publication/p1007-lee.pdf], location and the way a keyboards and the monitor. Interacting with computers
user interacts with a system can all give clues as to the and the skills needed to do this effectively can present
state and receptiveness of the learner. Research such a barrier to using the potential of connected information
as the EU-funded Learning in Process12 project has systems and the real world web of connected objects
already looked at delivering context-sensitive resources and locations.
to the learner [http://www.andreas-p-schmidt. There have been developments in voice recognition,
de/publications/abis05_aschmidt.pdf] Over time gesture recognition, haptics, eye-tracking, handwriting
developments are likely to allow educational applications recognition, display devices and a range of other
to tailor outputs more appropriately to how receptive to technologies (see Paul Anderson’s piece on HCI in ETL
learning the user is at any given time and not just to a 2006 for an exploration of how these technologies may
more fixed profile of preferences and learning styles. develop and be used in education). However, these have

12 Learning in Process (EU Framework 5) http://www.learninginprocess.com/ 71

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largely remained niche technologies, prevented from [http://new.nabaztag.com/en/index.html]
becoming more widely used due to usability issues or the
fact that they don’t necessarily improve productivity.
Nabaztag/tag by Violet
In ubiquitous computing the traditional computer and http://new.nabaztag.
display no longer provide the only window on the virtual com/en/index.html

world; the computer will have become embedded all

around us in a variety of devices, objects and locations.
These non-PC end points (smart objects) often benefit
from non-PC interfaces involving touch and movement
(tangible interfaces). This is not to say that in a few years
we will no longer be staring at computer monitors, but
that there will be increasingly more intuitive and natural
ways of receiving information from computer systems
and interacting with them. This has been likened to
the role of electricity and writing in our environment,
both of which are fairly ubiquitous, but which largely go
The Ambient Orb changes colour to present information
unnoticed until needed.
relevant to the user such as share prices and the
weather. [http://www.ambientdevices.com/cat/orb/
Ambient Information
orborder.html].
Information is increasingly available in ways that do not
require our permanent attention. Already, RSS feeds
Source: Ambient Devices
push relevant news and other web content to us,
saving the need to actively visit the websites to see if
anything has been added. That idea is now being taken
further with the relevant information been presented
‘ambiently’ through everyday objects and devices in our
environment, without the need for explicit user action
or continuous attention. This lowers the barriers to
accessing digital information and makes the increasing
amount of data vying for our attention more manageable.
Ambient display devices can use audio/sound, light,
vibration, colour or movement. This is part of a move to
more natural, multi-modal interfaces.
Some ambient display devices with glanceable interfaces
are already available in the consumer market. For Ultimately, HCI may not be about how we interact
example the Nabaztag (Armenian for rabbit) connects with particular devices. As the environment around us
to the internet via Wi-Fi and through sound, light and becomes the ’computer’, HCI could become a separate
movement can provide its owner with emails/messages, layer for interacting with multiple computers, nodes
information from RSS feeds (such as news or weather and systems.
updates), inform the owner when friends are online and
even teach TaiChi.
72
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Smart classrooms This paper describes classrooms that respond and adapt
Commercial products can already automatically capture to human occupants and the technologies that can be
audio, video and digital resources from lessons and used to create them.
publish them to the web; several research projects have
Tangible interfaces and learning
looked at how classrooms could benefit from the use of
embedded technologies (see examples below). These The use of smart objects and ambient/tangible interfaces
intelligent classrooms are able to track and respond in education can have many benefits, including helping
to the needs of learners and teachers and allow the kinaesthetic learners. They allow students to learn by
use of technology to become much more seamless. doing and remove the barrier of the standard computer
This not only reduces the burden of managing and interface so that learners can concentrate on the task
operating technology in the classroom, but ultimately rather than how to do it. However, although the more
allows the classroom to add to the learning process. physical learning which is possible through smart
Intelligent environments make use of sensors, cameras, objects/tangible interfaces can improve performance,
microphones/speakers and actuators and are controlled there is a risk that if not used well, they will prevent more
by intelligent agents (see above). At a simple level these theoretical understanding of concepts
technologies allow automatic environmental control (such …research has shown that it is important to build in
as appropriate lighting for a particular task and automatic activities that support children in reflecting upon the
switching on of devices), but as the room can recognise representational mappings themselves. DeLoache’s
work suggests that focusing children’s attention on
the learner or teacher more sophisticated interaction is symbols as objects may make it harder for them to
possible, enabling user/context sensitive actions and a reason with symbols as representations.
seamless link between school and home. Literature Review in Learning with Tangible
At the front-end of an AmI [ambient intelligece] Technologies, O’Malley, C, Fraser, D,
system are a variety of tiny devices that can hear, Futurelab, 2006
see, or feel an end-user’s presence. At the back-
end, wireless-based networked systems make Telepresence/robots
sense of these data, identifying the end-user and Telepresence refers to technologies that allow a user/
understanding his/her needs. learner to act remotely as if they were actually at another
Ambient Intelligence: Changing forms of location. Telepresence technologies are developing
Human-Computer Interaction and their social in two ways. Firstly, high-definition, life-size video
implications13. conferencing facilities are now available from a variety of
Some examples of intelligent classroom projects include companies (see for example HP’s Halo system: http://
the MIT Project Oxygen (E21 Intelligent Spaces) [http:// www.hp.com/halo/index.html).
www.oxygen.lcs.mit.edu/E21.html] and Intrinsically Secondly, a range of technologies allow users to control
Motivated Intelligent Rooms cameras, robots and other devices equipped with
[www.arch.usyd.edu.au/~mary/Pubs/2005pdf/Ubiq_ sensors at remote locations. Here, intuitive, immersive
Comptg_Macindoe.pdf] interfaces using video, haptics, and/or virtual reality are
being developed (see http://www.chattenassociates.
(Owen Macindoe and Mary Lou Maher, December 2005).
com/ (a head-aimed remote viewer) and http://
telepresence.dmem.strath.ac.uk/technology.htm).

13 Mahesh S. Raisinghani*, Ally Benoit, Jianchun Ding, Maria Gomez, Kanak Gupta, Victor Gusila, Daniel Power and Oliver
Schmedding, Ambient Intelligence: Changing Forms of Human-Computer Interaction and their Social Implications Journal of
Digital Information, Volume 5 Issue 4 Article No. 271, 2004-08-24 http://jodi.ecs.soton.ac.uk/Articles/v05/i04/Raisinghani/ 73
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Source: http://www.hp.com/halo

…I can envision a future in which robotic devices will which data they wish to obtain from the facility and
become a nearly ubiquitous part of our day-to-day to generate information in support of their learning
lives. I believe that technologies such as distributed programme. This could be extended to many other
computing, voice and visual recognition, and wireless areas of the curriculum, by looking at the real world
broadband connectivity will open the door to a science used across a range of industries.
new generation of autonomous devices that enable An evaluation of the Bradford Robotic Telescope, Smith,
computers to perform tasks in the physical world on P., Hoshin, 2006 [http://www.telescope.org/articles/
our behalf. We may be on the verge of a new era, YFRobotics.pdf].
when the PC will get up off the desktop and allow us
to see, hear, touch and manipulate objects in places
where we are not physically present.
Bill Gates, A Robot in Every Home, Scientific Information/data handling
American, January 2007 The power of the network increases exponentially by
These sorts of technologies are already being used the number of computers connected to it. Therefore,
in scientific and military work and for consultations or every computer added to the network both uses it as a
surgery carried out remotely. resource while adding resources in a spiral of increasing
value and choice.
For education the potential of these technologies is
huge. They can allow learners to experience, explore Bob Metcalfe15
and interact with remote locations, foreign countries and The real world network of data will allow humans to be
inhospitable/inaccessible or environmentally sensitive better informed and make better decisions, but it will
places. Some simple, educational projects already exist. also mean that machines can make better decisions
For example, the MIT iLab14 allows students to conduct too. However, the vast amounts of data about people,
experiments remotely over the internet. The Bradford things and the environment that a ubiquitous computing
robotic telescope allows learners to request images world would generate will require new ways of handling,
from a professional space telescope located in Tenerife searching and presenting information.
[http://www.telescope.org/]. An evaluation of the Firstly, we will need new applications to take advantage
project found that it was: of the range of real-time data being collected. Something
…a new type of learning website supported by a similar to this can be seen in business intelligence
real world facility which provides real time access to applications that provide constantly updated sales
operational data to support learning programmes. figures, trends and performance measurements to
The learner has a degree of freedom to define managers’ desktops. In education learners will be able

14 MIT/Microsoft iLabs http://icampus.mit.edu/ilabs/

15 Metcalfe’s law. Attributed to Robert Metcalfe 74
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to receive and manipulate real-time data from sensor
networks and other distributed devices around the world. Machine to machine communication

Systems will increasingly be able to respond to data The ability for machines and systems to interrogate
coming from the real world and take appropriate action other machines and systems and share information
without human intervention. Increasingly computers will will be key to enabling the ubiquitous computing
be making decisions on our behalf, only presenting data vision. The development of a semantic web is
and information once it has been analysed and filtered to one suggested solution. The semantic web uses
be appropriate to our needs. This is part of a shift towards ontologies and schemas to separate data from
using computer intelligence ‘on demand’ and being how it is presented (unlike HTML) and give it a
presented with useful information rather than just data. structure that enables information on the web to
Secondly, we would need new architectures and data be retrieved, interpreted and shared by machines/
structures (scaleable and adaptable) to cope with intelligent agents rather than just humans. [http://
the enormous processing and storage requirements www.w3.org/2001/sw/]
of the ubiquitous world. This is likely to involve large For an exploration of potential uses of the semantic
scale networks using commodity technology to create web in education see http://www-jime.open.ac.uk
massive, resilient information networks with in built /2004/1/.
redundancy. Currently, the closest example of this is the
server farms employed by search companies such as
Google. Here commodity servers are used to carry out
massive parallel processing of data. However, this is a
highly centralised model; increasingly with ubiquitous
computing the intelligence is more distributed and moves
to the edge of the network. Conceivably, connected
devices and objects with embedded processors could
become part of a massive distributed computer.
More intelligent ways of managing (data warehousing),
searching (data mining), retrieving (knowledge discovery)
and presenting data are developing to cope with the
vast quantities of digital information stored and available
in real time. Displaying information so that it can be
interpreted intuitively will be important to making use
of the data. New knowledge presentation techniques
such as visual representations (and 3D) rather than text
and figures are likely to be increasingly important. There
is already a shift towards larger and multiple displays to
improve productivity.

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Issues
Some commentators believe that ubiquitous computing The problem, while often couched in terms of privacy,
is too complex to be achievable and that even if the is really one of control. If the computational system is
technology worked, we would not be able to cope with invisible as well as extensive, it becomes hard to know
the amount of data produced. There are also many what is controlling what, what is connected to what,
technical issues to overcome such as the reliability where information is flowing, how it is being used, what is
and dependability of systems. Other areas needing broken (vs what is working correctly, but not helpfully), and
development include hardware, interfaces, system what are the consequences of any given action (including
simply walking into a room).
architectures, standards for interoperability and battery life.
Weiser, M., Gold, R., Brown, J.S., The origins of
There are also genuine concerns about invasion of
ubiquitous computing research at PARC in the late
privacy, trust and the security of systems. Already, some
1980s [http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/
RFID schemes have been halted in schools [http://
sj/384/weiser.html].
networks.silicon.com/lans/0,39024663,39127946,
00.htm] and the commercial sector because of public Finally, there are questions over the social impact and
desirability of such pervasive technologies. Potentially
concerns [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/03/01/
ubiquitous computing technologies could, among other
german_revolt_against_rfid/]. RFID enabled passports
benefits, help tackle the digital divide, address issues of
have been shown to be insecure [http://www.fidis.net/
an ageing population and encourage life-long learning.
press-events/press-releases/budapest-declaration/].
However, many benefits may be more trivial or marginal
Ubiquitous computing is more invasive and persistent and need to be set against the financial and privacy
than for example, the internet. It would often work costs of developing such an infrastructure. We need to
without any explicit user action and generate a great separate the desirable from the possible.
deal of information about a user’s location and actions.
It has been suggested that we may need to move to a
new idea of ‘privacy’. This would involve acceptance
that a great deal of information is collected about us, but
concentrate on maintaining control of who has access to
that information and for what purposes it can be used.
Even now, people can be tracked through their mobile
phones, credit/loyalty cards, and CCTV, but the
convenience and benefits of these technologies are
often seen as outweighing the concerns. This may not
always be the case and policies and protections need
to be put in place, especially when dealing with
information about learners.

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Conclusion
The original vision of ubiquitous computing, with an to systems. These technologies are likely to develop
extensive real world web of networked objects and rapidly over the next five years and will see a number
devices may take at least 10-15 years to come close of elements of ubiquitous computing being actively and
to being realised. Indeed, it is unclear whether we will usefully adopted. Moreover, many of the possible uses
ever reach a situation where widespread intelligent, of these technologies cannot be imagined today. Over
embedded technologies operate seamlessly in the time these developments will increasingly enable more
environment around us. However, even if this vision is immediate, personalised, experiential and context-based
never achieved, processing, identity, connectivity and learning where natural interactions take place between
sensing are already being added to an increasing number people, systems, places and objects.
of objects, locations and devices. These are beginning Mobile learning16 takes computers out of the classroom
to allow new interactions and ways of interfacing with into the world; with ubiquitous computing the world
computer systems, as well as adding new intelligence becomes the classroom and the computer.

Mobile phone as interface to the world

Connected mobile devices could provide a gateway between us and the virtual and physical worlds.
Today, handheld devices (and in particular the increasingly smart mobile phone) offer us a pervasive, trusted and
reliable interface that is always with us. A recent report from the ITU [ITU Internet report 2006:Digital Life, http://
www.itu.int/osg/spu/publications/digitalife/] found that one in three of the world’s population (much more in
developed countries) now have mobile phones and within two years that is expected to increase to over 50 per
cent. Mobile phones are adding more powerful processors and applications, content creation tools, a range of
wireless technologies, GPS, cameras, sensors and RFID chips and readers that enable always-on connectivity,
internet access, social networking and the possibility of interacting with objects and devices in the real world. The
social aspects of the mobile phone already make it a natural and personal part of our lives, arguably unlike the PC.
This is especially true for students. The permanent ‘info-cloud’ formed by wireless, mobile devices and the internet
and the fact that these technologies are unobtrusively becoming part of our lives, helps create what Wade Roush
calls ‘continuous computing’ [http://www.continuousblog.net/2005/05/what_is_continu.html]. This can only be
achieved with always-on connections and unlimited data tariffs to encourage widespread use.

16 for an exploration of the benefits of mobile learning see Geoff Stead’s article in Emerging technologies for learning (Becta, 2006) 77
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References and further reading
2006 Horizon Report The New Media Consortium and the EDUCAUSE Learning Initiative,
The New Media Consortium 2006

Ambient inteliigence.org, site developed by Giuseppe Riva, Ph.D. within the work of the VEPSY research project (IST-
2000-25323) funded by the European Union http://www.ambientintelligence.org/

Anderson ,P., Will we be able to cope with the invisible computer?

ISC Technology and Standards Watch report on The Computer Journal Lecture for the British Computer Society:
Ubiquitous computing: shall we understand it? Presented by Professor Robin Milner, University of Cambridge, 23
February 2006.

Cooperstock, Jeremy R., Intelligent Classrooms need Intelligent Interfaces: How to build a high-tech teaching
environment that teachers can use, Centre for Intelligent Machines, McGill University

Denziger, J., Some Thoughts on Future IST from a Designer’s Perspective Designing Ubiquitous Computing,
Frankfurt/Main, Germany

Friedewald, M., (Fraunhofer Institute Systems and Innovation Research ISI)

Da Costa, O., (Institute for Prospective Technology Studies IPTS), Final report of the JRC-IPTS/ESTO project Ambient
Intelligence in Everyday Life Roadmap, submitted for approval to the Executive Committee of the European Science
and Technology Observatory (ESTO) in August 2003.

Goerlich, J. Wolfgang, InTouch RP-6 Medical Telepresence Robot, Go Robotics, February 2006
http://www.gorobotics.net/The-News/Latest-News/InTouch-RP%116-Medical-Telepresence-Robot/

IEEE Computer Society: www.computer.org/portal/site/pervasive

ISTAG, Information Society Technologies Advisory Group, Advisory Group to the European Community’s Information
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Lawlor, M., Collaborative Technologies Demand Deep Change, Signal Magazine AFCEA’s international Journal,
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Ogata, H., Yano, Y., Context-Aware Support for Computer-Supported Ubiquitous Learning Dept. of Information
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Mobile Technologies in Education (WMTE’04)

Raisinghani, M., Benoit, A., Ding, J., Gomez, M., Gupta, K., Gusila, V., Power, D., Schmedding, O., Ambient
Intelligence: Changing Forms of Human-Computer Interaction and their Social Implications, Journal of Digital
Information, Volume 5 Issue 4 Article No. 271,2004

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Pervasive Computing Net: www.pervasivecomputing.net

RFID Journal http://www.rfidjournal.com/

Rogers, Yvonne and Sara Price. Extending and Augmenting Scientific Enquiry through Pervasive Learning
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Sakamura, K. Koshizuka, N., Ubiquitous Computing Technologies for Ubiquitous Learning, YRP Ubiquitous
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Stankovic, John A. Lee, Insup, Mok, Aloysius,Opportunities and Obligations for Physical Computing Systems,
IEEE 2005

Tinker,R., Banasch, S., Draft: SmartProbes Concept Paper, The Concord Consortium

Ward, M., Van Kranenburg, R., Backhouse, G., RFID: Frequency, standards, adoption and innovation JISC
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