UNESCO Report

Engineering:
Issues
Challenges and
Opportunities
for Development
Produced in conjunction with:
• World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO)
• International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences (CAETS) • International
Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC)

UNESCO
Publishing
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
Published in 2010 by the United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and
Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France

© UNESCO, 2010
All rights reserved.

ISBN 978-92-3-104156-3

Th e ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the

authors and are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit
the Organization.

Th e designations employed and the presentation of material throughout

this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever
on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city or area or of its authorities or concerning the delimitation of
its frontiers or boundaries.

Cover photos: Drew Corbyn, EWB-UK; Paula West, Australia; fl ickr

garion007ph; Angela Sevin, Flickr; imageafter; Tony Marjoram; SAICE;
UKRC; Joe Mulligan, EWB-UK.

All full-page images from chapter introduction pages are by kind courtesy of Arup.

Typeset and graphic design: Gérard Prosper

Cover design: Maro Haas
Printed by: UNESCO

Printed in France
2

Engineering is often the unsung partner to science – I hope

Irina Bokova, Director-General, UNESC Engineering: Issues Challenges and Opportunities, UNESCO’s fi
O rst report on engineering, will contribute to changing that.
Th is landmark report on engineering and development is the fi rst
of its kind to be produced by UNESCO, or indeed by any inter
national organization.

Containing highly informative and insightful contributions from 120

experts from all over the world, the report gives a new per
spective on the very great importance of the engineer’s role in
development.

Advances in engineering have been central to human progress

Forewor
d
ever since the invention of the wheel. In the past hundred and fi
fty years in particular, engineering and technology have
transformed the world we live in, contributing to signifi cantly
longer life expectancy and enhanced quality of life for large
numbers of the world’s population.

Yet improved healthcare, housing, nutrition, transport,

communications, and the many other benefi ts engineering brings
are dis tributed unevenly throughout the world. Millions of people
do not have clean drinking water and proper sanitation, they do
not have access to a medical centre, they may travel many miles
on foot along unmade tracks every day to get to work or school.

As we look ahead to 2015, and the fast-approaching deadline for

achieving the United Nations’ eight Millennium Development
Goals, it is vital that we take the full measure of engineering’s
capacity to make a diff erence in the developing world.

Th e goal of primary education for all will require that new schools
and roads be built, just as improving maternal healthcare will
require better and more accessible facilities. Environmental
sustainability will require better pollution control, clean technology,
and improvements in farming practices.

Th is is why engineering deserves our attention, and why its

contribution to development must be acknowledged fully.

If engineering’s role is more visible and better understood more

people would be attracted to it as a career. Now and in the years
to come, we need to ensure that motivated young women and
men concerned about problems in the developing world continue
to enter the fi eld in suffi cient numbers. It is estimated that some
2.5 million new engineers and technicians will be needed in
sub-Saharan Africa alone if that region is to achieve the
Millennium Development Goal of improved access to clean water
and sanitation.

Th e current economic crisis presents challenges and

opportunities for engineering. Th e risk is great that cuts in
education funding will reduce training opportunities for potential
engineering students. However, there are encouraging signs that
world leaders recognize the importance of continuing to fund
engineering, science and technology at a time when investments
in infrastruc ture, technology for climate change mitigation and
adaptation in such areas as renewable energy may provide a path
to economic recovery and sustainable development.
 especially in the developing world, is a vitally important
international responsibility.

Engineering as a human endeavour is also facing numerous

additional challenges of its own, including attracting and retain ing
broader cross-sections of our youth, particularly women;
strengthening the educational enterprise; forging more eff ective
interdisciplinary alliances with the natural and social sciences and
the arts; enhancing our focus on innovation, entrepreneurship
and job creation, and; promoting increased public awareness and
support for the engineering enterprise. Th is volume, the fi rst
UNESCO Report on engineering, is an attempt to contribute to
greater international understanding of the issues, challenges and
opportunities facing engineering, with a particular focus on
contributions of our discipline to sustainable development.

Th e Report, one of the most cost-eff ective reports UNESCO has

published, is based almost entirely on voluntary contributions
from the international engineering community. I would like to begin
by thanking the over hundred contributors. I would also like to
commend the coordinating and editorial team for their eff orts –
Tony Marjoram, Andrew Lamb, Francoise Lee, Cornelia Hauke
and Christina Rafaela Garcia, supported by Maciej Nalecz,
Director of UNESCO’s Basic and Engineering Sciences Division. I
would also like to off er my heartfelt appreciation to our partners –
Tahani Youssef, Barry Grear and colleagues in the World
Federation of Engineering Organisations, Peter Boswell, John
Boyd and colleagues in the International Federation of Consulting
Engineers, Bill Salmon, Gerard van Oortmerssen and colleagues
in the International Council of Academies of Engineering and
Technological Sciences. I also thank the members of the editorial
advisory committee, and especially the co-chair, Kamel Ayadi, for
their help in getting the Report off the ground.

Th is Report is a worthy partner to four UNESCO Science

Reports, the fi rst of which was published in 1998. Although
engineer ing is considered a component of “science” in the broad
sense, engineering was not prominent in these reports. Th is
opened the door to increasing calls from the international
engineering community for an international study of engineering,
and particularly of the role of engineering in international
development. Th is Report helps address the balance and need
for such a study. As the Director-General has noted, the future for
engineering at UNESCO is also looking brighter following the
proposal for an Interna
3 tional Engineering Programme that was adopted at our recent
Executive Board and General Conference in October 2009.

Gretchen Kalonji, Assistant Director-General for Given its pervasiveness, engineering is indeed a deep and
diverse topic, as this report illustrates. We have tried to cover the
Natural Sciences, UNESC breadth and depth of engineering as best we can, given the
O
constraints we faced, and indeed Tony Marjoram and his team
Th e critical roles of engineering in addressing the large-scale
have done a wonderful job in pulling it all together. We hope the
pressing challenges facing our societies worldwide are widely rec
Report will prove useful to a broad community, and are committed
ognized. Such large-scale challenges include access to aff
to continue to work together with our partners in the design of
ordable health care; tackling the coupled issues of energy,
appropriate follow-up activities.
transporta tion and climate change; providing more equitable

Prefac
access to information for our populations; clean drinking water;
natural and man-made disaster mitigation, environmental

e
protection and natural resource management, among numerous
others. As such, mobilizing the engineering community to
become more eff ective in delivering real products and services of
benefi t to society,
 5

Executive SummaryAn agenda for

engineering
Th is is the fi rst UNESCO report on engineering, and indeed the fi rst report on engineering at the
international level. With a focus on development, the Report has been produced in response to calls to
address what was perceived as a particular need and serious gap in the literature. Th e Report has been
developed by UNESCO, the intergovernmental organization responsible for science, including
engineering, in conjunction with individual engineers and the main international engineering
organizations: the World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO), the International Council of
Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences (CAETS) and the International Federation of
 Consulting Engineers (FIDIC). Many distinguished engineers and engineering organizations were invited
to contribute to the Report, and responded overwhelmingly with articles, photographs and their time on
an entirely voluntary basis – underlining the commitment and enthusiasm of the engineering community to
this pioneering enterprise.

Th e Report is a platform for the presentation and discussion of the role of engineering in development,
with particular reference to issues, challenges and opportunities. Overall global issues and challenges
include: the need to reduce poverty, promote sustainable social and economic development and address
the other UN Millennium Development Goals; globalization; and the need to bridge the digital and
broader technological and knowledge divides. Specifi c emerging issues and challenges include: climate
change mitigation and adaptation and the urgent need to move to a low-carbon future; the recent fi
nancial and economic crisis and recession – the worst since the 1930s; and calls for increased
investment in infrastructure, engineering capacity and associated research and development. At the
same time, many countries are concerned about the apparent decline in interest and enrolment of young
people, especially young women, in engineering, science and technology. What eff ect will this have on
capacity and development, particularly in developing countries already aff ected by brain-drain?

Th e Report sheds new light on the need to:

■
develop public and policy awareness and understanding of engineering, affi rming the role of engineering
as the driver of innovation, social and economic development;

■
develop information on engineering, highlighting the urgent need for better statistics and indicators on
engineering (such as how many and what types of engineers a country has and needs – which was
beyond the scope of this Report);

■
transform engineering education, curricula and teaching methods to emphasize relevance and a
problem-solving approach to engineering;

■
more eff ectively innovate and apply engineering and technology to global issues and challenges such
as poverty reduction, sustainable development and climate change – and urgently develop greener
engineering and lower carbon technology.

Th e Report shows that the possible solutions to many of these issues, challenges and opportunities are
interconnected. For example, a clear fi nding is that when young people, the wider public and
policy-makers see information and indicators showing that engineering, innovation and technology are
part of the solution to global issues, their attention and interest are raised and they are attracted to
engineering. Th e Report is an international response to the pressing need for the engineering community
to engage with both these wider audiences and the private sector in promoting such an agenda for
engineering – and for the world.

Statement
World Federation of Engineering
Organizations Barry J. Grear AO, President
s
WFEO 2007–09
Th is Report presents an important opportunity. As gives the world’s engineering community a chance
the fi rst ever international report on engineering, it to present the signifi cant contribution that
engineering makes to our world. to the development of the book and particularly
the editor, Dr Tony Marjoram, who has been an
The Report explores the main issues and encourager to the engineering community through
challenges facing engineering for development – his role at UNESCO.
for the development of engineering and the crucial
role of engineering in international development. The World Federation of Engineering
Organizations was founded by a group of regional
Th e concerns, ideas and examples of good engineering organizations and in 2008 we
practice captured in this Report provide valuable celebrated forty years of its existence as an interna
information for government policy makers, tional non-governmental organization. WFEO
engineering organizations, international brings together regional and national engineering
development organizations, engineering colleagues organizations from more than ninety countries,
and the wider public to understand the future of representing approximately fi fteen mil
engineering, capacity needs, engineer lion engineers; we are honoured to be associated
ing and technical education, and engineering with the pro duction of this fi rst UNESCO
applications. Engineering Report.
I congratulate and thank all who have contributed

International Council of Academies of Engineering and

Technological Sciences Gerard van Oortmerssen, President CAETS, 2008
to some degree, have been caused by
developments for which engineers are responsible:
the deple tion of natural resources, environmental
CAETS, the International Council of Academies problems and climate change. Talented engineers
are needed to provide solutions for these
of Engineer ing and Technological Sciences,
problems through greater effi ciency in production
recognizes the importance of revitalizing
processes and transportation systems, new
engineering as a profession.
sustainable energy sources, more effi cient use of
materials, the recovery of materi
Engineers are responsible for technological als from waste... the list is long.
development that has created our modern society;
they have built infrastruc ture, industrial
Th ere is growing demand for engineering talent
production, mechanized agriculture, modern
from a growing and developing global population.
transportation systems, and technological
And the nature of engineer ing is changing.
innovations such as mass media, computers and
Engineering has always been multi-disciplinary in
communication systems. Technological
nature, combining physics, chemistry and
development is continuing at an ever-increas
mathematics with creative design, invention and
ing pace, especially in new areas such as
innovation; but its scope is increasing. Engineers,
information and communication technology,
more and more, have to be aware of the social
nanotechnology and biotech nology. Th ese
and environmental impacts of technology, and
developments are exciting, require increased
have to work in complex teams, interacting and
engineering capacity and deserve public acclaim.
cooperating with society.
Technologi cal innovations have created wealth,
facilitated our life and provided comfort.
It is unfortunate that, under these circumstances of
growing need for multi-talented engineers, the
For some. But not for all.
interest in engineering among young people is
waning in so many countries. Aware ness of the
Prosperity and economic development are not importance and the changing nature of engineer
distributed equally over the world. Realization of ing should be raised in circles of government as
the United Nations Mil lennium Development Goals well as the general public.
will require signifi cant eff ort by engineers, but
also creativity because the contexts of develop ing
CAETS therefore very much welcomes this
countries often requires new ways of doing things
UNESCO eff ort to explore the current state of
or the rediscovery of traditional techniques.
engineering, and the issues and challenges for its
development and for global development.
In addition, there are new challenges for
engineers. Our society is facing problems, which,
 7
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

International Federation of Consulting

Engineers John Boyd, President FIDIC 2007–09
Th e International Federation of Consulting Engineers ( FIDIC)
is the international organization that represents the business
of consulting engineering worldwide. Th is Report deals with
issues that are key to the ongoing success of our industry, pro
fession and society, and we are very pleased to have partici
pated in its preparation. It comes at an important time. Th e
profession of engineering is diminishing particularly in devel
oped countries where our services, like our profession, have
become invisible. We have in many ways created this problem
ourselves. Ironically, this has come at a time when the need for
engineering innovation has never been more apparent.

Issues of sustainable development, poverty reduction and

climate change are fundamentally engineering issues. We have

Wright brothers, fi rst

powered aircraft fl ight, 1903.

© Wikimedia commons
to learn to broaden our design brief beyond the traditional
objectives of schedule, cost and conventional scope. We have to
learn to include broader societal necessities such as minimizing
water, energy and materials use, respecting human and cultural
rights, and looking out for health and safety, not only within the
work but also in its impacts.
 values regardless of their popularity.
Th is is a challenge that needs true engineering innovation.
Leadership in this issue requires us to go beyond our comfort Th is is our challenge, and this is our opportunity.
zone, to engage in the debates of our society, and to stand up for

8
engineering in sustainable social and Prieto-Laff argue, President from 2010,
economic development. Initial are also acknowledged as enthusiastic
acknowledgements are there supporters of the Report, as is
Th e inception, development, and fore due to the Executive Board and Director-General Irina Bokova, who has
production of this UNESCO Report was colleagues of the World Federation of emphasized the important role of
facilitated, supported, and promoted by Engineering Organizations ( WFEO), engineering in sus tainable social and
more than 150 individuals, organizations including Bill Rourke, Peter Greenwood economic development.
and institutions in the professional, and Barry Grear, who discussed and
public and private sectors. Without their endorsed the idea of an international Work on the Report began with
vol engineering report in 2005, to Kamel invitations to and discussions with Bill
untary generosity, commitment and Ayadi, WFEO President in 2006–07, who Salmon and colleagues from the
support, this world-fi rst international presented a proposal for a UNESCO International Coun cil of Academies of
Report may not have been possible. All Engineering Report to UNESCO in Engineering and Technological Sciences
are to be warmly congratulated on 2006, and to Koïchiro Matsuura, former ( CAETS), Peter Boswell and colleagues
behalf of the engineering and wider Director General of UNESCO, who at the International Federation of
communities for their enthusiastic approved the proposal, leading to the Consulting Engineers ( FIDIC), whose
patronage of a project attempting to fi ll beginning of work on the Report in support as partner organizations is
the gap in the paucity of information October 2006. Barry Grear, WFEO gratefully acknowledged. An edito
regard ing the important role of President in 2008–09, and Maria rial advisory committee was then formed,
drawn from engi neering organizations Greenish, Peter Greenwood, Yvonnne contributors also contributed
around the world, and consulted on an Issié Gueye, Leanne Hardwicke, Charlie photographs and other materials to
actual and virtual basis regarding the Hargroves, Rohani Hashim, Sascha illustrate the text, and special thanks in
structure and format of the Report. Th e Hermann, Bob Hodgson, Hans Jürgen this context go to Arup, a global technical
editorial advisory committee consisted Hoyer, Youssef Ibrahim, Azni Idris, consulting company, for the use of
of co-chairs Walter Erdelen, then Yumio Ishii, Mervyn Jones, Russ Jones, photographs of some of their projects
Assistant Director-General for Natural the Jordan Engineers Association, Paul around the world and their Drivers of
Sciences at UNESCO and Kamel Ayadi, Jowitt, Jan Kaczmarek, Marlene Kanga, Change publication, developed to help
together with Peter Boswell ( FIDIC), Anette Kolmos, Sam Kundishora, identify and explore issues fac ing and
George Bugliarello, Brian Figaji, Andrew Lamb, Ally son Lawless, Leizer aff ecting our world, to the South African
Monique Frize, Willi Fuchs, Issié Yvonne Lerner, Antje Lienert, Simon Lovatt, Juan Institution of Civil Engineers (SAICE)
Gueye, Charlie Har Lucena, Eriabu Lugujjo, Takaaki and the UK Institution of Civil Engi
groves, Yumio Ishii, Paul Jowitt, Andrew Maekawa, Don Mansell, Tony Marjoram, neers (ICE) – no report on engineering
Lamb, Eriabu Lugujjo, Najat Rochdi, Bill Petter Matthews, Jose Medem, Jean would be complete without a photograph
Salmon ( CAETS), Luiz Scavarda, Michel, James R. Mihelcic, Ian Miles, of Isambard Kingdom Brunel – one of
Moham med Sheya, Vladimir Yackovlev, Victor Miranda, Włodzimierz Miszal ski, the most famous founders of modern
Tahani Youssef, Miguel Angel Yadarola, Mokubung Mokubung, Jacques Moulot, engineering.
Zhong Yixin and Lidia Żakowska. Many Johann Mouton, Solomon Mwangi,
were also invited to contribute and all Douglas Oakervee, Gossett Oliver, The editorial team was based in the
are thanked for their help in organizing Rajendra Pachauri, Beverley Parkin, Engineering Sciences programme of the
the Report. Stuart Parkinson, Waldimir Pirró e Basic and Engineering Sciences Division
Longo, Arvind K. Poothia, Krishnamurthy in the Natural Sciences Sector of
Th e Report consists essentially of Ramanathan, Tony Ridley, Badaoui UNESCO, and consisted of Tony
invited contributions, sub mitted on an Rouhban, Bill Salmon, Luiz Scavarda, Marjoram, Senior Programme Specialist
honorary basis, and the generous David Singleton, Vladimir Sitsev, Jorge responsible for the engineering sciences
support of the following contributors is Spitalnik, Catherine Stans bury, Neill as coordinator and editor, Andrew Lamb,
highly appreciated: Menhem Stansbury, Don Stewart, Mario consultant technical editor and editorial
Alameddine, Sam Amod, Felix Atume, Telichevsky, Leia taua Tom Tinai, Susan advisor,
Margaret Austin, Kamel Ayadi, Gérard Th omas, K. Vairavamoorthy, Charles
Baron, Conrado Bauer, Jim Birch, Peggy Vest, Kevin Wall, Iring Wasser, Ron
Oti-Boateng, Nelius Boshoff , Peter Watermeyer, Philippe Wauters, Andrew
Boswell, David Botha, John Boyd, Damir West, John Woodcock, Vladimir
Acknowl
Brdjanovic, George Bugliarello, Lars Yackovlev, Miguel Angel Yadarola and
Bytoff , Jean Zhong Yixin. Gunnar Westholm and
Alison Young consulted on the
complexities of statistics and indicators
relating to science and engineering, and
Claude Charpentier, Tan Seng Chuan, their contribution helped identify some of
the issues and challenges regarding the
edgemen
Andrew Cleland, Regina Clewlow,
Daniel D. Clinton Jr., Jo da Silva, Mona urgent need for more detailed data
Dahms, Cláu dio Dall’Acqua, Darrel collection and disaggregation. Th e
Danyluk, Irenilza de Alencar Nääs, Erik UNESCO Institute of Statistics pro vided
de Graaff , Cheryl Desha, Allison Dickert, data for this Report, and their role in
t
s
Christelle Didier, Gary Downey, developing data is of obvious
Xiangyun Du, Wendy Faulkner, Monique importance. Further details of the
Frize, Willi Fuchs, Jacques Gaillard, Pat contributors are listed separately.
Galloway, P.S. Goel, Barry Grear, Phillip
Several of the above and other
 9
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
and commitment in overcoming issues and
challenges has created opportunities for
development that we hope more of us will be able
Cornelia Hauke and Christina Rafaela Garcia, to enjoy.
administrative editorial assistants, and Françoise
Lee, programme secretary. In the Natural
Sciences Sector, this team was supported by
Walter Erdelen, former Assistant Director-General
for Natu ral Sciences, Maciej Nalecz, Director of
Basic and Engineering Sciences, Badaoui
Rouhban, Mohan Perera, Guetta Alemash,
Rosana Karam, Djaff ar Moussa-Elkadhum, Sylvie
Venter, Eloise Loh, Pilar Chiang-Joo and Patricia
Niango. Ian Denison, Marie Renault, Isabelle
Nonain-Semelin, Gérard Prosper and col leagues
at the UNESCO Publications Unit in the Bureau of
Public Information helped develop, arrange
copy-editing, lay
out and printing of the Report, and manage over 120
individual
contracts that were required for the Report.
Particular thanks go to Andrew Lamb, whose
assistance in putting together and editing a
diversity of styles and lengths of contribution into
the 200,000 words of the Report has been
invaluable, and to Tomoko Honda, for her
understanding and support as the Report has
developed over the last two years. Finally, acknowl
edgement is due to the many thousands of
engineers and the engineering community –
present and past – whose work and enthusiasm
we hope is refl ected in this Report. Th eir spirit
 © ARUP

10
Engineering and Human Development Responsibility 50 2.4.3 Corporate Social

30 2.1 History of engineering; Responsibility 53 3 Engineering:

3 Foreword engineering at UNESCO
Emerging Issues and Challenges
5 Preface 30 2.1.1 A very short history of
54 3.1 Engineering, foresight and
6 Executive Summary engineering 32 2.1.2 Engineering at forecasts of the future

7 Statements UNESCO 56 3.2 Emerging and future areas of

engineering
9 Acknowledgements 39 2.2 Engineering, innovation, social
and economic development 59 3.3 A changing climate and
15 Introduction to the Reportport engineers of the future
43 2.3 Engineering, technology and
23 1 What is Engineering? 63 3.4 Th e engineering message –
society 44 2.4 Engineers and social
24 1.1 What engineering is, what getting it across
responsibility 44 2.4.1 The big issues
engineers do 27 1.2 Engineers, 65 3.5 Engineering and technology in
47 2.4.2 Engineering Social the third millennium
technologists and technicians 29 2
 engineers in education and employment Technological
69 4 An Overview of Engineering
Sciences (CAETS)
82 4.1.8 Engineering indicators – Tables
70 4.1 Engineering indicators –
140 4.3.5 International Federation of
measurement and metrics 124 4.2 Fields of engineering
Consulting Engineers (FIDIC)
71 4.1.1 The need for science and 124 4.2.1 Civil engineering
technology data and indicators 144 4.3.6 European Federation of
125 4.2.2 Mechanical engineering 127 National Engineering Associations
71 4.1.2 The statistical dilemma: What is (FEANI)
engineering? Who is an engineer? 4.2.3 Electrical and Electronic
146 4.3.7 Federation of Engineering
71 4.1.3 The OECD Frascati Manual on engineering 128 4.2.4 Chemical Institutions of Asia and the Pacifi c
the measurement of research and engineering (FEIAP)
development resources
131 4.2.5 Environmental engineering 147 4.3.8 Association for Engineering
132 4.2.6 Agricultural engineering 133 Education in Southeast and East Asia
and the Pacifi c (AEESEAP)
74 4.1.4 UNESCO statistics and 4.2.7 Medical Engineering
indicators in Science & Technology, 149 4.3.9 Asian and Pacifi c Centre for
135 4.3 Th e engineering profession Transfer of Technology (APCTT)
Research
and its organization
& Development 150 4.3.10 The African Network of
135 4.3.1 An introduction to the Scientifi c and Technological Institutions
74 4.1.5 The OECD/Eurostat Canberra
organization of the profession (ANSTI)
Manual on the measurement of

Content
stocks and fl ows of S&T personnel 137 4.3.2 International cooperation

76 4.1.6 The international study of 138 4.3.3 The World Federation of

careers of doctorate holders

79 4.1.7 Statistics and an analysis of

Engineering Organizations (WFEO)

139 4.3.4 International Council of

Academies of Engineering and
s
 11
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

159 4.4.2 Engineers Without Borders 164

4.4.3 Engineers Against Poverty 166 4.4.4

151 4.3.11 Th e Africa Engineers Forum and
AEF Protocol of Understanding Engineers for a Sustainable World

152 4.3.12 International Federation of 167 4.5 Engineering studies,

Engineering Education science and technology
Societies and public policy
(IFEES)
167 4.5.1 Engineering studies
154 4.4 Engineering International
Development Organizations 171 4.5.2 Engineering, science and
technology policy
154 4.4.1 Practical Action - and the changing
face of technology in 175 4.5.3 Engineers in government and public
international policy
development 178 4.5.4 Transformation of national science
 and engineering systems
221 5.3.3 Asia and Pacifi c
178 4.5.4.1 New Zealand
229 5.3.4 Europe
181 4.5.4.2 South Africa
236 5.3.5 Th e Americas and Caribbean
184 4.6 Engineering ethics and
247 6 Engineering for Development:
anti-corruption 184 4.6.1 Engineering ethics: Applications and Infrastructure

overview 186 4.6.2 Engineering ethics: further 250 6.1 Engineering, the MDGs and
other international
discussion 189 4.6.3 WFEO Model Code of development goals
Ethics 250 6.1.1 Engineering and the Millennium
Development Goals
192 4.6.4 Engineers against corruption
Preventing corruption 255 6.1.2 Poverty reduction
in
256 6.1.3 Poverty reduction: case study of
the infrastructure sector – What can infrastructure in South
engineers do? Africa
195 4.6.5 Business Integrity Management 258 6.1.4 Sustainable development
Systems in the consulting
engineering 261 6.1.5 Sustainable Development and the
industry WEHAB Agenda

263 6.1.6 Sustainable development and

196 4.7 Women and gender issues in
engineering standards: the construction
industry
196 4.7.1 Women in engineering: Gender
264 6.1.7 MDGs and standards
dynamics and engineering
– how 266 6.1.8 Climate change: technology,
to attract and retain women mitigation, adaptation
in engineering
272 6.1.9 Disaster risk reduction
199 4.7.2 Women in engineering: Th e next
275 6.1.10 Engineering in
steps
200 4.7.3 Women and gender issues in emergencies 277 6.1.11 Appropriate
engineering: an
technology
Australian
perspective 279 6.1.12 Appropriate technology: case
study on building technologies
205 5 Engineering around the world
283 6.2 Engineering infrastructure
206 5.1 Introductory overview
283 6.2.1 Water supply and sanitation
208 5.2 Regional perspectives on
288 6.2.2 Environmental health
engineering 213 5.3 Country
289 6.2.3 Energy
perspectives
292 6.2.4 Transportation
213 5.3.1 Africa
294 6.2.5 Communications
218 5.3.2 Arab States

12
CONTENTS 343 7.3.3 Rapid Curriculum Renewal

295 6.2.6 Asset, reliability and maintenance

management
308 7.1 Engineers in education
298 6.2.7 Infrastructure development in
310 7.2 Engineering capacity
developing countries
310 7.2.1 Needs and numbers – and the need
299 6.2.8 Infrastructure Report Cards
for better numbers
307 7 Engineering Capacity: Education, 313 7.2.2 Technical capacity-building and
Training and Mobility
 WFEO 349 7.4.1 International Development
Technologies Centre,
315 7.2.3 Capacity-building for sustainability in
Australia
Africa
352 7.4.2 Botswana Technology Centre
319 7.2.4 Needs and numbers in civil
engineering in South 356 7.4.3 Technology Consultancy Centre,
Africa Ghana
326 7.2.5 Enrolment and capacity in Australia 358 7.5 Engineering accreditation,
329 7.2.6 Continuing engineering education standards and mobility
and professional 358 7.5.1 Mobility of engineers: the European
development experience
332 7.2.7 Brain drain, gain, circulation and the 360 7.5.2 Washington Accord, Engineers
diaspora Mobility Forum, APEC
Engineer
335 7.2.8 Industry Capacity Index 337 7.3
363 7.5.3 Th e Eur Ing and Bologna
Transformation of engineering education
Accord 367 8 Afterword
337 7.3.1 Problem-based Learning
371 9 Appendices
340 7.3.2 Sustainability into the engineering
curriculum 373 9.1 Engineering at UNESCO in
345 7.3.4 Environmental education facts and fi gures
in engineering 375 9.2 Biographies of Contributors
347 7.3.5 Research in engineering 389 9.3 List of acronyms
education 349 7.4 Engineering education abbreviations 394 9.4 Index
for development

13

Introductio
n to the
 Report
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

Another idea behind the Report was to

present engineering as a human and social
as well as a scientifi c, technological and
innovative activity, in social, economic and
cultural con texts; engineering is one of the
few activities that connects with almost all
others. It is intended to be a human rather
than a technical report on engineering. It
aims to discuss human as well as
engineering issues and to try to under
stand and address some perceptions about
© Wikimedia commons/ Deutsches Bundesarchiv
Th is is the fi rst report at the international engineering such as engineering is a
level on engineer ing, and the fi rst with a boring and diffi cult subject which is poorly
specifi c focus on engineering in the contextpaid and environmentally negative. Th ese
of human, social, economic and cultural are vital issues and engineering is vital in
development in developed/industrial sustainable development,
countries and particularly in lower income, addressing climate change mitigation and
developing countries. adaptation, and the reduction of poverty. As
a problem-solving profession, engineering
needs to focus on these issues in a
Engineering has given us the world we live
rigorous, problem-solving approach. In an
in. It is an incred ibly diverse activity
attempt to understand how it might do this
covering many diff erent areas and levels.
better in the future, this Report also consid
Engineering is regarded diff erently in diff
ers engineering education suggesting that it
erent places and at diff erent times. Th is
might benefi t from less formulaic and more
diversity, and the constraints of size and the
problem-based, project-based and
resources available to produce this fi rst
just-in-time approaches in order that the
Report, requires that such a potentially
next genera
comprehensive study must have a cer
tion of engineer can rise to the challenges
tain focus.
and opportunities that they are inheriting.

Th e Report is therefore intended as a

To examine these issues and challenges, a
platform for the bet ter understanding of
wide variety of peo ple were invited to
engineering around the world, and was
contribute to this Report, including engi
conceived to meet this urgent and overdue
neers, economists, scientists, politicians,
need. Th e Report is a health-check rather
policy-makers and planners, from the public
than a ‘state of the profession’ review with
and private sectors, and from the
refl ections from more than one hundred
profession and universities. Amid busy lives,
distinguished engineers and engineering
almost all invited contributors responded to
organizations from around the world. It
our requests for shorter contribu tions,
highlights the links between engineering,
which they wrote on a voluntary basis. Th is
economic growth and human development,
Report is a tribute to their commitment to
and aims to bring engi
engineering and a testament to their
neering out of the shadows for
shared, heartfelt need for such a document.
policy-makers and the public. It positions
engineering as a central actor in the global
Blériot XI. issues and challenges – such as poverty Given the issues and challenges facing the
reduction, climate change and the need for Report itself, while many issues and
sustainable development – that we face challenges facing engineering have been
around the world. Technology is often iden tifi ed and discussed, others have only
emphasized by world leaders as providing become more apparent. As the
the solutions to global problems; engi neers Director-General observes, this Report
need to get involved in the conversation and raises almost as many questions as it
help to put words into practice. answers.
Governments for example, might be
encouraged to have chief engineering Th ere is, in particular, a need for improved
advisors. statistics and indi cators on engineering. It
was hoped, for example, to compare the
number of engineers per capita around the developing countries, down to one or less engineer (for which clearer defi nitions
world, as can be done for doctors and for some poorer African countries. Given the would also be useful). Th ere is also a need
teachers. Rather surprisingly, this was not importance of engineering, science and for better data on the important contribution
possible due to fact that such data collected technology in devel opment, this lack of of engineering to innovation, and the
at the inter national level aggregates information is a serious constraint to the importance of engineering, innovation and
‘scientists and engineers’ together development and future of developing entrepreneur
(although such data does exist at the countries. ship to development. Th is would be of
national level in some countries). UNESCO particular relevance for developing
data shows that developed, industrialized Th is Report therefore highlights that there countries given the estimate that around 90
countries have between twenty and fi fty is a clear need for the introduction of per cent of the world’s engineers work for 10
scientists and engi neers per 10,000 disaggregated data for engineering as an per cent of the world’s population (the
population, compared to around fi ve scien input to policy making and planning, richest 10 per cent).
tists and engineers on average for together with diff er ent types and levels of

16
INTRODUCTION
report on engineering by UNESCO as the United
Nations organization responsible for science,
including engineering. It was regarded that the
founders of UNESCO intended the ‘S’ in UNESCO
© GFDL - Wikimedia - LoverOfDubai)
to be a broad defi nition of science, including
engineering and technology, and therefore that
UNESCO should report on the whole of this noble
knowledge enterprise.

Th is refl ects the decision of a United Nations

Conference for the establishment of an
educational and cultural organiza tion
(ECO/CONF) convened in London in November
1945, where thirty-seven countries signed the
constitution that founded the United Nations
Educational, Scientifi c and Cul
Th e Airbus A380 – the world’s largest passenger
tural Organization that came into force after ratifi
aircraft. cation in November 1946. In November 1945, this
Conference accepted science in the title of the
organization and in the content of its programmes,
refl ecting the proposal of Joseph Needham,
Th is Report appears at an important time of need, supported by Julian Huxley, that ‘science and
challenge and opportunity for engineering. Th is is technology are
refl ected in the pro posal for an International now playing, and will increasingly play, so
Engineering Programme that was adopted at predominant a part in all human civilization.’
UNESCO’s Executive Board and General Confer Engineering was also included from the beginning;
ence in October 2009. In this new decade it is this Conference took place at the Institution of
hoped that this Report will help to mobilize interest Civil Engineers in London, with Julian Huxley
in fi nding answers to the questions it poses, to becoming the fi rst Director-General and Joseph
emphasize the need for future editions of this Needham becoming the fi rst Head of the Natural
UNESCO Report on engineering, to renew Sciences Section of UNESCO. Needham, a
awareness of the importance of engineering in biochemist, is best known for his Science and
development, and to help fi nd solutions to the Civilisation in China series that began in 1954 and
problems of human development itself. is now in twenty-seven volumes, and includes
engineering and technology as a central
Background component of science and civilization. Without
Th e idea for a UNESCO report on engineering, Needham and Huxley this Report may not have
developed through the 1990s and into the 2000s, been possible.
was partly a response to calls from the
engineering community regarding the need for
Th e need for a UNESCO Report on engineering is
such a report, and partly to comments from the
based on the importance of engineering in social,
engineer ing and broader science and technology
economic and human development, the particular
communities that the World Science Report
importance of engineering in poverty reduction,
(published by UNESCO in 1993, 1996, 1998 and
sustainable development, climate change
superseded by the UNESCO Science Report in
mitigation and adaptation, and the importance of
2005) contained very little reference to
better communicating this to policy-makers,
engineering and technol
decision-takers and the wider public audience. Th
ogy. Th ese calls reinforced the need for a specifi c
 is need increases as these issues increase in poor general understanding and percep tion of
importance, and as the pace of change in engi engineering around the world, and what impact is
neering also increases; the rate of knowledge this having? Is this perhaps even related to the
production and application has increased awe-inspiring impact of engineering as a
dramatically in terms of the amount of knowledge complicated, sometimes fearful entity, appealing to
created and the speed of application. From the fi complicated people? Perhaps engineering also
rst wave of the Industrial Revolution from needs to become more human and humane to
1750–1850, to the fourth wave when we went from develop a wider appeal. Th is is at a time when
early steam to internal com bustion engines and there is an urgent need for engineers to develop
the crossing of the 34 km of the English Channel the technologies that will be essential in the next
by Louis Bleriot in his 20 kW monoplane in 1909. wave of innovation based on environmentally sus
Sixty years later, in 1969, the 140,000,000 kW tainable ‘green’ engineering and technology that
Saturn V rocket took the Apollo 11 mission across we will need if we are to address climate change
400,000 km of space – a giant leap for mankind, mitigation and adaptation – if we are to save
and for engineering. Th e 230,000 kW Airbus spaceship Earth.
A380 was introduced thirty years later in 2009, and
routinely carries up to 850 passengers a distance
Following the development of the idea for such a
of 15,000 km taking people of all backgrounds
report on engineering in the 1990s and into the
across continents at 900 km/h.
2000s, as mentioned above, the Executive Board
of the World Federation of Engi neering
And yet, despite such achievements and feats, Organizations ( WFEO) – the main international
engineering is routinely overlooked in many umbrella organization for national engineering
countries around our world. Why is there such a organizations

17
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
January 2007. Th is Report is an attempt
to address the above needs, and to at least
begin to fi ll a critical gap at the
international level.

Girl at rope well.

based at UNESCO and established at
UNESCO in 1968 – dis cussed the idea of
an engineering report with the UNESCO
Engineering Programme in 2005, and a
proposal for such a report was prepared by
the Engineering Programme. Th is
proposal was presented to the (then)
UNESCO Director General, Koïchiro
Matsuura, in October 2005, with the ini tial
response that the next UNESCO Science
Report could perhaps include a chapter on
engineering. Th e President of WFEO,
Kamel Ayadi, then requested a meeting
with the Director-General, whom he met in
March 2006. Following further discussions,
and the submission of a revised pro posal,
production of the Report was approved in
October 2006 with work beginning in
 © EWB-UK
and other activities. Th is underlines the
Production and commitment of the engineering community
presentation of the
around the world to this Report, and the
Report
rather ambitious initial schedule given the
An Editorial Board and Advisory Committee scale of the project. In November to
for the Report were formed, with meetings December 2009 a second draft was
in March 2007 in Paris and in November prepared for copy-editing, design, layout
2007 in Delhi. Th ese soon merged into an and printing in time for publication in
Edito rial Advisory Committee. Th e outline mid-2010 and a planned launch at the
of the Report was devel oped, with UNESCO Executive Board in October
particular reference to the contents and 2010.
possible contributors. It was decided that
the Report be as compre hensive as Th e range of perspective and variety of
possible, covering the many fi elds of approach of over 120 contributions has
engineering around the world, with a enabled a richness and depth that would
particular emphasis on issues, chal lenges not have been achieved with fewer
and opportunities for development – using contributors. Contributions for example
the term development in a broad sense to include both personal refl ections and
refer to both national and international academic presentations. A greater eff ort
development, and the development of has been needed in editing to consider a
engineer ing itself. Th is decision in favour length, consistent style, overlap and
of a thematic focus was also in response to balance, whilst at the same time attempting
the regional reports focus of the UNESCO to retain the original fl avour of the
World Science Report. In view of the contributions, allowing for some overlap. Th
desire to be as comprehensive as is approach has also restricted the space
possible, and cognisant of the limited available for reporting at regional and
human and fi nancial resources available national levels, with a focus on some
to produce the Report, it was also decided national perspec-
to invite relatively short voluntary
contributions from around one hundred
contributors in diff erent fi elds and areas of
engi neering around the world in order to
produce a Report of around 250 printed
pages. An initial round of one hundred
contributions and potential contributors
were identifi ed by December 2007 and
they were invited to contribute in early
2008. By mid-2008, a total of 115
contributions had been iden tifi ed and
collected, with eighty contributions received
and twenty promised contributions in the
pipeline.

For the remainder of 2008 and into 2009,

contributions were reviewed to check for
gaps in content to see where further
contributions were required. Gaps were
identifi ed, further contributions invited and
remaining contributions encour aged. Th e
Report was presented at a soft launch at
the World Engineers Convention in Brasília
in December 2008. A fi rst draft of the
Report was prepared in June 2009. In all, a
total of over 120 contributions have been
made. Only three invited contributors were
unable to contribute, due to time pressure

18
INTRODUCTION
availability of comparable statistics and indicators
also occasioned this approach. It is to be hoped
that these issues – especially the need for better
tives rather than full country reports. Th e diverse statistics and indicators on engineering – will be
addressed in forthcoming editions of the Report. technicians. Th e second chapter focuses on
However, this fi rst Report would not have been engineering and human development and
possible without such an approach, and the includes sections on the history of engineering and
contributors are to be warmly thanked for their engineering at UNESCO: engineering, inno vation,
commitment and contributions, with apologies for social and economic development; engineering,
the limited time available for feedback and tech nology and society; engineers and social
discussion in the editing process.
responsibility, and includes a review of the big
issues and pieces on engineering and social
Objectives of the Report
responsibility and corporate social responsibility.
Th e overall objectives of the Report are to identify Th e third chapter examines engineering and
and explore the main issues and challenges facing emerging issues and challenges and includes
engineering around the world, with particular sections on foresight and forecasts of the future,
reference to issues and challenges for emerging and future areas of engineering and
development, and the opportunities for engineering engineers of the future, getting the engineering
to face and address them. External issues and
message across and engineering and technology
challenges facing engi neering include: the need
in the third millennium.
for better public and policy-level understanding of
what engineering is and what engineers do; how
engineering and technology drive development;
how many engineers a country or industry needs Th e fourth chapter is one of the main chapters and
and in what areas and levels; why young people attempts to give an overview of engineering. It
are turning away from engineer ing; what the begins with a review of sta tistics and indicators on
consequences are of not having enough engineering followed by fi eld reviews covering
engineers; and why it is that engineering is so civil, chemical, environmental, agricultural and
often overlooked. Th ese external factors link to medi cal engineering. Th e engineering profession
internal issues and challenges within engineering, and its organiza tion is then discussed, with
including such questions as how can engineers reference to the organization of the profession,
promote public awareness and understanding of international cooperation and reference to leading
engineering, how does this refl ect the changing
organizations including the World Federation of
needs for engineering and need for engineering
Engineering Organizations ( WFEO), the
and engineering education to change, regenerate
International Council of Acade mies of Engineering
and transform, and what can we do. Th ese
and Technological Sciences ( CAETS), the
external and internal factors are further linked –
the poor public per ception of engineering refl ects International Federation of Consulting Engineers (
the urgent need to understand and address these FIDIC), the European Federation of National
issues and challenges as well as the need for Engineering Associations (FEANI), the Federation
engineering to face the challenge of change. of Engineering Institutions of Asia and the Pacifi c
Failure to do so will have obvious impacts on (FEIAP), the Association for Engineering Education
capacity and the application of engineering and in Southeast and East Asia and the Pacifi c
technology for development. (AEESEAP), the Asian and Pacifi c Centre for
Transfer of Technology (APCTT) and the African
The main target audience for the Report includes Network of Scientifi c and Technological Institutions
policy makers and decision takers, the engineering (ANSTI). International development and
community, the wider public and young people. Th engineering organi
e Report is intended to share information, zations are discussed in sections on Practical
experience, practical ideas and examples with Action, Engineers Without Borders, Engineers
policy-makers, planners and governments, and Against Poverty and Engineers for a Sustainable
promote the engagement and application of World. Th e following section introduces engi
engineering to important global challenges of
neering studies and gives an overview of
poverty reduction, sustainable develop
engineering, science and technology policy and
ment and climate change. Th ese are connected,
the transformation of national sci ence and
and provide an opportunity for change and the
engineering systems, with reference to New
engagement of young peo ple, who are concerned
Zealand and South Africa. Key issues of
about such issues and are attracted to the
engineering challenge to address them. engineering ethics and anti corruption eff orts are
described, with the concluding section focusing on
Layout of the Report women and gender issues in engineering.

In addition to this introduction on the background,

main focus, objectives and target audience of the
Report, the fi rst chapter includes discussion of Th e fi fth chapter presents perspectives of
what engineering is and what engineers do, and engineering around the world. It begins with an
the diff erences between engineers, technologists introductory overview and regional perspectives
and on Africa, the Arab States, Asia and the Pacifi c,
 Europe, the Americas and the Caribbean. Several Malaysia, Japan, Australia and the South Pacifi c;
country perspectives are off ered from Africa in from Europe in Germany, France, the United
Côte d’Ivoire, Uganda, Ghana and Nigeria; from Kingdom, Russia and Poland, and from the
the Arab States in Tunisia, Lebanon and Jordan; Americas and the Caribbean in the USA, Canada,
from Asia and the Pacifi c in China, India, Brazil, Venezuela, Argentina and the Caribbean.

19
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
on the Eur Ing and Bologna Accord.

Recent issues and

Th e sixth chapter is a more in-depth look at the challenges - economic
main theme of this report – engineering for crisis and climate
development – with reference to development Change
applications and infrastructure. Engineering and
the Millennium Development Goals and related Since this Report was conceived and many
international development goals, including contributions were invited and submitted, the
particular references to: poverty reduction (with a world was overtaken by the fi nancial and
case study from South Africa); sustainable economic crisis. Th is began with the col lapse of a
development (and study on the MDGs, sustainable housing bubble, peaking in the United States in
develop ment and standards); climate change 2006 fuelled by the easing of credit and sub-prime
technology, mitigation, adaptation; disaster risk lending, deregulation and the increasing
reduction; engineering in emergencies; and complexity of fi nancial mar
appropriate technology (with a case study on kets. Th e fi nancial crisis peaked in September
appropriate building technologies). Sections on and October 2008 with immediate impacts on fi
engineering infrastructure include water and nancial institutions and the banking sector. Th e
sanitation, energy, transportation, commu NASDAQ, the largest trading stock exchange in
nications, asset management and maintenance, the world (originally, the National Association of
and infrastruc ture development in developing Securities Dealers Automated Quotations), is
countries as well as a look at Infrastructure based par
Report Cards (with case studies on South Africa, ticularly on ‘technology’ stocks and suff ered large
USA and Australia). losses. Th ere were also broader consequent
impacts on economies around the world with the
possibility that the burden of economic impact will
Th e seventh and last substantive chapter is on fall particularly – directly and indi rectly – on poorer
engineering capacity in education, training and people and countries. As noted in the discussion
mobility, and begins with a discussion of of science and engineering policy, many bank
engineering education. Th e discussion of engi loans, especially smaller loans by development
neering capacity includes an introductory banks and other forms of microfi nance in
discussion of needs and numbers (demand and developing countries, are for technology such that
supply of engineers), followed by contributions on: a decline in the fi nance available for these loans
technical capacity-building and the WFEO; would have a particular impact on development in
capacity-building for sustainability in Africa; a case developing countries. Th is Report therefore
study on needs and numbers in civil engineering provides sup port for the view that, at a time of
in South Africa; enrol economic downturn, it is important for all countries
ment and capacity in Australia; and continuing to invest in technology and innovation.
engineering education, professional development
and the brain drain, gain, circulation and the
diaspora. A section on the transformation of Th e underlying cause of the crisis relates to
engineering education includes contributions on: increasingly com plex fi nancial ‘ innovations’ and
problem derivatives, and by changing attitudes toward risk
based learning; sustainability and the engineering based on mathematical modeling that is
increasingly undertaken by young people using
curriculum in Australia; rapid curriculum renewal;
tools which are less well understood by senior
and the evolution of environmental education in
bankers. Young engineers in particular were
engineering and research in engi neering
attracted into the fi nancial sector; leading to an
education. A section on engineering education for
impact on engineering in terms of the brain drain.
development includes case studies on centres for
Fol
engineering and technology for international
development in Australia, Botswana and Ghana. lowing the initial emergency response and support
Th is chapter concludes with a discus for bank bailouts or quantitative easing, attention
sion on engineering accreditation, standards, and focused on engineer ing as regards longer term
solutions to the economic crisis. In the ‘American
mobility of engineers, with particular reference to
Recovery and Reinvestment Act’ of 2009, Presi
the Washington Accord, Engineers Mobility
dent Barack Obama – in one of his fi rst actions as
Forum, APEC Engineer and European per spective
President – emphasized the importance of
 investing in infrastructure for economic recovery
and growth with a total infrastructure investment of A FIDIC survey of economic stimulus packages
US$80.9 billion, with particular importance in
around the world, reported in the introduction to
engineering. President Obama’s action was
chapter six estimates an additional demand of
echoed around the world. United States and
US$20 billion for engineering con sultancy services
European governments spent US$4.1 trillion on
bank bailouts giving these companies forty
fi ve times more funding than the US$90.7 billion As regards climate change, the Intergovernmental
that US and European governments spent on aid Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has emphasized
to all developing countries in 20071 (Institute for the importance of technology and investment in
Policy Studies, 2008) – about the same order of response to climate change mitigation and
magnitude to the US$135–195 billion per year that adaptation that echoes the emphasis on engi
is estimated by Jeff rey Sachs to be required over
the next twenty years to end extreme poverty, 1 Institute for Policy Studies, 2008
although there is a debate on Sachs’ ‘costing’ of 2 Jeff rey D. Sachs. 2005. Th e End Of Poverty, Economic Possibilities For
poverty (Th e End of Poverty, 20052 ). Our Time. Penguin Press, 416p.

20
INTRODUCTION

neering in the context of investment in

infrastructure in the recovery from the fi nancial
and economic crisis. Th e major and agreed fi
ndings of the IPCC are as follows:

■
Th e planet has warmed
■
Most warming is due to greenhouse gases
■
Greenhouse gases will continue to increase
through the twenty-fi rst century

Th e IPCC also recognizes that climate models

have greatly improved, and estimates a rise in the
average global tempera ture of 1.8 – 4.0°C over
the twenty-fi rst century, and warns that a
temperature rise of anything over 2.0°C is likely to
be catastrophic for the world. Immediate action is
therefore needed to prevent catastrophic and
irreversible change to the world’s climate.

Engineering is one of the most important activities

in the con text of climate change mitigation and
adaptation and, as noted elsewhere, one of the
major areas of need and growth for engi neering is
in the area of sustainable or green engineering.
Many countries have already introduced policies
and initiatives for climate change mitigation and
adaptation prior to the 2009 United Nations
Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, and
together with the specifi c outcomes of COP15, this
will be one of the areas of greatest demand and
challenge that engi neering has ever faced. One of
the fi rst challenges is to make sure that there will
 be enough appropriately qualifi ed and
experienced engineers to meet this demand – this
will require the development of new courses,
training materials and sys
tems of accreditation. Th is will also hopefully
encourage young people into engineering.

Photo by Robert Howlett

Isambard Kingdom Brunel – a founding father

of modern engineering.

21

1 What is Engineering?
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

1.1 What engineering is, what

engineers do Tony Marjoram and Yixin Zhong
designing and engineering skills, and the
Engineering socialization and communication that facilitated
While meanings change, the concept of the invention, innovation and transfer of tech
nology such as the axe, hammer, lever, wedge,
engineering derives from the dawn of human
pulley, wheel and so on. Although based on trial
history as our ancestors developed and designed
and error, this activity is similar to the modern idea
tools that were essential for their survival. Indeed,
of engineering where trial and error is still an
human beings are defi ned by their tool-making,
 important part of innovation. preserve a chicken by stuffi ng it with snow). In
this broad sense, science includes engineering as
Engineering is the fi eld or discipline, practice, a highly skilled technique or practice, and also
profession and art that relates to the development, includes much of what many scientists also do
acquisition and applica tion of technical, scientifi c today. In a narrower, contempo rary sense, science
and mathematical knowledge about the is diff erentiated into the basic and applied
understanding, design, development, invention, sciences, following the linear model of innovation –
innovation and use of materials, machines, that research in the basic sciences leads through
structures, systems and proc esses for specifi c applied research and development in engineering
purposes. Th ere are of course many defi ni tions. to technological application, innovation and diff
Th e term ‘engineering’ derives from the word usion. As discussed elsewhere, while this model
‘engineer’ used in the 1300s for a person who endures with scientists and policy-makers on
operated a military engine or machine – such as a grounds of simplicity and funding success, many
catapult or, later, a cannon. Th e word ‘engine’ in observers regard the ‘linear model’ as
turn derives from the Latin ingenium for ingenuity descriptively inaccurate and normatively
or cleverness and invention. Th e terms ‘art’ and undesirable partly because many innovations were
‘technical’ are important because engineering also neither based on nor the result of basic science
arranges elements in a way that may, or may not, research. Th e social and human sciences
appeal to human senses or emotions, and relates emulate the natural sciences in the use of
also to the Greek technikos relating to art, craft, empirical scientifi c methods. Technological change
skill and practical knowledge and language and innovation is one of the major drivers of
regarding a mechanical or scientifi c subject. Prior economic, social and human change, so
to the development of the diff erent fi elds of engineering and technology and the social
engineering, engineering and ‘technical’ were sciences are more closely connected.
originally closely connected,. Th e military
connotation declined giving way to civil Engineers
engineering, mechanical, chemical, electrical and People who are qualified in or practice engineering
electronic and later, fi elds that continue to develop are described as engineers, and may be licensed
with the development of knowledge (apart from and formally des ignated as professional, chartered
some curious excep tions such as the Army Corps or incorporated engineers. As noted above, the
of Engineers in the USA). broad discipline of engineering includes a range of
specialized disciplines or fi elds of application and
While meanings change, the fact that engineering particular areas of technology. Engineering itself is
in the mod ern sense also relates to art, even also dif
though engineering may not commonly be ferentiated into engineering science and diff erent
regarded as artistic, can be appreciated in the areas of professional practice and levels of activity.
creativity and elegance of many engineered Th e engineering profession, as with other
objects and struc tures (witness the increasing professions, is a vocation or occupa tion based
appearance of such objects and structures as art upon specialized education and training, as pro
exhibitions in galleries). As noted elsewhere in this viders of professional advice and services. Other
Report, humans live in engineered economies, features that defi ne occupations as professions
socie ties and technocultures. Almost every area of are the establishment of training and university
human interest, activity and endeavour has a schools and departments, national and
branch of engineering associated with it. international organizations, accreditation and
licensing, ethics and codes of professional
Engineering also connects to the natural sciences, practice. Surveying is closely profes sionally
and to the social and human sciences. Science, connected to engineering, especially civil
from the Latin scientia for knowledge, relates engineering, and it is interesting to note that
broadly to a systematic approach to the George Washington, Th omas Jeff erson and
observation of phenomena and the development of Abraham Lincoln were all surveyors before going
hypoth into politics.
esis, experimentation and theory regarding these
phenomena, and the production of knowledge Apart from a degree or related qualifi cation in one
upon which predictions or predictable outcome of the engi neering disciplines and associated skill
may be based, i.e. the scientifi c method, dating sets, which includes design and drawing skills –
from the early 1600s and largely accredited to now usually in computer-aided design (CAD) and
Francis Bacon (who died of pneumonia after continued professional development ( CPD)
testing the hypothesis that it may be possible to

24
WHAT IS ENGINEERING?
 Resources and Needs
tion and leadership under pressure,
and social-technical skills in training
and awareness of new techniques and mentoring. Chemical
and technologies – engi neering engineering
education also seeks to develop a Engineering is one of the oldest
logical, practical, problem-solving professions, along with divin ity, Engineering Society and Nature
methodology and approach that medicine and law. While the linear Products and
includes soft social as well and model has lead to the perception of Benefi ts Tools
technical skills. Th ese include motiva engineers as applied scientists, this is
tion, the ability to perform, rapid a further distortion of reality related to
understanding, communica this model, as engineering is dis tinct
from but related to science, and in
Needs
fact predates science
Science Needs

Technology
Th eories
overlapping and changing over time. Further
suggestions will, no doubt, be forthcoming.
in the use of the scientifi c method – engineers
were the fi rst scientists. This debate is, however, Agricultural engineering
rather misleading and diverts attention away from ■
Engineering theory and applications in agriculture
the need for a better public and policy in such fi elds as farm machinery, power,
understanding of the role of engineering and bioenergy, farm structures and natural resource
science in the knowledge society and economy. materials processing.
Science and engineering are essentially part of
the same spectrum of activity and need to be
3 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches
recognized as such. Engineers use both scientifi c
knowl edge and mathematics on the one hand to ■
Analysis, synthesis and conversion of raw
create technolo gies and infrastructure to address materials into usable commodities.
human, social and economic issues, and ■
Biochemical engineering – biotechnological
challenges on the other. Engineers connect social processes on an industrial scale.
needs with innovation and commercial
applications. Th e rela Civil engineering
tionship among science, technology and ■
Design and construction of physical structures
engineering can be roughly described as shown in and infra structure.
the fi gure below. ■
Coastal engineering – design and construction of
coastline structures.
Fields of engineering ■
Construction engineering – design, creation and
Th ere are a diverse and increasing range of manage ment of constructed structures.
areas, fi elds, dis ciplines, branches or specialities ■
Geo-engineering – proposed Earth climate control
of engineering. Th ese devel oped from civil, to address global warming.
mechanical, chemical, electrical and electronic ■
Geotechnical engineering – behaviour of earth
engineering, as knowledge developed and diff
materials and geology.
erentiated as subjects subdivided, merged or new ■
Municipal and public works engineering – for
subjects arose. Th e emer gence of new branches
water supply, sanitation, waste management,
of engineering is usually indicated by the
transportation and com munication systems,
establishment of new university departments, new
hydrology.
profes sional engineering organizations or new
sections in existing organizations.
■
Ocean engineering – design and construction of
off shore structures.
■
Structural engineering – design of structures to
To illustrate the scope and diversity of engineering,
support or resist loads.
it is useful to conclude this section with a list of
engineering branches3 illustrating various
■
Earthquake engineering – behaviour of structures
disciplines and sub-disciplines in engineer ing; an subject to seismic loading.
important presentation of the diversity of engineer
■
Transportation engineering – effi cient and safe
ing that space dictates can only appear once in the transporta tion of people and goods.
Report. Th e list is intended to be illustrative rather ■
Traffi c engineering – transportation and planning.
than exhaustive or defi nitive, as descriptions and ■
Wind engineering – analysis of wind and its eff
defi nitions diff er from country to country, often ects on the built environment.
 electronic engineering ■
Computer and systems Research, design and development of electrical
engineering
systems and electronic devices.
■
Research, design and development of computer, ■
Power systems engineering – bringing electricity
computer systems and devices. to people and industry.

Electrical engineering and

25
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
management ■ Maintenance of
equipment, physical assets and infrastruc Mining engineering
ture. ■
Exploration, extraction and processing of
raw materials from the earth.
Manufacturing
engineering Naval engineering and
■
Research, design and planning of architecture
manufacturing systems and processes. ■
Research, design, construction and repair
■
Component engineering – assuring of marine vessels.
© UNESCO
availability of parts in manufacturing
Medical use of engineering. processes Nanotechnology and
■
Signal processing – statistical analysis nanoengineering
and production of sig nals, e.g. for mobile Materials engineering ■
New branch of engineering on the
phones. ■
Research, design, development and use nanoscale.
of materials such as ceramics and
Environmental Nuclear engineering
nanoparticles.
engineering ■
Research, design and development of
■
Ceramic engineering – theory and
■
Engineering for environmental protection processing of oxide and non-oxide nuclear processes and technology.
and enhance ment. ceramics.
■
Water engineering – planning and ■
Textile engineering – the manufacturing Production
development of water resources and and processing of fabrics engineering
hydrology ■
Research and design of production
Mechanical systems and processes related to
Fire protection engineering manufacturing engineering.
engineering ■
Research, design and development of
■
Protecting people and environments from physical or mechani cal systems such as Software engineering
fi re and smoke. Research, design and development of
engines. ■

■
Automotive engineering – design and computer software systems and
Genetic engineering programming.
construction of ter restrial vehicles.
■
Engineering at the biomolecular level for ■ Aerospace engineering – design of
genetic manipula tion. aircraft, spacecraft and air vehicles. Sustainable
■
Biomechanical engineering – design of engineering
Industrial engineering systems and devices such as artifi cial ■
Developing branch of engineering
■
Analysis, design, development and limbs focusing on sustainability and climate
maintenance of indus trial systems and change mitigation.
processes. Mechatronics
■
Combination of mechanical, electrical and Test Engineering
Instrumentation software engi neering for automation ■
Engineering validation and verifi cation of
engineering systems. design, produc tion and use of objects
■
Design and development of instruments under test.
used to measure and control systems and Medical and biomedical
processes. engineering Transport Engineering
■
Increasing use of engineering and ■
Engineering relating to roads, railways,
Integrated technology in medicine and the biological waterways, ports, harbours, airports, gas
engineering sciences in such areas as monitoring, arti fi transmission and distribution, pipe lines and
■
Generalist engineering field including civil, cial limbs, medical robotics. so on, and associated works.
mechanical, electrical and chemical
engineering. Military engineering Tribology
■
Design and development of weapons and ■ Study of interacting surfaces in relative
Maintenance defence systems. motion including friction, lubrication and
engineering and asset wear.
26
WHAT IS ENGINEERING?

1.2 technologists and technicians

Engineers, Ron Watermayer

competency.
Engineering encompasses a vast diversity of
fields. It also encompasses a diversity of types
■
Specialist lists: to indicate peer-recognized
and levels of engineer – from engineers in competence in a particular area.
universities more concerned with research and
teaching what is sometimes described as the
‘engineering sci
4 ISO 15392
ences’ (rather than engineering practice), to
practicing, profes sional and consulting engineers, 5 Study Group on Licensing, Registration and Specialist Lists (2005)
to engineering technologists and technicians. All these forms of regulation are linked to codes of
These are fluid concepts. As engineering conduct. Serious breaches of a code of conduct
changes, so does the idea and defi nition of what it can lead to the with drawal of a license, the loss of
means to be an engineer. Th ere is also a signifi a title or the removal of the transgressor’s name
cant overlap; many involved in the engineering from a specialist list, either on a temporary or
sciences also practice and consult. Defi ni permanent basis.
tions of engineers, technologists and technicians
also diff er around the world. Engineering qualifi cations and professional
registration with regulatory bodies may in many
In the United Kingdom, for example, the UK Inter countries be categorized as falling into one of
Professional Group defi nes a profession as ‘an three generic tracks, namely:
occupation in which an indi vidual uses an
■
Engineer
intellectual skill based on an established body of
■
Engineering Technologist
knowledge and practice to provide a specialised ■
Engineering Technician
service in a defi ned area, exercising independent
judgment in accordance with a code of ethics and Th e precise names of the titles awarded to
in the public interest.” Th e engineer registered persons may diff er from country to
ing profession shapes the built environment, which country, e.g. the Engineering Coun cil UK registers
may be defi ned as “the collection of man-made or the three tracks as Chartered Engineer, Incor
induced physical objects located in a particular porated Engineer and Technician Engineer,
area or region.’4 It creates the physical world that whereas Engineers Ireland registers Chartered
has been intentionally created through sci ence Engineer, Associate Engineer and Engineering
and technology for the benefi t of mankind. Technician. In some countries, only the engineer
or the engineer and engineering technologist
Th e UK Institution of Civil Engineers reports that tracks are regis tered. In others, the registration of
the purpose of regulating a profession is ‘to assure engineering technicians has only recently been
the quality of professional services in the public embarked upon.
interest. Th e regulation of a profession involves
the setting of standards of professional qualifi Other approaches can also be taken. Researchers
cations and practice; the keeping of a register of at Duke Uni versity in the USA6 have put forward a
qualifi ed persons and the award of titles; slightly diff erent view regarding engineering
determining the conduct of registrants, the tracks:
investigation of complaints and disciplinary
sanctions for pro fessional misconduct.’5 Dynamic Engineers: those capable of abstract
■

thinking, solv ing high level-problems using scientifi

Th ere are a number of approaches to the c knowledge, thrive in teams, work well across
regulation of a pro fession around the world. international borders, have strong interpersonal
Broadly speaking, these include: skills and are capable of leading innovation.

■
Licensing: to authorize eligible persons to ■
Transactional Engineers: possess engineering
practise in a spe cifi c area. fundamen tals but are not seen to have the
experience or expertise to apply this knowledge
■
Registration: to recognize demonstrated to complex problems.
achievement of a defi ned standard of
 point out that edu
Th e Duke University researchers observed that cational background is not a hard and fast rule
one of the key diff erentiators of the two types of because in the
engineers is their education. Most dynamic
engineers have as a minimum a four-year engi
neering degree from nationally accredited or highly
6 Report on Framing the Engineering Outsourcing Debate: Placing the
regarded institutions whereas transactional
U.S. on a Level Playing Field with China and India, 2005.
engineers often obtain a sub-baccalaureate http://www.soc.duke.edu/globalengineering/ papers_outsourcing.php
degree (associate, technician or diploma awards) (Accessed: 10 August 2010)
rather than a Bachelor’s degree, in less than four
years but in more than one. Th ey do however

27
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
neering. Th ese issues are discussed later in this Report.

last fi fty years a number of science and technology leaders

have emerged with little or no traditional education.
Engineering professional tracks
How many engineers,
technologists and engineers does Th ree main approaches to professional regulation:
a
country require? 1) Licensing: In this approach, an area of engineering work is
linked to those persons who have demonstrated competence to
Th e engineering profession plays a major role not only in the
perform such work. Licensing on a statu tory basis prohibits
growth and development of a country’s economy but also in
unlicensed persons from performing such work. Non-statutory
improving the quality of life for its citizens. Th e engineering
licensing provides the public with lists of persons competent to
profession is also playing an ever-increasing role in enabling a perform work within an area of engineering, which may also be
country to participate in the global economy and in the pro undertaken by non-licensed persons.
tection of the environment. Th e linkage between a country’s
indigenous engineering capacity and its economic develop 2) Registration: In this approach, those persons who
ment is understood. It is also understood that more engineering demonstrate their competence against a standard and
undertake to abide by a code of conduct, are awarded titles
professionals will be required to address the sustainable devel
and are admitted to a register. Such registration may be
opment issues of the day – for example, the development of
governed by the laws of a country (statutory register) or the
renewable energy sources, advancements in technology, solu
regulations or the rules set by the governing body of the
tions for sustaining the environment and improving healthcare.
profession, which oversees the registration proc ess and
What is not understood is how many engineers, technologists maintains the register (non-statutory register). Where governing
and technicians are required to drive economic growth and bodies operate non-statutory registra tion, they may only use
sustainable development objectives within a country. civil action to prevent non-reg
istrants from using the title and are not empowered to restrict
Th ere is no simple answer to this question as it is not simply any area of work to registrants. (Statutory regis tration linked to
a numbers game; more engineering professionals are needed the reserving of an area of work for regis tered persons has the
if the number of engineers, engineering technologists and same eff ect as statutory licensing.)
engineering technicians per capita is below the fi gures of a
3) Specialist lists: In this approach, a professional or trade
country’s competitors. Furthermore, increasing the number
body administers a non-statutory voluntary list ing of
of engineering graduates is not necessarily a solution as there
professionals who have met a defi ned standard of competence
may be a shortfall in the job market for such graduates or the in a specialist area.
attractiveness of other non-engineering professions requiring
problem-solving skills might entice graduates away from engi
■
aply appropriate theoretical and typically aimed at those who will:
practical methods to the analysis and ■
exercise independent technical
solution of engi neering problems; judgement at an appropriate level;
■
provide technical, commercial and ■
assume responsibility, as an individual
managerial leadership; or as a member of a team, for the
■
undertake the management of high management of resources and / or
levels of risk associated with guidance of technical staff ;
Th e ‘engineer’ track is typically aimed at
engineering processes, sys tems, ■
design, develop, manufacture,
those who will:
equipment, and infrastructure; and commission, operate and maintain
■
use a combination of general and ■ products, equipment, processes and
perform activities that are essentially
specialist engineering knowledge and services;
intellec tual in nature, requiring
understanding to optimize the actively participate in fi nancial,
discretion and judge ment. ■

application of existing and emerging

Th e ‘engineering technologist’ track is statutory and commercial
technology;
 considerations and in the creation of typically aimed at those who are and skills within defi ned fi elds of
cost eff ective systems and involved in applying proven techniques technology; ■ contribute to the design,
procedures; and and procedures to the solu development, manu facture,
■
undertake the management of tion of practical engineering problems. commissioning, operation or mainte
moderate levels of risks associated Th ey: ■ carry supervisory or technical nance of products, equipment,
with engineering processes, systems, responsibility; ■ are competent to processes or services; and
equipment and infrastructure. exercise creative aptitudes ■
create and apply safe systems of work.
The ‘engineering technician’ track is

28

2 Engineering and
Human
Development
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
ences programme was once the largest activity in
the Natu
ral Sciences Sector at UNESCO, but declined with
The development and application of knowledge in the rise of the environmental sciences, and is now
engi neering and technology underpins and drives hopefully poised for a resurgence in recognition of
sustainable social and economic development. the importance of engineering as a core and
Engineering and tech nology are vital in underpinning an area of knowledge application
addressing basic human needs, poverty reduction and innovation in such areas as climate change
and sustainable development, and to bridge the mitigation and adaptation. Th is chapter includes
‘knowledge divide’. Th is chapter focuses on the sections on engineering, technology and society,
vital role of engineering and innovation in human, engineers and their social responsibil ity in such
social and economic development. It includes a areas as military technology and pollution on the
very short history of engineering, referring one hand, and the design and construction of
particularly to engineering education and how the environmen tally sustainable infrastructure, living
history of engineering has aff ected its future. Th e and working spaces on the other, as well as the
history of engineering at UNESCO discusses how broader corporate social responsibil
the engineering sci ity of engineers and engineering.

2.1 History of engineering; engineering at

UNESCO Tony Marjoram
history and pre-history of humanity itself. Human beings are
partly defi ned as tool designers and users, and it is this inno
2.1.1 history of A very short
vation and the design and use of tools that accounts for so
engineering much of the direction and pace of change of history. Most of
Th e history of engineering in the context of the way we live, the broader history of civilization, of economic and social rela
and interact with nature and each other is very much the tions, is also the history of engineering, engineering applica
tions and innovation. Th e Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age,
 Steam Age and Information Age all relate to engineering and
innovation shaping our interaction with the world; ‘the Stone Age
Figure 1: Waves of Innovation
did not end because we ran out of stones!’ Th e Pyramids,
Borobudur, El Mirador, the civilizations linked to metal smelt ing at
Zimbabwe and water engineering at Angkor, the medi
eval cathedrals and Industrial Revolution are all testament to the
engineering skills of past generations. Engineering is also vital in
the surveying and conservation of our cultural heritage; the
famous work of UNESCO in conserving Borobudur and Abu
Simbel were essentially engineering projects.

Th e history of engineering as a profession, where payment is

made in cash or kind for services, began with tool- and
weapon-making over 150,000 years ago – indicating that engi
neering is one of the oldest professions. Military engineering was
soon joined by civil engineering in the quest for defence and
development of early infrastructure. Th e professionaliza
6th wave tion of engineering is illustrated by Imhotep who built the Step
Pyramid at Saqqara in 3000 BC and was one of the few com
moner mortals to be accorded divine status after his death.
Engineering professionalization continued with the develop ment
5th wave of craft and guild knowledge, and the formalization of

4th wave
Biotechnology
Software Renaissance and the understanding of the
Innovation Information
technology
Scientifi c Revolution natural world and
Steam power Railroad
of the sixteenth and analysis of practical
Steel seventeeth centuries. problems – a land
Cotton © Th e Natural Edge Project 2004
3rd wave Leonardo da Vinci, for mark in the
associated knowledge
example, had the offi development of
1st wave and education. Simple
cial title of Ingeg engineering,
Iron Petrochemicals Electronics patriarchal forms of
Water power Aviation nere Generale and his mathematical repre
Mechanisation Space engineering education
Textiles
Sustainability existing in ancient notebooks reveal an
Commerce

societies devel oped increasing engineer

Radical resource
Electricity productivity
Chemicals
Internal
Whole system design
Biomimicry into vocational ing interest in how
technical schools of things worked. Galileo
combustion Green chemistry
engine Industrial ecology
Renewable energy
Green diff erent types in the Galilei developed the
nanotechnology
Middle Ages and scientifi c approach
2nd wave
particularly during the and method to the
Digital Networks
1785 1845 1900 1950 1990 2020 sentation, structural analysis and design that continued into

30
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T
1850–1900 and the third Industrial Rev Industrial Revolution, although the precise
olution was based on steel, electricity and dates, phases, causes and eff ects of these
heavy engineering from 1875–1925. Th is major changes are hotly debated, as is the
the Industrial Revolution – and the was followed by the fourth Industrial nature of the sixth wave based on new
replacement of muscle by machines in the Revolution based on oil, the automobile and knowledge production and application in
production process. mass production, taking place between such fi elds as IT, biotechnology and mate
1900–1950 and onward, and the fi fth rials beginning around 1980, and the
phase was based on information and possible seventh wave based on
Engineering powered the so-called
telecommunications and the post-war sustainable ‘green’ engineering and
Industrial Revolution that really took off in
boom from 1950. Th ese waves of technology seen to have begun around
the United Kingdom in the eighteenth
innovation and industrial development have 2005.
century spreading to Europe, North America
become known as Kondratiev waves,
and the world, replacing muscle by
machine in a synergistic combination
K-waves, long waves, supercycles or A very short history of
between knowledge and capital. Th e fi rst
surges, and relate to cycles in the world engineering education
economy of around fi fty years dura tion
Industrial Revolu tion took place from
consisting of alternating periods of high and Th e most crucial period in the development
1750–1850 and focused on the textile
low sectoral growth. Most analysts accept of engineering were the eighteenth and
industry. Th e second Industrial Revolution
the ‘Schumpeter-Freeman-Perez’ paradigm nineteenth centuries particularly the Iron
focused on steam and the railways from
of fi ve waves of innovation since the fi rst and Steam Ages the second Kondratiev
wave of inno vation and successive of the now industri alized countries had
industrial revolutions. Early interest in the established their own engineering educa
development of engineering education took In Britain, however, engineering education tion systems based on the French and
place in Germany in the mining industry, was initially based on a system of German ‘Humboldtian’ model. In the
with the creation in 1702 of a school of apprenticeship with a working engineer twentieth century, the professionalization of
mining and metallurgy in Freiberg. One of follow © Hochtief engineering continued with the development
the oldest technical universities is the ing the early years of the Industrial of professional societies, journals,
Czech Technical University in Prague Revolution when many engineers had little meetings, conferences, and the
founded in 1707. In France, engineering formal or theoretical training. Men such as professional accreditation of exams, qualifi
education developed with the creation of Arkwright, Hargreaves, Crompton and cations and universities, facili tating
the École Nationale des Ponts et Newcomen, followed by Telford, George education, the fl ow of information and
Chaussées (1747) and École des Mines and Robert Stephenson and Maudslay, all continued pro fessional development. Th
(1783). Th e École Poly technique, the fi rst had little formal engineering education but ese processes will continue with the
technical university in Europe teaching the developed the tech nologies that powered development of international agreements
foundations of mathematics and science, the Industrial Revolution and changed the relating to accredita tion and the mutual
was established in 1794 during the French world. In many fi elds, practical activity recognition of engineering qualifi cations
Revolution – the revolution in engi neering preceded scientifi c understanding; we had and professional competence, which
education itself began during a ‘revolution’. steam engines before thermodynam ics, include the Washington Accord (1989),
Under Napoleon’s infl uence, France and ‘rocket science’ is more about Sydney Accord (2001), Dublin Accord
developed the system of formal schooling engineering than sci (2002), APEC Engineer (1999), Engineers
in engineering after the Revolution, and ence. Britain tried to retain this lead by Mobility Forum (2001) and the Engineering
engineer prohibiting the export of engineering goods Technologist Mobility Forum (2003), and the
ing education in France has retained a and services in the early 1800s, which is 1999 Bologna Declaration relating to quality
strong theoretical and military character. Th why countries in continental Europe assurance and accreditation of bachelor
e French model infl uenced the devel developed their own engineering education and master programmes in Europe.
opment of polytechnic engineering systems based on French and German
education institutions around the world at models with a foundation in science and
the beginning of the nineteenth century, mathematics rather than the British model
especially in Germany in Berlin, Karlsruhe, based on artisanal empiricism and lais
Munich, Dresden, sez-faire professional development. Th
Stuttgart, Hanover and Darmstadt between rough the nineteenth and into the twentieth
1799 and 1831. In Russia, similar schools centuries however, engineering educa tion
of technology were opened in Moscow in Britain also changed toward a science-
(1825) and St. Petersburg (1831) based on and university
a system of military engineering education. based system and the rise of the
Th e fi rst technical institutes appeared at ‘engineering sciences’, partly in recognition
the same time in the USA including West of the increasingly close connection
Point in 1819 (modelled on the École between engineering, science and
Polytechnique), the Rensselaer School in mathematics, and partly due to fears that
1823 and Ohio Mechanics Institute in 1828. Britain was lagging behind the European
In Germany, polytechnic schools were model in terms of international competition.
accorded the same legal founda tions as
universities. Engineering constructs and preserves our
heritage, as at Abu Simbel.
By the end of the nineteenth century, most
 31
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
 contemporary decline of interest in engineer facilitated by present ing engineering as a
ing at university level; the fact that the part of the problem-solving solution to
mathematical base is regarded as too sustainable development and poverty
abstract, out of touch, hard work and boring reduction.
by many young people. Th is is turn has
lead to a questioning of the Humboldtian Th e usefulness of promoting the relevance
model and increasing interest in prob of engineering to address contemporary
lem- and activity-based learning. Th e concerns and help link engineering with
Humboldtian model also underpins the society in the context of related ethical
linear model of innovation. Th e linear modelissues, sustain
of innovation is the fi rst and major
conceptual model of the rela tion between 1 B. Godin. 2005. Measurement and Statistics on Science and
science and technology, and economic Technology: 1920 to the Present, London: Routledge.
devel opment. Th is model has become the able development and poverty reduction is
accepted worldview of innovation and is at demonstrated by the growth of Engineers
the heart of science and technology policy, Without Borders and similar groups around
although the linear model of innovation the world, and such activities as the
overlooks engineer ing, to the continued Daimler-UNESCO Mondialogo Engineering
discredit of engineering in the context of Award, which attract students through its
science and technology policy. Th e model connection to poverty reduction and
is based on the Humboldtian notion that sustainable development and appeals to
pure, disinterested, basic scientifi c the urge of youth to ‘do some thing’ to help
research, followed by applied researchand those in need. University courses can be
development, leads to knowledge made more interesting through the
applications, production and diff usion. transformation of curricula and pedagogy
While the precise origins of the model are using such information and experience in
unclear, many accredit Vannevar Bush’s more activity-, project- and problem-based
Science: Th e Endless Frontier published in learning, just-in-time approaches and
1945. Th is refl ects particularly on the role hands-on application, and less formulaic
of science (rather than engineering) in approaches that turn students off . In short,
wartime success, underpinned by statistics relevance works! Science and engineering
based on and reinforcing the linear model. have changed the world, but are pro
Th is became the model for peacetime fessionally conservative and slow to
economic development as embodied in the change. We need innova tive examples of
Marshall Plan and later the OECD and its schools, colleges and universities around
work on Science and Technology the world that have pioneered activity in
indicators, despite various criticisms (e.g. such areas as problem
that the linear model overlooks based learning. Th e future of the world is in
engineering), modifi cations, alter native the hands of young engineers and we need
models and claims that the linear model is to give them as much help as we can in
dead (Godin, 2005).1 facing the challenges of the future.

Engineering therefore has a particular need

to overcome the Humboldtian notions
underlying the ‘fundamentals’ approach to 2.1.2 Engineering at
education and linear model of innovation, UNESCO
Mondialogo Engineering Award project from and to position itself more eff ectively in the
development dialogue and bring fun into Engineering was part of UNESCO from the
Japan and Nepal on low-cost food.
the fundamentals of engineering education beginning. It was the intention of the
through such approaches as founders of UNESCO that the ‘S’ refer to
problem-based learning. For the future of science and technology, and that this
engineering, an obvious goal is the need to include the applied sciences, technological
focus specifi cally on the important role sciences and engineering. Th e engi
engineering will play in addressing the UN neering and technological sciences have
Millennium Development Goals, especially always played a signif icant role in the
poverty reduction and sustainable Natural Sciences Sector at UNESCO.
development, and the vital role of Indeed, UNESCO was established during a
engineering in climate change mitigation conference that took place in London in
© Mondialogo and adaptation in the develop ment of November 1945 at the Institution of Civil
How engineering’s sustainable, green, eco-engineering and Engi neers – the oldest engineering
history aff ects its associated design, technology, production institution in the world. Th is refl ects the
future and distribution systems and infrastructure. stark realization and emphasis of the
Th e Humboldtian model is also, ironically, Fortunately, the promotion of public under importance of science, engineering and
one of the factors that lead to the standing and interest in engineering is technology in the Second World War when
many new fi elds and applications were operational activities by UNDP in the interesting to note the importance of
developed in such areas as materials, mid-1980s). engineering in those earlier years when
aeronautics, systems analysis and project engineering was the biggest activity in the
management, as well as the success of the Background Science Sector – in terms of personnel and
Marshall Plan to rebuild capacity and In the history of the engineering and budget – before the rise of the
infrastructure after the war. Th is emphasis technological sciences at UNESCO, it is environmental sciences. Th ere has also
was mirrored in the support for programme interesting to note the similarities and reso been long-term interest in renewable
activi nances between the programme priorities in energy, beginning with an international
ties at UNESCO by other UN agencies of engineering today and those of the 1960s, congress in 1973. Th ere has been close
the basic, applied and engineering sciences1970s and intervening years. It is also coopera tion with the social sciences in the
and technology (before the development of fi eld of science and society

32
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T
and poverty reduction. Th is, again, is not seminars, information and publications, con
unique to UNESCO. Most development sultancy and advisory activities and
specialists have a background in programme activity areas (including
with the journal Impact of Science on economics and continue to view the world engineering education and energy). Th e
Society, which was pub lished from in terms of the three classical factors of primary focus of the engineering
1967–1992. Th e reform of engineering production: capital, labour and natu ral programme, until the late 1980s, was on
education and the need for greater resources, where knowledge, in the form of core areas of engineering education (what
interdisciplinarity and intersectoral engineering, science and technology, are would now be called human and
cooperation, women and gender issues in not easily accommodated. Th is is institutional capacity-building), where the
engineering, inno vation and the unfortunate given the obvious importance emphasis turned increasingly toward
development of endogenous technologies of engineer ing, science and technology in renewable energy (see later). Th e focus
are other recurrent themes, and are as development, particularly in the Industrial on core areas of engineering education and
important today as they were in the 1970s. Revolution for example, as recognized by capacity-building is presently returning with
It is also interesting to note that programme some commentators at the time and in the the new millen nia (albeit with much less
activities appear to have been more work of economists such as Schumpeter human and fi nancial resources). Much of
interdisciplinary twenty years ago than they and Freeman on the role of knowledge and this activity was conducted in close
are today. innovation in economic change, and the cooperation with the fi ve main science fi
fact that we now live in ‘knowledge eld offi ces, which were established to
societies’. facilitate implementation of projects
Apart from these similarities, there are of
supported by the UNDP special funds.
course diff erences between programme
With the decline of funds in the 1990s, the fi
activities over the last forty years and also Th e context of UNESCO has also changed
eld network has declined with fewer
diff erences in defi nition and context over from the early days when engineering was
specialists in engineering in the fi eld and
time and in dif ferent places, for example the main activity area in the Science Sec tor
at headquarters.
the meaning behind ‘engineering’, the (largely supported by UNDP special
‘engineering sciences’ and ‘technology’ funding) to the decline of such funding for
Th e fi eld of energy was an increasing
(which today is often narrowly regarded as engineering and the sector in terms of both
personnel and budget. UNESCO faced a emphasis in the engineer ing programme
synonymous with Information and
that developed in the late 1970s and 1980s.
Communication Technologies, ICTs). Th e crisis from the mid
diffi culties of defi n 1980s with the decline of UN funding and Energy activity at UNESCO began eff
ectively in the early 1970s with the
ing ‘engineering’ and ‘engineering science’, the withdrawal of the United States and UK
International Congress on the ‘Sun in the
and of engineers, technologists and in 1984, and the consequent budget cut of
Service of Mankind’, held in Paris in 1973,
technicians, is illustrated by the discussions 25 per cent. UNESCO has not really
organized by UNESCO with WMO, WHO
over the Bologna Accord in 1999 regarding recovered from this cut as the budget has
and ISES (the International Solar Energy
the harmonization of graduate and remained constant, even with the return of
Soci
postgraduate education in Europe by 2010 the UK in 1997 and the United States in
ety), when the International Solar Energy
(in Germany, for example, there are over 2003.
Engineering Commission was also created. In the late
forty defi nitions of an engineer). Th is
programme 1980s and 1990s interest on renew able
problem is therefore not unique to
energy continued with the creation of the
UNESCO but is faced by society and Th e engineering programme at UNESCO,
World Solar Programme (WSP), during the
governments around the world. as the main pro gramme in the Science
1996–2005, and associated World Solar
Sector until the 1980s, has been active in a
Commission (WSC), which clearly
The context of ‘development’ has also diverse range of initiatives and include the borrowed from the earlier activity of ISES.
changed, although development specialists imple mentation of multi-million dollar It is useful to note that WSP/WSC activity
continue generally to overlook the role of projects supported by UN special funds, accounted for a total of over US$4 million of
engineering and technology in development project development and fund raising, UNESCO funds, with over US$1 million
at all levels at the macroeconomic level network ing, cooperation and support of alone supporting WSP/WSC activity in
and at the grass roots where small, aff international professional © Mondialogo Zimbabwe, including the World Solar
ordable technologies can make a organizations and NGOs, conferences and Summit held in Harare in 1996 that lead to
tremendous diff erence to people’s lives symposia, training, workshops and the creation of the World Solar Programme
 and World Solar Commission chaired by staff at head
President Mugabe. Declining funds in the
late 1980s and 1990s gave rise to
increasing creativity. Unfortunately, the 2 Go to: http://upo.unesco.org/details.aspx?Code_Livre=4503
(Accessed: 29 May 2010)
historical record for the World Solar
Programme and World Solar Commission
is lost as all programme fi les disappeared
at the end of 2000. Th is is discussed in
Sixty Years of Science at UNESCO
1945–2005 (UNESCO, 2006).2

Mondialogo Engineering Award project from

From the early 1960s until the late 1980s
Malaysia and India on bio-solar technology.
the engineering programme – the largest
of the three activity areas of in the Natural
Sciences Sector – peaked with over ten

33
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

© EWB-UK
 1990s refl ecting increasing academic
interest, and the university-industry-science
partnership (UNISPAR) programme was created
by the engineering pro gramme in 1993. Th is
activity included an innovative Inter national Fund
for the Technological Development of Africa
(IFTDA), which was established with an investment
of US$1 million and supported the development of
many small-scale innovations before the IFTDA
project was closed as the capital was required for
other priorities.

Networking,
Adobe building is an early example of civil engineering. international
professional
organizations and NGOs
quarters, another ten staff in fi ve main regional fi Th e engineering programme has been
eld offi ces that were developed over this period, continuously active in the development and
and a budget of up to US$30 million per biennium. support of networking, international organizations
A diverse range of activities and initiatives were and NGOs in engineering, and helped create the
implemented, including the establishment and World Federation of Engineering Organizations,
support of engineering departments at universities, the main ‘umbrella’ organization for national and
research centres, standards institutions and regional engineering institutions and associations
similar bodies in numer ous countries. Most of this in 1968. UNESCO also helped create such
activity is what we would now call human and regional organizations as the Federation of Engi
institutional capacity-building. It is therefore inter neering Institutions in SE Asia and the Pacifi c
esting to refl ect on the current emphasis on (FEISEAP, which continues as FEIAP), the
technical capac ity-building and the lessons we Association of Engineering Education in South
may learn from the past. East Asia and the Pacifi c (AEESEAP) and the Afri
can Network of Scientifi c and Technical
Engineering programme Institutions (ANSTI) in 1979. Network support
activities activity continues with UNESCO supporting
networking activities for technology and develop
Th e engineering programme at UNESCO has
ment, Engineers Without Borders, Engineers
focused essen tially on two areas of activity:
Against Poverty, Engineering for a Sustainable
engineering education and capacity-building, and
World and the International Net
the application of engineering and technology to
work for Engineering Studies.
development, including such specifi c issues as
the Millennium Development Goals (especially
poverty reduc tion and sustainable development) Conferences and symposia,
and, most recently, climate change mitigation and workshops and seminars
adaptation. Overall activities include networking, Th e organization and support of various
cooperation and the support of joint activities with international and regional conferences and
international professional organizations and NGOs, symposia is an important and long term activity of
and the organization, presentation and support of the engineering programme, usually in cooper
conferences and symposia, workshops and ation with WFEO. Most recently the programme
seminars, as well as the production of information was involved in organizing and supporting the
and learning/teaching materials, identifi cation and 2008 World Engineers’ Con vention (WEC 2008) in
commissioning of publications, project Brazil. Th is followed on from WEC 2004 in
development and fundraising. Shanghai and the fi rst World Engineers’
Convention, WEC 2000, in Hanover. Th e
Other programme activities that have continued engineering programme was par ticularly active in
since the establishment of engineering in the organization and presentation of training and
UNESCO include expert advi sory and consultancy seminars in the 1960s–1980s with UNDP Special
services. In recent times this includes participation Funds. Although this activity has inevitably
in the UN Millennium Project Task Force 10 on declined since those golden years, there has been
Science, Technology and Innovation, and a a recent resurgence that includes conferences
contribution to the TF10 report Innovation: and workshops on engineering and innovation,
Applying Knowledge in Development. Pilot sustainable development, poverty reduction,
projects have also been supported, most notably engineering policy and planning, gender issues in
relat engineering, standards and accreditation.
ing to energy, with mixed results. Interest in the Activities are being planned on technology and
promotion of university-industry cooperation and climate change mitigation and adaptation, and an
innovation developed at UNESCO in the early inter national engineering congress is to be held in
 Buenos Aires in 2010 and the 2011 World publications
Engineers’ Convention (WEC 2011) ‘Engineers
Th e production of information and publications, in
Power the World: Facing the Global Energy Chal
hard cover and electronic formats, is a vital part
lenge’ is to be held in Geneva.
of capacity-build-

Information and

34
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T

ing, and the engineering programme continues to be very active in this domain. Important early activities included
the development of the UN Information System for Science and Technology (UNISIST) programme, based at
UNESCO, publi
cation of the fi rst international directory of new and renew able energy information sources and research centres in
1982, and the UNESCO Energy Engineering Series with John Wiley beginning in the 1990s (some titles are still in
print and oth ers have been reprinted). More recent publications include Small is Working: Technology for Poverty
Reduction and Rays of Hope: Renewable Energy in the Pacifi c, which also included short fi lm productions.
UNESCO toolkits of learning and teaching materials also published by UNESCO Publishing include Solar
Photovoltaic Project Development and Solar Photovoltaic Systems: Technical Training Manual, Technology
Business Incubators (this has proved so popular it has almost sold out and has been translated and published in
Chinese, Japanese and Farsi) and Gender Indicators in Science, Engineer ing and Technology. Th e establishment
of the Sudan Virtual Engineering Library project at the University of Khartoum has also been most successful;
serving as a mirror service for the MIT Open Courseware project in Sudan, forming part of the open courseware
programme of the University of
Khartoum and a model for the Sudanese Universities Virtual
Library. Several publications are in press, including forthcom
ing titles on technology policy and poverty reduction, inno
vation and development.

Project development and fundraising

Engineering programme staff have long been active in the

development of new project proposals; in the earlier days
primarily for UNDP funding. More recent project develop
ment activity includes the Daimler-UNESCO Mondialogo
Engineering Award – one of the three pillars of the UNESCO
partnership with Daimler to promote intercultural dialogue,
in this case between young engineers and the preparation of
project proposals to address poverty reduction, sustainable
development and the MDGs. Proposals that did not go for
ward include a low-orbit satellite project designed to promote
education in Africa using Russian military rockets to launch
satellites (an idea borrowed from Volunteers in Technical
Assistance in the USA, which they continued to develop with
limited success, leading to the near collapse of VITA in 2001
and transformation into the Volunteers for Prosperity initia
tive in 2003 under President Bush), and a proposal for a World

Technological University. Easter Island is also an engineering achievement.

 © GFDL - Wikimedia
35
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
and development of the Operations Division of
UNDP. Th ere were also various internal factors at
UNESCO. Th e Natural Sciences Sector is
Th e rise and fall of perhaps the least well understood sector in
engineering and UNESCO, and engineering – for various reasons
prospects for – is less well understood than science.
resurgence Engineering is distinct from science, though it is
Engineering at UNESCO rose in the early years to considered as part of science in UNESCO, and
be the larg est of the three initial and continuing with a declining science budget, science issues,
theme areas of UNESCO, together with the basic priorities and ‘science’ policy have tended to
sciences and the environmental and ecological predominate (even though engineering policy is a
sciences. Over the last fi fty years the engineering signifi cant part of science policy, as discussed in
programme has had around one hundred section 4.5.2). Th is situation refl ects the limited
professional and support staff , a regular numbers of scientists and engineers in the
programme budget of over US$50 million and decision-making bodies of UNESCO such as the
extra-budgetary funding of over US$200 million Executive Board and General Conference where
(mainly UNDP special funds in the mid-1960s to educa tion interests tend to predominate. In this
the early 1990s). Engineering at UNESCO began way, the status and challenges faced by
to decline in real terms in the 1990s (in terms of engineering at UNESCO mirrors those faced by
staff and budget), which refl ected the decline of engineering in governments, organizations and
the Science Sector and indeed of UNESCO over soci eties worldwide.
this period, and was attributed to various external
and inter nal factors. Th e 1980s marked a general Other internal factors leading to the decline of
decline in overseas aid, the withdrawal of the US engineering at UNESCO include the choice of
and the UK in 1984 that precipi tated a funding programme priorities based on personal
crisis in UNESCO, the fall of the Berlin Wall in interaction and lobbying rather than a strategic
1989 that led to the end of the Cold War and approach based on broader policy issues and a
changing inter more demo
national climate, and UNDP special funds began to cratic determination of needs and priorities. Th is
decline from the late 1980s with the establishment was com pounded in the late 1980s and 1990s by
 the focus on the World Solar Programme. While 2009 General Conference and Executive Board
the idea to focus is eminently understandable, as part of the eff ort to continue and develop
adequate human and financial resources and engineering activities at UNESCO into the new
signifi cant substantive results are required, and millennium (which itself has signifi cant external
should not be to the exclusion of other programme support). Th is follows and reinforces a proposal
interests, oth from the United States for the development of
erwise programme activities may become theme ‘Cross-Sectoral Activities in Technical Capacity
areas with little real substance, peripheral to core Building’, pre sented to and approved unanimously
engineering issues, with the risk, perhaps not at the Executive Board in April 2005, in order to
surprising, of limited programme achievements. focus on capacity-building in the basic sciences
Th is contributed signifi cantly to the decline of and mathematics, engineering and the water
engineering and the administrative merger of sciences (with a focus in engineering on activities
engineering into the Basic and Engineering that included ‘strengthening of the existing
Sciences Division in 2002, with obvi ous potential engineering programme, includ ing training
consequences for the future of engineering in educators for developing countries, support of
UNESCO. It is clear that the programmes in workshops for educators in curriculum
UNESCO, with the most secure budgets and eff development, best practices, and quality
ective lobbying, are those linked to international assurance, and development of appro priate
and intergovernmental programmes such as the collaborations with industry.’ Th is was the fi rst
Man and the Biosphere Programme (created in proposal from the United States since its return to
1971), the International Hydrological Programme UNESCO in 2003. It is to be hoped that these
(1975) and the Inter governmental Oceanographic proposals will support a resurgence and
Commission (1960). While this advantage for strengthening of engineering in UNESCO and
programmes to have such an international back around the world, with the development of
ground is acknowledged, there is also a international programme activities in
disinclination to create new international capacity-building and engineering applications for
programmes due to human and fi nancial resource poverty reduction and sustainable development,
constraints. climate change mitigation and adaptation.
UNESCO has a unique mandate and mission in
the natural sciences, including engi neering and
In this context, it is certainly noteworthy that a
technology, to assist Member States, and espe
proposal for a feasibility study for an ‘International
cially developing countries.
Engineering Programme’ was made by South
Africa and adopted with signifi cant sup port in the

36
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T

Mondialogo Engineering Award – promoting cooperation for development

overall aim of the Mondialogo tolerance. Th e partnership has its ori
Th e Mondialogo partnership is to promote international gins in a discussion between
Partnership cooperation, dia logue and DaimlerChrysler and the German
Th e Mondialogo Engineering Award is understanding among young people National Commission for UNESCO
part of a partnership initiative that was around the world to promote living regarding possible activity to promote
launched by Daim lerChrysler (as it then together and as a basis for developing intercul tural dialogue and
was) and UNESCO in 2003. Th e mutual understanding, respect and understanding. Th is included reference
 to the Associated Schools Project of School Contest is for school students promote intercultural dialogue and
UNESCO, related with other possible between fourteen and eighteen years of understanding.
activities at the tertiary/university level. age, with a focus on developing
Following an internal request for projects around one of three core
Each round of the Award has
proposals an ‘Intercultural Dialogue themes: peace, sports and fair play,
commenced with an advertising
through Engineering Applications’ elimina tion of discrimination;
campaign and mailout of posters and
(IDEA) project was proposed by the sustainable future; identity and respect
information to every university with an
Engineering Programme of UNESCO, for cultural diversity. Th e multilingual
engineer ing faculty around the world.
creating a link between a company built Mondialogo Internet Portal
Interested student engineers were
on quality engineering and the UN complements and supports these
encouraged to form local uni
organiza tion responsible for science project activities with an interna tionally
and engineering. Th e proposal was accessible information and dialogue plat versity teams and were invited to
agreed and the Mondialogo initia form focusing on intercultural exchange. register them selves and any ideas they
tive developed. had for possible project proposals on
Since 2003, there have been three
the Mondialogo website. Th ey then
rounds each of the Schools Contest
formed international teams of at least
Th e Mondialogo initiative consists of and Engineering Award, with the fi rst
two local teams from developing and
three pil lars: the Mondialogo round of the Mondialogo Engineering
developed country universities, and
Engineering Award; the Mondialogo Award in 2004–2005, the second in
registered projects on which they would
Schools Contest; and the support ing 2006–2007 and the third in 2008–2009.
work to produce proposals for
Mondialogo Internet Portal. The Mondi Over this time, the Mondi alogo
submission to the Award. Project
alogo Engineering Award promotes partnership has itself won several
proposals were then devel oped
cooperation between student engineers awards as an exemplar of corporate
collaboratively by the teams over the
at universities around the world, with a social responsibility and public-private
course of around six months. Th e
focus on the development of partnership in the promotion of
available time period was complicated
international cooperation and dialogue
by the fact that universities in the
among young people.
southern and northern hemispheres
Th e Mondialogo have dif
Engineering Award Th ferent academic years, examination
e Mondialogo Engineering Award is in schedules and periods when students
have more or less time.
essence a design exercise for student
engineers from developing and
developed countries who form Project proposals were then developed
international teams and develop project and sub mitted, short-listed and fi
propos als together. Th e projects must nalised by an independ ent Jury. Th e
address issues of poverty, sustainable project proposals are assessed on
development and climate criteria of technical excellence, focus on
poverty reduction, sustainable
development and the UN Millennium
Development Goals, feasibility and
demonstration of intercultural dialogue
between teams within each project
group. Each round of the Award
concluded with a Mondialogo Engi
© UNESCO
neering Award Symposium and
Ceremony. Th ese have taken place in
engineering project proposals between Berlin in 2005, Mumbai in 2007 and
universi ties in developing and © UNESCO Mondialogo Engineering Award Stuttgart in 2009. Th e Award Sympo
developed countries that address medals. sium is considered an important
poverty reduction, sustainability, the component of
change. One of the driving ideas is that
other UN Millennium Development interna tional cooperation on such
Goals and climate change mitigation projects is one of the best ways to Mondialogo Engineering Award fi nalists.
and adaptation. Th e Mondialogo

37
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

Mondialogo Engineering Award – promoting cooperation for development (continuation)

representatives of the fi nalist teams of proposals to the other fi nalists, the
the Award activity enabling young engineers to present their project Daimler and UNESCO organizers, Jury
 © UNESCO
members and the media. Th e
The Mondialogo Engineering Award uation and one Community Award. In the
Symposium was followed by a
(MEA) is organized and managed by second Award in 2006–2007, thirty
Mondialogo Award Ceremony where the
the Engineering Pro gramme at award winners were selected from
Awards were presented.
UNESCO and Corporate Sponsorship
ninety-two project proposals from
department at Daimler, supported by
Th e 2009 Award – student teams in fi fty-four countries with
Daimler’s communications consultant,
pursuing dreams Experience (for merly Schmidt und
a total of 809 registered project ideas
into reality Kaiser).
from over 3,000 student engineers in
eighty-nine countries. Th ere were ten
Th e 2009 Award Ceremony was hosted
Mondialogo Engineering Awards and
by Daimler CEO, Dieter Zetsche, and The Mondialogo Engineering Award Jury,
twenty Hon ourable mentions, each
Walter Erdelen, Assistant who selected the winners from the
worth €10,000 and €5,000 respectively,
Director-General for Natural Sciences at shortlist, was co chaired by Herbert
and one Continuation Award. In the fi rst
UNESCO, at the Daimler Museum in Kohler, Vice-President E-Drive and
Stuttgart, and featured a keynote Mondialogo Engineering Award in
Future Mobility and Chief Environmental
presentation by Lewis Hamilton, the Offi ce at Daimler, and Walter Erdelen, 2004–2005, twenty-one winning
youngest ever Formula One World Assistant Director-General for Natural proposals were selected from student
Champion in 2008. Hamilton’s informal Sciences at UNESCO, and included teams in twenty-fi ve countries with a
comments were moving, encouraging Peggy Oti-Boateng from the Tech total of 111 project proposals submitted
and very inspirational, and emphasized nology Consultancy Centre at the by 412 teams from 1,700 student
the vital role engineers play in F1, and University of Kumasi in Ghana, Shirley engineers in seventy-nine coun tries.
how young engineers should pursue Malcom from the Ameri can Association Twenty-one Mondialogo Engineering
their commitment and translate their for the Advancement of Science, Ali Awards each worth €15,000 were made,
dreams into real ity – as he had done Uddin Ansari from the Centre for with fi ve awarded special Jury
himself – to create solutions to some of Environment Studies and recognition.
the most serious problems facing the Socio-responsive Engineering at Muf
world. One of the young engineers later fakham Jah College in Hyderabad, Paul
reported that the whole cooperative Jowitt from Heriot-Watt University in Th is shows how the Mondialogo
design process, award symposium and Edinburgh, and Barry Grear, President Engineering Award has gone from
ceremony, including Hamilton’s of the World Federation of Engi neering strength to strength in terms of total
comments, just ‘blew my mind’ – Organizations (who succeeded previous numbers of registered teams, interest in
underlining the importance of activities Presidents Kamel Ayadi and Dato Lee the Award and in the interest and
and events that one can sometimes Yee Chong). commitment of young engineers to work
overlook when in the midst of things. together in the preparation of project
One of the judges also mentioned that proposals that address major issues and
Between 2004 and 2009 nearly 10,000
the commitment of the students almost
engineering students from more than challenges facing the world, especially
brought a tear to his eye. Th eir
half the countries in the world took part poverty reduction, sustainable
commitment is most reassuring – as our
in the Mondialogo Engineering Award. In development, climate change mitigation
future is indeed in their hands!
the 2008–2009 Award, thirty winning and adaptation. It is hoped that the MEA
proposals were selected from will continue to help turn the dreams of
Th irty gold, silver and bronze ninety-seven project proposals from young engineers into reality, and
Mondialogo Engi neering Awards were student teams in fi fty-fi ve countries with improve the quality of life of some of the
presented at the Award Cer emony worth a total of 932 registered project ideas world’s poorest people. Th is is
a total of €300,000. Th e prize money is from nearly 4,000 student engineers in
particularly important following the fi
intended to help facilitate and implement ninety-four coun tries. Th ere were eight
nancial and economic crisis.
the proposed projects, although it is gold, twelve silver and ten bronze
apparent that most of the students Unfortunately, this downturn lead to a
awards, worth €15,000, €10,000 and
participate because they think it is a dramatic change in the business
€5,000 respectively (a total of
good thing to do. Th is is evident in the €300,000), with one Contin environment for Daimler, and a cut in
many weblogs of project proposals from corporate sponsorship, including the
the 2009 and previous awards that are Mondialogo partnership. Th e search is
being implemented. Th e diverse range on for new sponsors to help support and
of engineering project propos develop the Mondialogo partnership and
als addressing world problems was truly Engineering Award.
impres sive and included proposals
focusing on water supply and sanitation,
waste management, food production
and processing housing and shelter,
transportation and mobility, energy,
emergency, disaster response and
reconstruction and multi Th e Mondialogo Engineer
sector proposals. ing Award involved young
Organization of the engineers to address global
Award issues.
38
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T

2.2 innovation, social and economic

Engineering, development
Paul Jowitt

Th e Great Age of
Engineering?
It’s easy to think, from the Western
perspective, that the great
days of engineering were in the past
during the era of massive
mechanization and urbanization that had
its heyday in the
nineteenth century and which took the
early Industrial Revolu
tion from the eighteenth century right
through into the twen
tieth century which, incidently,
simultaneously improved the
health and well-being of the common
person with improve
ments in water supply and sanitation. Th
at era of great engi
neering enjoyed two advantages:
seemingly unlimited sources
of power, coal, oil and gas, and a world
environment of appar
ently boundless capacity in terms of water
supply, materials
and other resources relative to human
need.

Now we know diff erently. We face two

issues of truly global
proportions – climate change and poverty
reduction. Th e
tasks confronting engineers of the
twenty-fi rst century are:

■
engineering the world to avert an
environmental crisis
caused in part by earlier generations in
terms of energy use,
 greenhouse gas emissions and their contribution to climate
change, and

■
engineering the large proportion of the world’s increasing
population out of poverty, and the associated problems
encapsulated by the UN Millennium Development Goals.

Th is will require a combination of re-engineering existing infra

structure together with the provision of fi rst-time infrastruc
ture at a global scale.

And the diff erence between now and the nineteenth century?
Th is time the scale of the problem is at a greater order of mag
nitude; environmental constraints are dangerously close to
being breached; worldwide competition for scarce resources
could create international tensions; and the freedom to power
our way into the future by burning fossil fuels is denied.

Resolving these issues will require tremendous innovation and

ingenuity by engineers, working Th e immediate prospects for both the
alongside other technical and Th is means that the great age of urban and rural poor in many parts of
non-technical disciplines. It requires the the world is bleak with little or no access
engineer’s ability to synthesize solutions engineering is NOW. Let us briefl y to even the most basic of infrastructure,
and not simply their ability to analyse education and health care, and with little
problems. It needs the engineers’ ability examine the key issues. or at best tenuous, legal rights to land or
to take a systems view at a range of property.
scales, from devices and products © P. Jowitt

through to the large-scale delivery of Civil engineering construction.

infrastructure services.

‘Poverty is Real’

39
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
 world. Th e remaining two relate to the Pre-requisites for
environmental limits within which we have to development
operate and the partnerships we need to Th e pre-requisites for development, without
build to deliver the infrastructure that which attempts to improve livelihoods in the
underpins civilization on which we depend; developing world will be unlikely to
infrastructure that achieves real, pro-poor succeed, include reasonable governance
outcomes in the process of its planning, structures, a func tioning civil society, and
construction and operation. Work ing freedom from persecution, confl ict and
towards the UN MDGs therefore requires corruption.
engineers to become involved.4 Th e critical
role of underpinning infrastruc ture for Th e impact of global politics, trade and
confl icts on devel opment is immense.
development was stated at the outset by
5 These include trade rules, tariffs and
Calestous Juma (Chair of the UN Science,
western subsidies, local and regional confl
Technology and Innovation Task Force):
ict, oil diplomacy, governance, and the roles
of transnational companies. But a
functioning local business sector can also
‘At least three key factors contributed to the help deliver poverty reduction outcomes
rapid economic transformation of emerging through direct involvement in the devel
economies. First, they invested heavily in opment of eff ective and sustainable
basic infrastructure, which served as a infrastructure, which in turn is of critical
founda tion for technological learning. importance for three reasons:
Second, they nurtured the development of
small and medium-sized enterprises, which It underpins communities by providing the
■

required the development of local basic needs and services of shelter, access
operational, repair and maintenance to safe water/sanitation, energy, transport,
expertise. Th ird, their governments education and healthcare.
supported, funded and nurtured higher
education institutions, acad emies of
■
It provides an internal demand for local
skills and employ ment through its delivery.
engineering and technological sciences,
professional engineering and technological ■
It provides a vital platform for the growth of
associations, and industrial and trade
the local economy and small and medium
associations.’
sized enterprises through improved access
to infrastructure services, local skills, and
3 Th e Millennium Development Goals were recognized by the
the stimulation of and better access to both
UN General Assembly as being part of the road map for
Th e Pelamis Wave Energy device generates implementing the UN’s Millennium Declaration. Th ere are eight internal/local and external/national markets.
renewable electricity. overall Goals (on Poverty, Education, Gender, Child Mortality,
Maternal Health, HIV/AIDS, Environment, Global Partnership). But infrastructure delivery also requires
4 Th is was underlined at a meeting with the British Chancellor of investment.
the Exchequer at 11 Downing Street, London, on 30 November
2005.
Th ose mired in poverty do not have and
5 Calestous Juma (ed.) Going for Growth: Science, Technology cannot aff ord all the resources necessary
and Innovation in Africa. Published by the Smith Institute, 2005.
to resolve their plight. Th ey will need exter
nal investment from governments,
businesses and international agencies, and
assistance from the worldwide engineering
com munity. Th ere will be no spectators as
the future unfolds, but there are implications
for civil engineers in particular.

‘Climate Change is Real’

In June 2005, the National Science
Academies of eleven coun tries issued a
Joint Statement.6 Its opening line was,
‘Climate change is real’. It went on to say,
‘Th e task of devising and implementing
© P. Jowitt strategies to adapt to the consequences of
Six of the eight UN Millennium Development cli mate change will require worldwide
Goals3 (MDGs) are directly concerned with collaborative inputs from a wide range of
the human condition; physical health, their experts, including physical and natural scien
economic and social well-being and the tists, engineers, social scientists, medical
capacity to play a full and useful role in the scientists, those in the humanities,
business leaders and economists.’ effective steps to contribute to substantial http://royalsociety.org/Joint-science-academies-statement-Global
-response-to-clim ate-change/ (Accessed: 2 May 2010).
and long-term
Th ey called on the G8 Leaders – due to
meet in Gleneagles in July 2005 – to 6 Joint Science Academies’ Statement, Global Response to
acknowledge the threat and identify cost Climate Change. June 2005.

40
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T
disproportionate, and with them the sources of
CO2 emissions. But the patterns are changing with
the emerging economies, such as China and
reductions in net global greenhouse gas India, and their growth as car-ownership,
emissions. Th e same message is contained in the consumer socie ties. China is the world’s largest
Stern Report.7 Yet political progress on binding user of coal and the second largest consumer of
international measures for climate change mitiga oil and gas,9 though still a relatively small
tion and adaptation is still slow. At the recent
climate change conference in Bali, US agreement 7 Stern Report,
on a roadmap for negotia tions on a replacement http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_
economics_climate_change/sternreview_index.cfm (Accessed: 2 May
for the Kyoto Protocol came only after the barbed
2010).
comment by the delegate from Papua New Guinea
8 David Cook and John Kirke, Urban Poverty: addressing the scale of the
to some of the western nations, ‘Either lead, follow
problem, Munici pal Engineer 156 ME4, 2003.
or get out of the way.’
9 BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2005.
http://www.bp.com/statisticalreview (Accessed: 2 May 2010).
It is now almost universally accepted that global
consumer on a per capita basis. By 2020, China’s
climate change is a reality, its eff ects are locked
energy use is predicted to double.10
in, and the activities of the human race –
principally through the release of green house
Th e achievement of a sustainable energy
gases – are a contributory factor. Th e work of
economy requires a strong energy- research base
building acceptance and understanding of climate
that addresses the basic demands placed on the
change was recog nized with the Nobel Peace
energy system for heat, power and mobility.
Prize in 2007.
Whether at work or leisure, people are at the centre
of the energy system and demand-side solutions
Whatever their precise spatial and temporal eff
need to be innovated as well as supply-side and
ects, the con sequences of climate change (such
infrastructure fi xes. While market forces may act
as sea level rise, changes in rainfall patterns,
to resolve some aspects of the energy equation,
drought and fl ooding) will mostly impact on the
there are others where the limitation is not
most impoverished and therefore vulnerable
technological but suff er from a lack of clear
people of the world, while those least susceptible
leadership and policy development.
are in fact those responsi ble for the bulk of
causative emissions.
Th ere is no magic bullet. Th ere are just three

With urbanization increasing apace, the greatest

approaches: 1. Change our behaviour
risks to humanity will be found in lesser-developed
countries whose urban infrastructure is often
either fragile or non-existent. By 2025, the world’s 2. Change the technology
population will have increased by about 1.5 billion
to a total of around 6.6 billion and the percentage 3. Change the fuel
of those living in urban environments will have
increased from 40 per cent to 60 per cent.8 Th e Demand-side innovations are just as important as
planet has just passed the point at which more supply-side fi xes. Demand for energy needs to be
people live in cities and towns than in rural areas. reduced by a combina tion of changes in
Th e demand for eff ective infrastructure services is personal/corporate behaviours, increased energy
therefore immense. effi ciency in buildings and transportation systems,
and in the energy ratings of plant, equipment and
Energy and climate change machinery in the home, offi ces and factories.
Th e world is currently powered by a predominantly
fossil fuelled, carbon-based energy system based One way or another, the urban infrastructure of
on coal, oil and gas. All these resources are developed countries needs to be re-engineered to
non-renewable and out of balance within the provide sustainable and fulfi lling environments for
timescales of the human race, and we are now their inhabitants. And the new, fi rst-time
aware of their wider environmental impacts. infrastructure that is urgently needed in developing
countries needs to be based on those same
Th e patterns of worldwide energy use are principles, learning from the mistakes of the
 developed countries. systems are still very much still in development
and will be required to operate in even more
On the supply side we need to shift to carbon-free hostile and remote environments. Nuclear power
sources of energy. Wind has become a brings with it a range of issues that need to be
well-established, carbon-free energy source (at addressed, ranging from nuclear safety, public
least in its operational phase) but is not without its acceptability locally, and access to nuclear
detractors, including those who still doubt its technology inter nationally.
economics;11 those against it argue on
environmental, aes thetic, noise pollution grounds, 10 Gregory A. Keoleian; School of Natural Resources and Environment;
and not least by its intermit Co-Director, Center for Sustainable Systems; University of Michigan

tency. Th e availability of wind energy tends to be 11 David Simpson, Tilting at Windmills: Th e Economics of Wind Power,
in the more remote parts of the world, distant from April 2004. Th e David Hume Institute, Hume Occasional Paper No.
65.
centres of demand, and with poor grid and
interconnector access. Wave and tidal energy

41
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

© P. Jowitt
margins of engineered infra
structure.
Slums are often at the

The construction of large-scale hydropower schemes has

declined, primarily due to concerns over their social and envi
ronmental impacts. Th ere are exceptions, the most signifi cant
example is the Th ree Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River which
contains a storage reservoir of some 600 km in length, pro
viding fl ood control, producing 18 GW of hydropower, but
also displacing almost two million people and resulting in the
loss of valuable archaeological and cultural sites, biodiversity
loss and environmental damage.12 Projects such as the Th ree
Gorges Dam inescapably place the engineer in a diffi cult situ
ation. Engineering is not an apolitical activity and may never
have been so, and the engineer needs all the skills of discern
ment, judgement and confl ict resolution.

An energy supply for Africa is a prize worth seeking, ‘In many

African countries, lack of energy security feeds into a cycle
of poverty. At the beginning of the twenty-fi rst century, it is
unacceptable for millions of people to live without access to
electricity!’ (Claude Mandil, IEA).13
Building the infrastructure to deliver the UN MDGs is not about a
Delivering the Millennium single project, but about the delivery of many; each one is
Development Goals complex in itself, but at the right scale and with the right planning,
Th e energy needs of the developing world bring us back to is perfectly feasible. Th e UN MDGs will only be met if they are
the issues of world poverty. Lack of access to basic infrastruc treated as a series of projects, each of which needs a project
ture is at the root of world poverty and the human tragedies management plan and which the engineering profes sion is well
placed to help deliver.

12 Th e International Rivers Network, Th ree Gorges Dam, see http://www.irn.org/pro

grams/threeg/ Is there a model for this? Are there development models that
have been successful in dealing with issues akin to those of the
13 Claude Mandil, Executive Director, Th e International Energy Agency. http://www.iea.
org/textbase/papers/2003/ african_energy.pdf (Accessed: 29 May 2010). developing world? Perhaps there are. For example, in many
associated with it. Two billion people lack access to a basic power deprived inner city areas in the developed world, the issues are
supply and an equivalent number lack access to safe water. Th e broadly similar: run down infrastructure, high unemploy ment, an
UN target is to halve that number by 2015. Safe water for one economically disadvantaged local population, high crime rates
billion people by 2015 means connecting more than one third of a and drug use, and a dysfunctional local economy. One solution to
million people per day, every day, for the next eight years. Can it such cases was the establishment of special purpose
be done? And if so, how? What limits our response? development corporations, fi nancially independent of the local
municipality but ultimately accountable. Th ere will be other
Th e limiting factors are not a lack of engineering knowledge and models as well.
technology, or knowing what needs to be done, but fi nd ing ways
of applying that engineering technology, building local capacity to So this is the challenge:
ensure its eff ective delivery, managing and fi nancing it, and
ensuring that its application is maintained. ‘To develop an action-based project plan, to ensure that the UN
MDGs are met while achieving sustainability worldwide.’
Infrastructure development offers a vital opportunity for
capacity-building, technological learning, and the develop ment of Yes, the Great Age of Engineering is NOW!
local businesses, ‘Infrastructure uses a wide range of
technologies and complex institutional arrangements. Gov
ernments traditionally view infrastructure projects from a static
14 Professor Tony Ridley and Yee-Cheong Lee, Infrastructure, innovation and develop ment, chp
perspective… they seldom consider that building rail ways, 5, Going for Growth: Science, Technology and Innovation in Africa, Calestous Juma (ed.)
airports, roads and telecommunications networks could be Published by the Smith Institute, 2005.
structured to promote technological, organizational and

institutional learning.’ 14

42
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T

2.3 society Engineering,

technology and George Bugliarello

automobiles and modern bridges embody innovations, which frequently require new
From the earliest times of human civilization, both art and tech nique as did the Pyramids organizational patterns, new laws, the
the activity that has come to be called and the Parthenon. development of new perceptions, and the
engineering has impacted on society evolution of cus toms. Societal entities that
through the technological artefacts – both Every major engineering innovation, from respond faster and more intelli gently to
tangible and intan gible – that it creates. metal-making to electronics, has brought engineering innovations usually have the
Products of engineering surround us and aff about changes in society. Th e devel opment advantage. Th e American and French
ect virtually every aspect of our lives, infl and practice of engineering is aff ected, in revolutions eventually enhanced
uencing culture, art and religion in a turn, by signifi cant changes in society’s technological development by opening up
tightening circle of reciprocal interactions. goals, customs and expecta tions. To their societies to the opportunities off ered
Roads, aqueducts, pumps and canals have respond to society’s demands, the very by the Industrial Revolution; the Russian
made urban life pos education of engineers is becoming more Revolution greatly accelerated the pace of
sible, electricity has illuminated and helped interdisciplinary, including courses in the industriali zation in that country.
power the world, industries and humanities, the social sciences and biology.
communications have fostered global affl At times, however, society has overlooked Th e fact is that engineering and technology
uence and weapons of increasing power are the potential of engi neering to help address are processes that require the synergy of
shaping the interactions among nations. some of its most pressing problems and has individuals, machines (artefacts) and social
Modern music, paintings, and architecture, responded slowly to engineering organizations (Bugliarello, 2000)15. An
 important facet of that synergy is the
ever-closer interaction with science. Engi Th e synergy of engineering with other
neering is basically about the modifi cation of societal activities is the root cause of the
nature through the creation of tangible and material prosperity of many societies and is
intangible artefacts and has at times a key to improving the condition of many
preceded a scientifi c understanding of the developing countries. Th e rapidly
process. Sci ence is about the developing interaction of engineering with
understanding of nature. Often, to do so, it biologi
needs to create artefacts. Th us, although
diff erent in intent, the two endeavours have
become indispensable to each other –
engineered instrumentation, computers,
software and satel
lites to the pursuits of science, and science
to advances over the entire spectrum of
engineering.

15 Bugliarello, George, Th e Biosoma: Th e Synthesis of Biology,

Machines and Society, Bul letin of Science, Technology &
Society, Vol. 20, No. 6, December 2000, pp. 452–464.
Society is today making ever-greater
demands on engineer ing, from those
caused by exploding urbanization and by
the endemic poverty of a quarter of the
world’s population in the face of overall
global affl uence, to the mounting con cerns
about availability of critical resources, the
consequences of climate change and
increasing natural and man-made dis asters.
Th is confronts engineering and society not
only with unprecedented technical Engineers can be artists – Coimbra
challenges, but also with a host of new footbridge.
ethical problems that demand the
development of glo bal engineering ethics.
How far should engineering pursue the
modifi cations of nature? What are
engineering’s roles and responsibilities in
society? How should engineering address
problems of equity in terms of the availability
of resources and services of and between
current and future generations? Should
concerns about global warming take
precedence over the urgent problem of
poverty, or how can they be addressed
together? What should be the engineering
standards in an increasingly globalized
enterprise, e.g. the around-the-clock design
teams operating synergistically in locations
across the world? Th ese questions cannot
be addressed without consid
ering the need for some fundamental © Arup
engineering tenets such as the upholding of
human dignity, the avoidance of danger ous
or uncontrolled side eff ects, the making of
provisions for unexpected consequences of
technological developments, and asking not
only about the ‘hows’ but also the ‘whys’ in
the creation of artefacts.

43
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
 Engineer ing in its entirety is, in eff ect, a social
enterprise that has made
modern society possible, with all its potentials and
cal and medical systems is beginning to risks, and is nurtured in turn by society (Sladovich,
dramatically increase the health of vast sectors of 1991)16. It extends the physical and economic
the world population, and the synergy of capacity of society by enhancing the reach of
engineering and education through advances in society’s components and capabilities of its
information and telecommunications technology, to members, and by creating new methods and
improve skills and job opportunities globally. At the instruments for agriculture, the production of
same time, how ever, developments in goods, communication, defence, off ence,
mechanization and automation may tend to exploration of space and the oceans, and of the
diminish both employment opportunities and preservation and utilization of nature’s resources
person from land to energy, water and materials.
to-person, face-to-face interactions by interposing Engineering’s evolving and deepening interac tion
machines. Also, as dependency on technology with the other components of society and its
grows – and as technology becomes less well increasing ability to intervene in biological
understood and operated to its maximum capacity processes have become a key factor in
– society is placed at increasing risk by technologi determining the future of our species.
cal failures and design faults, whether of logistical
supply sys tems for water, food, energy and
vaccine, or of other critical infrastructures and 16 Sladovich, H.E. (ed.). 1991. Engineering as a Social Enterprise,
systems. Th e risk is aggravated by the ever National Academy Press, Washington, DC.

greater interdependencies of our engineered world.

2.4 Engineers and social responsibility

2.4.1 Th e big issues
‘Today, it is true to say that virtually every
Stuart Parkinson aspect of our daily lives is enabled or aided
in some way by engineers. Engineers make
Engineering has immense capacity to help things happen, they turn ideas into real
provide benefi ts to society – as the other products and they provide the solutions 17
to
contributions in this Report dem onstrate – life’s everyday practical problems.’
but it also has a similarly large capacity to
be used to cause harm. It helps to provide However, they are less quick to highlight the
basic needs such as water, food, shelter ways in which technology has been
and energy, and does so on the scale engineered – in close collaboration with the
necessary for industrial society to function. sciences – to contribute to many of society’s
Tsunami reconstruction ills. Perhaps the starkest example of this is
But engineering has also contrib
housing. demonstrated by the increase in the
uted to the huge increase in the
destructiveness of weaponry lethality of weapons over the twentieth
and warfare seen over the centuries, to century. Research ers at the University of
increases in inequality and to the global Buenos Aires have estimated that the
damage infl icted on the world’s ‘lethality index’ – defi ned as the maximum
ecosystems. number of casualties per hour that a
weapon can infl ict – increased by
As an engineer, it is crucial to understand
this dual nature of the profession and to be
17 Young Engineers website.
vigilant regarding your own role and that of http://www.youngeng.org/index.asp?page=66 (Accessed: 4 May
your employers so that you maximize the 2010).
chances of a positive contribution to
society. In essence this is what it means to
be a socially responsible engineer.

Engineering and war

In promoting engineering as a career, the
professional institu tions are quick to point
out the critical role that engineering plays in
helping to provide benefi ts to society, for
example:

© Arup
44
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T
June 2–4 2007. Berlin, Germany. http://www.inesglo bal.com/ through their role in activities ranging
(Accessed: 4 May 2010).
from industrial deforestation to industrial fi
19 Smith, D. 2003. Th e Atlas of War and Peace. Earthscan, shing. Th e rate of species extinction
a staggering sixty million times over the London. pp. 38. 20 Ibid. 22. across the world is now estimated to be
course of the century, with thermonuclear 21 Stalenheim, P., Perdomo, C., Sköns, E. 2007. Military more than 100 times the natural level,
warheads mounted on ballistic missiles expenditure. Chp. 8 of SIPRI (2007). SIPRI Yearbook 2007: with the consequence that we are now in
representing the zenith of Armaments, Disarmament and International Security. Oxford the midst of a ‘major extinction event’ –
University Press/SIPRI. http://yearbook2007.sipri.org
destructiveness.18 Indeed, as is well something that has only happened fi ve
(Accessed: 4 May 2010).
known, these weapons have given us the times before in the fi ve billion year
power to destroy human civilization and 22 Th is was calculated using fi gures from International history of planet Earth.30
Monetary Fund (2007). World Economic Outlook database.
much of the natural world in a very short http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2007/02/weo
space of time. data/index.aspx (Accessed: 4 May 2010). But of course engineering is playing a key
23 Th is was calculated using fi gures from UN (2007). Th e
role in helping to understand and tackle
However, the controversies that surround Millennium Development Goals Report 2007. UN, New York. global environmental problems as well.
military technology are related to a much pp.28. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/mdg2007. pdf For example, in the case of climate
(Accessed: 4 May 2010). change, energy effi ciency and renewable
broader set of issues than just the raw
power of a given weapon. For example, it 24 Th e eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) include energy technology are playing
is important to realize that most people trying to halve extreme poverty by 2015. For a discussion on increasingly important roles in helping to
the shortfalls in development aid needed to achieve the
who die in wars are actually killed by cut greenhouse gas emissions – and so
MDGs (See footnote 23).
smaller, simpler technology such as guns mitigate the threat – while other
25 Dhanapala, J. 2007. Disarmament and development at the
and other small arms – and war still kills global level. Statement at the IPB conference, Books or technologies such as fl ood defences are
hundreds of thousands of people across bombs? Sustainable disarmament for sustainable develop allowing society to adapt to some of the
the world each year.19 While many Another comparison of particular changes which are already happening.
engineers justify their work on mili tary relevance to engineers is spending on Other examples can be found elsewhere
technology by arguing it contributes to research and development (R&D). In in this Report, many showing that
national security, the situation is far more 2006, the governments of the world’s technology and innovation alone cannot
complex. For example, regulation of wealthiest countries spent US$96 billion save us; such solutions must be
26

international arms sales is generally poor, on military R&D compared with only engineered to suit society.
with weapons fi nding their way – both US$56 billion on R&D for health and
legally and illegally – to governments with environment protection combined.27
bad human rights records and to war ment. November 2007.
zones. With about 75 per cent of war Engineering and http://www.pugwash.org/reports/nw/dhanapala-sean-mac
casualties being civilians, this is especially pollution bride-prize.htm (Accessed: 4 May 2010).

disturbing.20 26 Countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation

and Development ( OECD).

One overarching issue related to military 27 OECD. 2007. Main Science and Technology Indicators
2007. OECD, Paris. http://www. oecd.org/
technology especially relevant to
engineers is what economists call the 28 Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) are generally
‘opportunity cost’, i.e. the loss of skills expressed in tonnes of ‘carbon dioxide equivalent’ as diff
erent GHGs have diff erent warming properties. Figures are
and resources from other important areas from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
that are currently used by the military. Engineering and technology is also a key Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Fourth Assessment
Indicators of this opportunity cost are not contributor to global Report. Summary for Policymakers. http://www.
© SAICE
hard to fi nd. In 2006, global military ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm.pdf
(Accessed: 4 May 2010).
spending was a massive US$1.2 trillion.21 environmental problems, such as climate
Th is is greater than the combined size of change and loss of wildlife. For example, 29 World Health Organization. 2003. Climate Change and
Human Health – risks and responses.
the economies of the world’s 110 poorest industrial society now emits the equiva http://www.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1
countries,22 and nearly twelve times the lent of about 50 billion tonnes of carbon &codlan=1 &codcol=15&codcch=551 (Accessed: 4 May
28
global level of offi cial development aid23 dioxide each year – with the burning of 2010).

– a level of aid which still falls well short of fossil fuels being the main culprit. Th e 30 UNEP. 2007. Global Environmental Outlook 4. Chp. 5.
that needed to achieve the Millennium resulting climate change is predicted to United Nations Environment Programme.
Development Goals.24 Indeed, resolutions have huge impacts on both humans and http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/media/ (Accessed: 4 May

proposed annually at the UN General wildlife over the coming decades and 2010).

Assembly since 1987 have highlighted the beyond – with many millions of people at
desire of the major ity of the world’s risk. Indeed, a recent report by the World
governments for cuts in military spending Health Organization estimated that cli
to be used to help fund international mate change could already be
development. Th is has become known responsible for 150,000 extra deaths
as ‘disarmament for development’.25 every year.29

Engineering and technology are also key

18 Lemarchand, G. 2007. Defense R&D Policies: Fifty years
contributors to the global loss of wildlife
of history. INES Council and Executive Committee meeting,
 Waste management.

45
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
environmental problems. And again, a comparison
with military spending is a useful reminder of the
resources which could be made available. For
However, a lack of resources is again impeding the example, the Institute for Policy Studies recently
speed at which the world faces up to these urgent published a report compar ing the United States
government budget allocated to ‘military security’ http://www.raeng.org.uk/policy/ ethics/prin ciples.htm (Accessed: 4
May 2010).
with that allocated to ‘climate security’. It found that
years begun to adopt and promote ethical codes
the military budget was 88 times the size of that
for the pro fession, which highlight the importance
devoted to tack
of principles such as social justice and
ling the climate problem.31 Th e UK organization,
environmental sustainability. Yet, when there are
Scientists for Global Responsibility, carried out a
clear confl icts between these goals and the
similar comparison, this time between the
military and commercial interests, which are so
government R&D budgets of the world’s wealthiest
intertwined with the engineering profession, the
countries. Th ey found a very similar imbalance
principles seem quickly to be com
between military and renewable energy R&D
promised.
spending.32

Is the engineering Standing up for social

responsibility
profession doing enough?
Given such disturbing facts, it is worth asking Over the years there have been a number of
whether the engi neering profession is doing engineering and science organizations which
have, in frustration with govern ments and
enough to fulfi l its obligations in terms of social
professional institutions, tried to promote greater
responsibility. As entries in this Report show, there
social responsibility within the science and
is a great deal of positive activity across the
technology arenas.
profession, but there remain areas where there is
a need for improvement.
In 1957, the Pugwash Conferences on Science
and World Aff airs was formed in response the
Th e most obvious example is arguably the close early nuclear arms race.36 Th ese conferences –
relationship between the engineering profession which continue today – bring together scientists,
and the military. Given the controversies engineers and others from across the world to dis
discussed above, related to military tech nologies cuss solutions to global problems. Th ese
and the size of military budgets, one might expect discussions have been important in sowing the
to hear more criticism from within the profession seeds of major arms control treaties.
about how its skills are deployed. Yet it is very
hard to fi nd cases of, for example, professional A more radical organization, the International
engineering institutions criticizing the government Network for Engineers and Scientists for Global
policies that cause such problems. Responsibility (INES), was set up in 1991 arguing
that the professions should play a much greater
For example, during the recent debate in the UK role in supporting peace, social justice and environ
over propos als to replace the Trident nuclear mental sustainability.37 It has over seventy member
weapons system – propos als criticized by the then organiza tions in more than thirty countries.
UN Secretary General33 – the main comment from
the Royal Academy of Engineering (RAE)34 was
Influential individuals from the engineering and
simply that there needed to be suffi cient
scientific communities have also spoken out
investment in skills and infrastructure to ensure
urging the professions to adopt a more radical
timely delivery of the US$40 bil lion project. Such a
position. For example, in 1995 former Manhattan
muted response sits uncomfortably with the RAE’s
Project scientists, Prof. Hans Bethe and Prof.
recently launched ‘Statement of ethical principles’
Joseph Rotblat called on all engineers and
which encourages engineers to have ‘respect for
scientists to refuse to work on nuclear weapons
life… and the public good.’35
projects.38 More recently, Jayantha Dha napala, a
former UN Under-Secretary General and currently
Indeed, with the active encouragement of Chair of the UN University Council, called on
UNESCO, profes sional engineering and scientifi c engineers and scientists (among others) to refuse
institutions have in recent to work for the world’s top twenty-fi ve military
corporations, until the ‘disarmament for
development’ agenda is seriously acted upon.39
31 Pemberton, M. 2008. Th e budgets compared: military vs climate
security. Institute for Policy Studies. http://www.ips-dc.org/getfi
le.php?id=131 (Accessed: 4 May 2010). Becoming an active member of, or otherwise
32 Parkinson, S. and Langley, C. 2008. Military R&D 85 times larger than engaging with, one or more of the engineering
renewable energy R&D. SGR Newsletter, No. 35, pp.1. campaigning groups or non governmental
http://www.sgr.org.uk/ organizations would be an important contribu tion
33 Annan, K. 2006. Lecture at Princeton University. 28 November 2006. to the social responsibility agenda for any
http://www. un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sgsm10767.doc.htm engineer, and it should be recognized as such in
(Accessed: 4 May 2010).
career and professional devel opment schemes.
34 RAE. 2006. Response to Th e Future of the Strategic Nuclear
Deterrent: the UK manufac turing and skills base.
http://www.raeng.org.uk/policy/responses/pdf/Nuclear_Deter
rent_Consultation.pdf (Accessed: 4 May 2010). 36 Pugwash Conference on Science and World Aff airs.
http://www.pugwash.org/
35 RAE. 2007. Statement of ethical principles.
 December 10. In: Braun et al (2007). Joseph Rotblat: Visionary for
37 International Network for Engineers and Scientists for Global peace. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Ger many. pp. 315–322.
Responsibility (INES). http://www.inesglobal.com/
39 Dhanapala, J. 2007 (See footnote 25).
38 Rotblat, J. 1995. Remember your humanity. Nobel lecture, Oslo.

46
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T
© Stephen Jones,
K
EWB-U areas.

Indeed, a key aspect of being an engineering professional is to

actively seek opportunities that have a positive impact on glo bal
problems such as war, pollution, poverty or climate change. Th is
is the heart of social responsibility in engineering.

2.4.2 Engineering Social

Responsibility
David Singleton

As engineers of the built environment, we have a signifi cant

impact upon the world around us. Th is is both an opportunity
and a responsibility. Th e way that all of the world’s inhabit ants
live, and the living standards that we have come to expect form a
part of our quality of life, which in turn is infl uenced by the
infrastructure around us; much of that infrastructure is shaped by
our engineering.
Kyzyltoo water supply,
Our challenge as engineers, now and in the future, is to pro vide South Kyrgyzstan – infrastruc
infrastructure to rural and semi-rural communities in the ture in rural and semi-rural
developing world. Also, with increasing urbanization, we face
additional challenges in terms of how we can economically
provide infrastructure in new urban areas; how do we retrofi t world’s population into urban settlements gives sustainable
existing infrastructure, and how do we accomplish all this in a development a better chance through economies of scale on
responsible and sustainable manner? various fronts. By contrast however, cities can draw together
many of the world’s environmental problems. Cities provide
With half of the world’s population now living in urban areas, both an opportunity and a challenge in terms of infrastructure
urbanization has been and will continue to be a rapid process provision.
with virtually all the forecasted population growth in coming years
taking place in urban areas in less developed countries.
It is important to understand the challenges associated with
Forecasts for 2050 show that 70 per cent of the world’s popu
urbanization and to see these in terms of opportunities for
lation will be urban; some 6.4 billion people will live in urban
change. Long-term planning for urban areas needs to be con
areas (the equivalent of the world’s total population in 2004) and
most of this population will be concentrated in Asia (54 per cent) sidered holistically. Any town or city has many components
and Africa (19 per cent). China will have the largest urban or urban ‘ingredients’ and there are complex relationships
population at 1 billion in 2050. between them such as: facilities, in terms of physical infra
structure; systems and utilities required by an urban area to
Urbanization is generally defi ned as the process of growth as a function; services that urban residents need; and the desirable
proportion of a country’s resident urban population. Th e terms attributes an urban area should possess.
‘urban areas’ and ‘cities’ are often taken to mean the same thing,
but urban areas include towns and other smaller settlements. For Whether in developing or developed countries, the physical
example, half of the world’s urban population lives in settlements infrastructure associated with urbanization is concerned with
of fewer than 500,000 people, while meg acities – generally defi much more than basic services; infrastructure can make peo
ned as having rapid growth and a total population in excess of 10 ple’s lives better, especially when viewed in terms of the service
million people – house only 9 per cent of urban inhabitants.
it provides. It is not simply about putting pipes and drains in
the ground but about ‘public health’ through the provision of
Arup40 has carried out signifi cant research into the forces of
clean and safe water and sanitation, it is not just about design
urbanization and we have a clear understanding of the impact of
ing and constructing good, safe and reliable transport but
urbanization on society and the positive role that it can play in
about providing ‘accessibility’ or even ‘mobility’ to employ
social and economic development. Concentrating the
ment and education and about determining and meeting the
need to transport people and freight more effi ciently. Good
40 A global fi rm of consulting engineers, designers and planners. http://www.arup.com
 infrastructure makes people’s lives better in the here and now. Accessible highways better connect towns and cities, effi -

47
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
can commute to work or escape to places agendas allow us to focus our desire to
where we choose to spend our leisure time, create sustainable com munities, for
and good design creates residential areas example in achieving the potential to
and houses that are comfortable, safe ‘unlock’ new life from ‘brownfi eld’ sites.
places to live. Sustainable development also
ensures that this will not be at the expense The new environments we create should
of future genera tions or the environment. facilitate human interactions without being
prescriptive, allowing chance and
While good engineering provides good spontaneity to occur in interesting and fulfi
infrastructure, which can make people’s lling places in which to live, work and play.
lives better, as engineers we also have a Th oughtfully planned and designed
responsibility to create solutions that are not infrastructure can achieve all of this. But we
only eff ective, but contribute positively to must manage the risks to the environments
our environment. Sustainable design that surround us, including those
objectives should run through everything that we create by our designs and their
that we do as engineers; we should always implementation. As engineers, we can
be thinking about how we can make manage these risks by applying ‘precaution
people’s lives better tomorrow, as well as ary principles’, planning buildings and
today. infrastructure to cope with the worst likely
outcome rather than hoping for the best.
As stated above, the urbanization challenge Taking into account of major forces such as
is not just about providing infrastructure in climate change, water shortages and
developing worlds but also about retrofi energy issues means constantly thinking
tting existing ones. By adopting an about the overall sustainability of our
integrated approach to managing our designs. Our aim is to set a standard of
existing cities, we can dramatically increase sustainable design that benefi ts the
their chances for environmental, social and environment in both the short and the long
economic success in the years to come. term. We have a signifi cant impact on the
world around us and there is an opportunity,
and indeed a moral obligation, for us to set
However, the challenge of retrofi tting cities
a standard of design that benefi ts the
to be more sus tainable is complex.
environment and the people who live within.
Fortunately, small steps can deliver large
We must constantly think about the overall
benefi ts, and change does not need to be
sustain ability of our designs, how we build
radical. Unlocking value from present ineffi
them, and how they aff ect the surrounding
ciencies is just one opportunity, for
environment.
example, information technology can be
used for real-time journey planning, making
existing transport networks more effi cient. To do this eff ectively, we should ensure our
innovation and design solutions meet
Th e PlayPump – children have fun and help
people’s needs and allow them to live the
with water supply. We need to fi nd city-specifi c solutions that
way they choose without creating a negative
provide a higher quality of life at lower
legacy for generations to come. Th is is
economic cost and help cities to deal with
what we might call ‘Engineering Social
risks such as climate change and access to
Responsibility’.
clean water and food. Despite the size of
the challenge, the rising cost of resources
like energy and food and the resultant One of the challenges for the engineering
economic benefi ts of sustainable profession is to develop sustainable urban
development will drive the reinvention of infrastructure that recognizes, rather than
our cities. resists, the inevitability of migration to urban
centres and makes provision for these
Arup is committed to achieving integrated rapidly growing popula tions. As engineers
we must work eff ectively in collaboration
design solutions that balance social,
with our colleagues and other
economic, physical and temporal param
development-focused profes
eters, creating unique and authentic new
urban environments. Th e fi rm’s intrinsic sionals and community leaders to
agenda addresses effi cient landuse, infra implement sustainable solu tions to
structure effi ciency, urban economics and challenges such as urban poverty. However,
© David Singleton matters of micro climate, sociology, ecology, we need to ensure that these solutions are
cient railway lines and stations mean we hydrology and energy usage. Th ese well integrated into wider decision-making,
planning and institutional development the combined issues of climate change, fi practice. Th e engineer ing industry is no
processes to improve living conditions for nding an alternative to carbon-emitting fossil exception. In fact, the engineering industry
all. fuels for energy and trans port needs, and has a greater responsibility towards meeting
ensuring widespread access to clean water. government leg
Sustainability and corporate responsibility islation, self- or industry- imposed
are having an increasing infl uence on how Th e environment in which businesses governance, the demands of customers to
organizations behave, operate and do operate is starting to reward sustainability demonstrate we are acting responsibly, and
business. Th ere are many reasons why in business, and a clearer defi nition is to educate clients of the need to change
sustainability should be at the top of emerging. Sustainability represents a behaviour and be more environmentally
everyone’s business agenda, not least challenge to business, but embracing it is aware.
because the continued survival of future fundamental to managing a company’s risk
generations depends on fi nding solutions to profi le, and is essentially good business

48
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T
key areas where consistent eff ort was needed if
change is to be driven through eff ectively:

Th e sustainability agenda can be pursued in a ■

Make choosing a sustainability option cheaper
number of ways. At Arup we do so through and easier for clients and contractors.
researching sustainability issues, identifying
opportunities to operate in a more sustainable ■
Build the capacity of teachers and trainers to
way, evaluating projects on their sustainability integrate sus tainability into courses.
performance, creating methodologies to embed
sustainability considera tions in all our work and ■
Make specifying sustainability criteria in materials
promoting sustainability to clients, educating all
and pro cesses an eff ective tool for change in
those we deal with on sustainability. We can also
procurement chains.
promote sustainability in the training and education
of design professionals in the built environment. ■
Embed sustainability thinking and practices into
the culture of organizations and across diff erent
Training and education is not a unique vision,
professional groups.
many others have highlighted the need for
changes in engineering education to support the (Proceedings of the ICE: Briefi ng: Engineers of the 21st Century –
sustainability agenda. In 2003, an ICE Presidential partnerships for change)
Commission, ‘Engineering without Frontiers’ asked A third phase of the programme began in 2005 to
what was expected of an engineer by society in promote sustainable development within the
the twenty-fi rst century. Th is had been answered engineering profession. Th is is focused on the
in part in 2000 at the ‘Forum for the Future’ where identifi cation of barriers and infl uencing change,
thirty-two young engineers developed a vision of and directly addresses the four areas for change
the engineer for the twenty-fi rst century (partly iden tifi ed in 2003. Overall, the programme
sponsored by Th e Arup Foundation), including emphasized the com
roles in sustainable develop ment. mitment and enthusiasm young engineers have for
promoting sustainable development.

Our vision is of an engineer who demonstrates through

everyday practice: So it seems that the industry is responding, and at
least real izes this is an important subject for
■
An understanding of what sustainability means. engineers to address and lead on. In 2007, Th e
Chartered Institution of Building Serv ices
■
Th e skills to work toward this aim. Engineers (CIBSE) published a sustainability
■
toolkit setting out some fundamental principles
Values that relate to their wider social, environmental
and providing online tools to support engineers in
and economic responsibilities, and encourages and
meeting the demands for sustainable buildings,
enables others to learn and participate.
and to respond to the sustainability agenda.
(Forum for the Future, 2000)

Th e UK Green Build Council (UK-GBC) was also

launched in February 2007 to provide clear
In 2003, a second phase of the work of the Forum
direction on sustainability for the sector as a
saw another twelve young engineers from partner
whole, something that had previously been
companies and organi zations assess what
lacking. With members drawn across the industry,
progress had been made in particular areas
including NGOs, academic institutions and
identifi ed for progress in the initial phase
government agencies, it aims to provide a
completed in 2000. Th e record of progress results
joined-up and collaborative approach to sustain
was not encouraging, and the report noted four
ability and building engineering.
 be a strong vision for leadership with clear
Designing in a sustainable way also requires us to strategies for the emergence of new leaders in
investigate those trends, which are most likely to engineering.
have an impact upon the world in the future. In
order to anticipate future change, Arup conducted As an organization, Arup has promoted
a series of scientifi c reviews and surveys, which sustainability for decades. Our company’s culture
we call the ‘Drivers of Change’ that explore the includes a commitment to shape a better world
major drivers that most aff ect society’s future. Th through our work. Th e ethical dimension of
e three most important factors identifi ed by our engineering is a subject of lively discussion within
clients were climate change, energy resources the fi rm, and there are many issues and
and water, with urbanization, demographics and questions under continuous debate. Should we be
waste not far behind. Detailed research on these refusing work that could be character ized as
six ‘Drivers of Change’ was then undertaken and unsustainable? Or should we take on such work
our current focus is to embed them into Arup’s and try to make them as sustainable as possible,
design, methodologies and evaluation processes. educating our clients in the process? Th e answer
For engineers, tackling these issues must is not straightforward. If we are to contemplate
embrace every aspect of design and planning. Th turning away unsustainable work, we must bal
is cannot be separated from other key ance this with the need to educate our clients, and
considerations and requires a holistic and to maintain our own business and provide
sustainable approach across all the diff erent employment for our staff .
facets of a new development. Th ere also needs to

49
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
obligation to our environment. Th e speech ■
2005: Forum for the Future sustainability
is still relevant today.
presentation to Arup’s global strategy
meeting.
Sustainability at Arup ■
1998: Arup adopts as its mission ‘we shape a
■
better world’. It underlines the signifi cant
■
1946: Arup founded by Ove Arup, Danish 2007 (September): Sustainability policy is
impact the fi rm has on almost all aspects of
philosopher and engineer, proponent of a ratified, recognizing the wider infl uence we
the built environment.
multi-disciplinary approach to design that have in the work we do for our clients, as
■
included societal factors as well as design 2001: Arup’s first sustainability forum at well as by running our business in a
and technical issues. Boston’s Massachusetts Institute of sustainable way.
■
Technology. ■
1970: In a seminal speech to the firm, Ove 2008 (March): Sustainability Statement
Arup articulated his vision of the firm’s published.
inextricably linked with the key global challenges
of our time including governance, cli
mate change, security and international
development. And most importantly, CSR is now
seen as a mechanism through which the skills,
Th e author’s aspiration is that eventually, over technology, economic power and global reach of
the private sector can be applied to the challenges
time, we will not talk about sustainable design
of fi ght
because it will be simply a part of what we always
do as ‘business as usual’. It’s the only way we can ing poverty and achieving the Millennium
fulfi l our obligation towards social responsibility Development Goals (MDGs).
within our fi eld as engineers.
Given these developments, it is perhaps surprising
that CSR remains so poorly understood and that
there are still so few examples of it having directly
2.4.3 Corporate Social contributed to poverty reduc tion. CSR as a
Responsibility discipline still lacks well elaborated methodolo gies
to capture its eff ects, and for many companies it is
no more than a gloss on what is essentially
Petter Matthews ‘business as usual’. Th e private sector has benefi
ted from improved markets access in recent years,
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has moved but has not yet fully understood that these ben efi
ts are accompanied by new social responsibilities.
from the margins to the mainstream, from a
Business as usual is a wholly inadequate
preoccupation with public relations and
response given the critical chal lenges that we
philanthropy, to a concern with a range of stra tegic
face. Systemic change is necessary. Th is means
issues that are of critical importance to
developing new and innovative business models,
policy-makers and practitioners. It has become
transforming business management systems and
 building genuine cross sectoral partnerships. In eff situation is sometimes exploited by irresponsible
ect, the challenge is to develop a ‘second companies. In fact, it is the absence of regula tion
generation’ of approaches to CSR. that has acted as a driver of CSR in many
Th is paper focuses on the implications of this for circumstances, as responsible companies have
the engi neering industry. While recognizing the sought to compensate for the governance defi
crucial role of small and medium enterprises, it is cit.42 However, a problem with the campaign ing
concerned primarily with the role of large perspective is that it tends to pitch business
international companies. It begins by summariz ing interests against society. Of course there are
the objections to CSR that in themselves constitute tensions, but there is also interdependence. A
bar riers to progress. It goes on to explain why more fruitful strategy is to use this inter
CSR is especially relevant to the engineering dependence to build symbiotic relationships so that
industry, and discusses a practical method for business and societal interests become mutually
selecting opportunities. Th e paper concludes by reinforcing.
considering the implications of failure of CSR for
business and for society. Critics of CSR from the ‘market economy’
perspective argue that business fulfi ls its role in
Objections to CSR society simply by pursuing its own self-interest.43
Objections to CSR are made by opponents to it Th ey reject measures to manage a com pany’s
from across the institutional spectrum. Those social impacts beyond those required by law and
opposed to CSR from a ‘campaigning’ perspective mar
dismiss it as a corporate-driven distraction that
diverts attention from the need for proper 41 See for example the work of the Corporate Responsibility Coalition
enforceable regulation.41 Th ey argue that only the (Core) at http:// www.corporate-responsibility.org

state is man dated to protect the public interest, 42 Marsden, C. and Grayson, D. 2007. Th e Business of Business is . . .?
and question the legiti Unpicking the Corpo rate Responsibility Debate, Th e Doughty Centre
for Corporate Responsibility, Cranfi eld School of Management.
macy of corporate infl uence over public policy. It is
of course true that regulation is often very weak, 43 Hopkins, M. 2006. Corporate Social Responsibility & International
Development, pp. 17–19, Earthscan, London.
particularly in devel oping countries, and this

50
E N G I N E E R I N G A N D H U MA N D E V E LO PM E N T
two important reasons for this. First, the markets for its goods
and services are increasingly shifting towards the developing
world. A number of factors have combined to boost
ket forces. Th is view is often associated with the economist government expenditure and increase demand for
Milton Friedman in his infl uential article, Th e social responsi infrastructure and ser
bility of business is to increase its profi ts.44 Th e problem with vices. Th ese include several years of record economic growth
this perspective is that it overlooks the social contract that in many low and middle-income countries prior to the current
exists between the corporation and the state. Th e primary economic crisis, sustained increases in natural resource com
responsibility of business is the production and distribution of modity prices over the long term and higher levels of develop
the goods and services that society needs. Th e right to make ment assistance. Th e OECD estimates that through to 2030,
a profi t from this social function is granted to corporations by telecommunications, road, rail, water, electricity and other
the state and demands justifi cation. CSR is an attempt to energy related infrastructure will require investment equal to
justify this right by responding to society’s changing expecta 3.5 per cent of global GDP.45 Th is means we should expect
tions of business. approximately US$2.6 trillion dollars to be needed annually for
constructing new and maintaining and replacing existing
Th e objections to CSR from campaigning and market infrastructure by 2030. Developing countries will be major
economy perspectives both have important lessons. Robust growth centres for the engineering industry in the next twenty
regulation is necessary to curb unrestrained corporate to thirty years.
behaviour and ensure compliance with minimum standards. Th
is is particu Second, the core activities of the engineering industry, such as
larly important in the developing world where workers and building, maintaining and operating infrastructure, exploit ing
poorer communities are especially vulnerable. But unlocking natural resources and large-scale manufacturing, impact
the full potential of the private sector also requires incentives directly on the lives of poor people and are often conducted
that encourage companies to go beyond compliance with
minimum standards and innovate in delivering high standards 44 Friedman, M. Th e Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profi ts, Th e New
of social and environmental performance. Getting this combi York Times Magazine, September 13, 1970.
nation of regulation and incentives is of critical importance in 45 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (2008) Infrastructure to 2030,
developing the second generation of CSR. OECD, Paris.
in close proximity to them. Companies must manage their
CSR and the engineering industry relationships with the disadvantaged who are either directly
Th e engineering industry and its clients have been at the fore or indirectly aff ected by their operations, as well as a range of
front of the development of CSR in recent years. Th ere are other stakeholders who tend to prioritize poverty reduction
 including governments, NGOs and international agencies. CSR Kramer refer to outcomes based on this principle as ‘shared
off ers companies a way of managing these complex relation value’. Th ey argue that the most valuable corporate societal
ships and building a ‘social license to operate’. contributions, ‘ …occur when a company adds a social dimen
sion to its value proposition, making social impact integral to
Of course there are a range of additional factors that are also the overall strategy.’47
driving the need for a second generation of CSR that apply
across industrial sectors. Th ese include pressure from cam
paigners, shareholders and ethical investors, the demand for
new technologies, compliance with global frameworks such
46 See http://www.unglobalcompact.org/
as the UN Global Compact46 and the growing recognition that
47 Harvard Business Review, December 2006, Harvard University, Cambridge MA. pp. 10.
responsible companies tend to attract and retain the best
employees.

Identifying opportunities
When fully integrated into corporate strategy, CSR can
become a source of opportunity and competitive advan
tage, and a driver of innovation. Jane Nelson has proposed a
framework of four strategies for individual fi rms to strengthen
their contribution to local development and poverty reduc
tion (Figure 1). Th ree of these strategies, compliance with
regulation, charitable contributions and managing costs, risks
and negative impacts, represent the conventional corporate
responses to managing social issues. Th e more innovative
fourth strategy ‘creating new value’ combines improved social
outcomes with competitive advantage and is a critical princi Evinos
Dam, Greece. © Arup
ple that underpins the second generation of CSR. Porter and

51
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

Th e ESPF encourages companies to seek a detailed understanding of the

local environment and those using it are encouraged to consult with local
stakeholders. Th e knowledge that is acquired and the rela tionships built
Figure 1: Strategies to strengthen the contribution to tend to discourage thinking about the companies’ interaction with society as
development by the individual fi rm48 a zero sum game. Th e opportunities that

Business as usual Build competitive advantage

Societal value about CSR as a driver of but it also requires
added innovation. Poverty, practical methods, such
Charity sustainability and climate as the ESPF, to
Control change have become ‘market implement improvements
• Costs shaping’ issues that are
and measure their eff
Do no harm unlikely to dis appear even
• Risks emerge are measured against during periods of economic ects. Th is is where the
• Negative impact their potential to create value downturn. engineering industry can
that is meaningful to local excel and lead the
Compliance Shareholder value added stakeholders and provide development of the
Th e second generation of second generation of
competitive value for the
Create new Do positive good company. Th e ESPF also CSR.
CSR has to have a fi rm
value encourages companies to think
theoretical underpinning,
atic approach to identifying and selecting
Opportunities for creating ‘new value’ or ‘shared opportunities. Th e Economic and Social
value’ are particularly strong in the engineering Performance Framework (ESPF) devel oped by
and construction sector. Its activities are of great Engineers Against Poverty is an example of a
societal importance, e.g. the creation and practical tool designed for this purpose.49
maintenance of essential social and economic
infrastruc ture. Also, engineering and construction 48 Adapted from Nelson, J., Leveraging the Development Impact of
Business in the Fight Against Global Poverty, Working Paper 22, John
activities tend to have a large physical, social and
F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Cambridge
economic ‘footprint’ that creates a wide range of MA.
opportunities for creating new value. However, the
49 Go to: http://www.engineersagainstpoverty.org
opportunities will vary between sectors and
Th e consequences of
geographical regions and even between the failure
individual operations of a par ticular company. It is
Th at CSR is such a prominent issue is evidence of
important therefore to adopt a system
a defi ciency in the relationship between business
 and society. If this relationship can be reconstitutedective and sustainable solutions in the long term.
on the basis of shared value, the interests of the Unlocking the development potential of the private
company and of society can become mutually sector rep resents what is probably the single
reinforcing. And the activities that we currently refer
greatest opportunity to step up the fi ght against
to as CSR will become indistinguishable from the poverty. A window of opportunity exists for
core business of the company. business to innovate and lead the necessary
changes and if they fail, they will probably come to
Business should not be expected to lead the fi ght regret the disruptive social, envi ronmental and
against pov erty, which is the role of governments economic consequences that are likely to result
and multilateral agencies, but simply increasing aid from a failure to meet the Millennium Development
and writing off debt are unlikely to deliver cost eff Goals.

Figure 2: Schematic of an Economic and Social Performance

Framework (ESPF) for the oil and gas industry 50

Economic and Social Scope of Work and

Drivers General Strategies
(demand-side) (options)
Constrainst Local Content Value Local Content
demand-side and Proposition Opportunities
supply-side • Competitive
Diff erentiation

Local Content
50 Adapted from EAP & ODI. 2007. http://www.odi.org.uk/events/details.
asp?id=168&title=underutilised-value-multinational-engineering-fi
rms-supporting oil-companies-tackle-poverty (Accessed: 5 May 2010).

Competencies Drivers

52

3 Engineering:
Emerging Issues and
Challenges
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
exercises that have been con
ducted around the world. A section on emerging
and future areas of engineering emphasizes the
Emerging issues, challenges and opportunities for increasing importance of engineering and
engineering relate to internal and external factors. sustainability, urbanization and globalization, and
Internally, the decline of interest and enrolment of increasingly important domains of engineering
young people, especially women in engineering is relating to materials, energy, information and
a major concern for future capacity. Exter nally, in systems, and bioengineer ing. Th e theme of
the development context, emerging issues, sustainability is developed in the section on the
challenges and opportunities relate to the changing climate and increasing need for
Millennium Development Goals, especially poverty engineers and engineering of the future –
reduction and sustainability, and increasingly to beginning in the present – to focus on areas
climate change mitigation and adaptation. Th is relating to climate change mitigation and
chapter has a focus on external issues, challenges adaptation. Th e following section examines the
and oppor tunities, with enrolment issues covered issues of information and advocacy, public and
later in the chapter on engineering education. Th e policy awareness and infl uence, and how to get
chapter begins with a section on foresight and the engineering message across from a
forecasts of the future, providing a background in professional com munications viewpoint. Th e
foresight of science and technology and chapter concludes with a view of engineering and
innovation, and drawing on the many foresight technology in the third millennium.
 3.1 foresight and forecasts of the future
Engineering, Ian Miles

and other tools like evaluation studies, was

Common to foresight, as opposed to many seen as providing ways of mak ing more
other futures studies, is the link of long-term knowledge-based and transparent
analysis (beyond the usual business time decisions.
hori zon) to policy-making (often to specifi c
pending decisions about research or Second, there were growing concerns about
innovation policies) and the emphasis on the implications of science and technology
wide partici pation (involving stakeholders and how to shape development so that new
who may be sources of knowledge not technologies could prove more socially and
available to the ‘great and good’, whose environmentally benefi cial. A succession of
engagement may pro vide the exercise with environmental concerns (pesticides,
more legitimacy and whose actions may be nuclear accidents, ozone depletion and
necessary complements to those taken by climate change), food panics (in the UK
© UNESCO government). alone there were, in quick succession,
Ariane 4 rocket.
scares around salmonella and listeria, BSE,
Futures studies have been with us for a Several factors converged to foreground foot-and-mouth disease, and avian fl u – all
long time, but the term ‘ foresight’ has only foresight. First was the need to prioritize of them implicating modern farming and
come into wide use in recent years. A research budgets – choices needed to be food processing techniques, and with huge
striking development in the last decade of made as to where to invest, as economic costs even when human
the twentieth century was the growing governments were not able to mortality was low), and social and ethical
prominence of large-scale foresight concerns, mainly around biomedical issues
exercises conducted at national and in human reproduction and the use of
international levels. Th is trend was amplifi 1 For documentation of a large number of foresight activities, tissues and stem cells, with emerging
ed in the new millennium. Th ese see the European Foresight Monitoring Network at problems over decisions about death,
http://www.efmn.eu – the overview report is particularly help ful applications of new neuroscience and
exercises, usually funded by govern ments for statistical analysis. R. Popper et al., 2007. Global Foresight
and intended to provide insights for Outlook 2007 at http:// www. foresight-network.eu/fi
technology, enhancement of human
innovation policy, priorities for research and les/reports/efmn_mapping_2007.pdf (Accessed: 5 May 2010). capabilities, and the prospect of artifi - cial
development funding, and the like,1 continue increasing funding across the intelligence in the not-so-distant future.
frequently went by the name ‘Technology whole spectrum. Th e legitimacy of huge Nanotechnologies, or their treatment in the
Foresight’. Th e Japa nese experience from funding decisions being made eff ectively media, are also contributing to unease
the 1970s onwards (using technology fore by the very scientists and engineers that about how technology decisions are made
casting to help build shared understandings benefi tted from them was also in doubt, and where they may be taking us.
of how science and technology might betternot least because some emerging areas Foresight can contribute to creating visions
meet social needs and market opportu seemed to be neglected (the Japanese of future
nities) was the initial inspiration for early eff ‘Fifth Generation’ programme in the 1980s
orts in Europe. Th ese large-scale was a wake-up call,2 triggering a wave of 2 Feigenbaum, A. and McCorduck, P. 1983. Th e Fifth
European experiences were widely diff large public research and development Generation: Artifi cial Intelligence and Japan’s Computer
used in turn. programmes in information tech nology Challenge to the World London, Michael Joseph. Th is book
throughout the industrial world). Foresight, had an electrifying impact here.

54
E N G I N E E R I N G: E M E R G I N G I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S
the institutions, and relationships between
institutions, that generate and apply Many countries have embarked on
knowledge (in science and technology large-scale foresight exer cises, and in
possibilities, and as well as positive visions laboratories, applied engineering, design, several cases we are now into the third or
there are warnings about dangers and higher and vocational public services, even later round of such exercises. In
barriers to the realization of opportunities. commercial enterprises, policymaking, fi some cases, it remains a spe cialized
nance and so on). Foresight was seen to activity impelled by one part of government;
A third set of factors concern innovation. provide tools that could help connect and in oth ers foresight approaches have been
Innovation has come to be recognized as aintegrate components of innovation embedded much more
key element in competitiveness, national systems, and indeed some exercises (e.g. widely. Expertise has been developed in
3
performance and achieving socio-economic France’s FUTURIS) have been explicitly using techniques such as road-mapping,
objectives. More precisely, many countries aimed at informing decisions about scenario analysis, Delphi surveys and trend
have come to feel that there are restructuring national laboratories and the analysis, and there are interesting
weaknesses in their innovation systems – innovation system more generally. developments in the appli cation of
information technology to support these be able to participate on the basis of the future. Hopefully, such activities will
approaches and provide new means of knowl continue to be diff used and insti
decision support. edge they possess, not simply to argue tutionalized so that the essential links
positions that refl ect corporate or sectional between engineering and social and
One lesson learned early on during these interests. Th us a combination of cogni © environmental concerns can be deepened
exercises was that it is important to bring UNESCO and made more eff ective.7 In this way,
together expertise in social aff airs, busi tive, social, professional and ethical debate and action around long-term
ness management, fi nancial issues and capabilities are required. Th is sort of profi opportunities and threats will be informed
policy, together with expertise possessed le is liable to be in demand in any by knowledge of the strengths and
by scientists and engineers.4 Exercises that engineering work where relations with limitations of engineering cap
neglected this found themselves hastily customers and users, and perspectives that abilities and of the structure and urgency of
having to plug these knowledge gaps. go beyond immediate project management, social concerns.
Foresight activities – in the most successful are required.
exercises – proved a valuable setting to 5 See the EFMN database. Even one country’s activities can
enable experts of many kinds to share and Foresight exercises have addressed a span a vast range, for exam ple recent projects in UK Foresight
5
fuse their knowledge, to break away from multitude of topics but an inescapable have concerned themes as various as Flooding, Obesity,
their standard presentations and immediate feature is that, across the board, we are Drugs and Brain Science, Exploiting the Electromagnetic

preoccupations, to articulate their con tinuing to move toward a world in whichSpectrum, Detection and Identifi cation of Infectious Diseases,
and Intelligent Infrastructures. Go to http:// www.
understandings about longer-term devel more and more of our social and economic foresight.gov.uk for details of these and many more projects.
6
opments and to explore how these did or activities are instrumented: where we use
6 Th is term is borrowed from IBM’s Samuel J. Palmisano in his
did not align with those of experts in new technologies to transform the material paper A Smarter Planet: Th e Next Leadership Agenda
adjacent and related areas. world and design and simulate these available at http://www.ibm.com/ibm/ideasfromibm/us/smart
transformations; where technolo planet/20081106/sjp_speech.shtml (Accessed: 5 May 2010).
Much of this is also described in terms of being ‘informated’ or
What has proved to be at a premium is the gies mediate our interactions and help us ‘infomated’, but other technologies are being employed
capability to possess (and share) highly codify and collate our knowledge; where alongside information technology, for example, genomics and
specialized knowledge, but also to be able we have increasingly powerful tools to nanotechnologies.

to relate this understanding to the issues intervene in both tangible and intangible 7 An interesting step here is the introduction of ‘Engineering
raised in a wide range of other fi elds; elements of complex systems, and to help Foresight’ modules into engineering courses, for example a
people with ‘T-shaped skill profi les’ (people us understand such systems. New forms course for third year mechanical engineering students at
of engineering are emerging (service Manchester University intended to equip them for the sort of
with in projects they may be working on in the future. Th e course,
engineering and bioengi neering being two with a horizon of several decades, particularly explores “step
examples), as are new approaches to change, disruptive technology and scientifi c breakthrough
3 See R. Barré Foresight in France, Chp. 5 in L. Georghiou et educa rather than incremental product and process development”, and
al. (eds, 2008) Th e Hand book of Technology Foresight, locates mechanical engineering in relation to future markets,
Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar
tion and lifelong learning. Th ere is
societies and technologies by training in students in various
(Th is Handbook provides much more depth on many of the probably no single future for engineering; forecasting techniques. Go to: http://www.manchester.ac.uk/
issues discussed in the present text). A good account is also new specialisms will emerge, new skill profi
available at: http://forlearn.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
les and hybrid combinations will be
guide/7_cases/futuris_operation.htm (Accessed: 5 May 2010).
required and new professions will develop
4 See the study of ‘industrially-oriented foresight, J. that have a greater or lesser engineering
Molas-Gallart et al. (2001). A Trans national Analysis of the
Result and Implications of Industrially-oriented Technology Fore
component. Personal foresight will be an
sight Studies, ESTO Report, EUR No: EUR 20138 EN available asset that should enable individu als to
at: http://www.p2pays. org/ref/05/04160.pdf (Accessed: 5 May make informed choices in these shifting
2010). landscapes.
depth knowledge of their own domain as
well as competence in a much broader Meanwhile, foresight programmes
spectrum of managerial, interpersonal and underline the central role played by Th e Vizcaya Bridge in northern Spain –
other skills). Additionally, foresight required engineers and engineering in creating the designed by de Palacio in 1887 and
open-minded people; the experts have to UNESCO World Heritage site.
 55
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

3.2 Emerging and future areas of

engineering George Bugliarello
Engineering Challenges by the National Acad emy
In the last fi ve decades a set of increasingly of Engineering in the USA.8
urgent global issues has emerged that call for an
unprecedented move across the broad An incipient broadening of the traditional frontiers
engagement of engineering, ranging from how to of engi neering that encompass interactions with
make the world sustainable in its social, economic sociology, econom ics, political science and other
and environmen social sciences and processes, with healthcare
tal dimensions, to how to cope with urbanization and with the agricultural sciences, is beginning to
and globali zation. Many of these challenges are enable engineers to play a more eff ective and
underscored by a recent study on Grand integrated role in addressing these issues. At the
 same time, the emer gence of several fundamental the last quarter of the previous century, is again
new engineering endeavours, closely interwoven threatening to become insuffi cient because of the
with science, from nanotechnology to bio increasing demands of rapidly growing
engineering has the potential to revolutionize populations and economies, the increasing use of
engineering and to impact on global issues in not agricultural land for the development of biofuels,
yet fully fathomed ways. and the depletion of fi sh stocks. Th is calls for
new engineering approaches, including
Economic, Social and aquiculture and applications of genet ics. In many
Environmental countries, the large percentage of food spoiled in
Sustainability In the area of storage and transport is a problem that we can no
engineering for economic sustainability, the chal longer defer. Neither can the threats to food
lenges are to design technologies and systems security that are height ened by climate change,
that can facili tate global commerce, foster aff ecting 30 per cent of farmers in developing
technological innovations and entrepreneurship, countries (Brown and Funk, 2008),9 and wich will
place new demands on agricultural engineering
and help generate jobs, while minimizing
and global logistics.
environmental impacts and using resources effi
ciently.
In energy, engineering is challenged to continue to
improve technologies for the collection, in all its
In the social domain, engineering is challenged to
manifestations, of the inexhaustible but widely
design sys tems that can facilitate education and
dispersed solar energy, for the extrac tion of oil, for
healthcare, enhance the quality of life, help
tapping thermal energy from the interior of the
eliminate global poverty, and help humans
Earth, and for providing environmentally
preserve their humanity in a world increasingly
sustainable power and light to large segments of
paced by machines. In each of these areas, the
the world’s population. Integra
engineering contribu
tion into power grids of large amounts of
tion is indispensable, but bound to fail without a
intermittent solar and wind power is a major
close synergy with political and economic forces.
challenge, and so is the devising of economical
An emerging challenge to engineering is also to
storage mechanisms – large and small – that
develop technological approaches that can help
would have widespread utility, including also the
prevent or mitigate hostile acts, reduce the impact
reduction of power plant capacities required to
of natural disasters, and motivate humans to
supply power at peak hours. Improvement in effi
reduce their draw on the resources of the planet.
ciency of energy utilization to reduce the large
percentage (about 50 per cent) of global energy
Th e traditional role of engineering in the quest for
supply wasted is a global engineering challenge of
resources – from water to food, energy and the fi rst magni tude, and so is the decarbonization
materials – needs to be reinforced and expanded of emissions from fossil fuel power plants, e.g.
by new approaches, as well as in the increasingly through underground gasifi cation and deep coal
important role of engineering in resource conser deposits. Th e need to replace liquid hydrocarbons,
vation and waste management. which power much of the world’s transportation
systems, is particularly urgent, and the prospect of
Th e uneven distribution of water across continents doing so by biomo lecular engineering of plant
and regions and its limited availability make microbes or by hydrogen fuel cells is emerging as
enormous demands on engi a more desirable possibility than making biofu els
from agricultural biomass.
8 NAE (National Academy of Engineering), February 15, 2008. Go to:
http://www.engi neeringchallenges.org
Th e challenges in the area of material resources
neering skills, from devising more eff ective are to fi nd more sustainable substitutes (as in the
systems for water and wastewater treatment and structural use of com posites, soil, plastic refuse
for recycling, to desalination, reducing evaporation and agricultural byproducts), so as
losses in reservoirs, stanching the large amount of
leakage from old distribution systems and building
9 Brown, M. E. and C. C. Funk. 2008. Food security under climate change,
new recirculation systems. Science, Vol. 319, pp. 580–581, 1 February.

Food supply, doubled by the green revolution in

56
E N G I N E E R I N G: E M E R G I N G I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S
between production and utilization. destruction caused by expanding human
habitats and by confl icts, to the indiscrimi
In the area of environment, engineering is nate mining and transformation of
to reutilize those in scarce supply, such as challenged to help reduce the resources, the impact of dams on wildlife,
copper, to recycle them and to develop eff encroachment of the footprints that human the emissions to the atmosphere of health
ective closed cycles of materials fl ow habi tats and activities leave on it, from the threatening and global warming gases, as
well as the higher atmospheric With the continuing expansion of cities over eff ect of revolutionizing manufacturing,
temperatures over cities that also areas at risk from earthquakes and construction and infrastructures. Composite
contribute to global warming; the ‘heat volcanic eruptions, inundations, devastatingmaterials, also utilizing a variety of natural
island’ phenomenon. Increased effi - storms and tsunamis, and with cities materials, make it possible to cre ate
ciencies in the use of all resources, becoming frequent tar gets of hostile strong, lightweight structures. Large-scale
moderation of consump tion, recycling of activities, engineering is ever more self-assembly of materials and
materials, confl ict resolution, containment challenged to fi nd ways to enhance the microstructures is a more distant but
of sprawl, and alternative forms of energy protection of the populations at risk important possibility. Materials and energy
become ever more imperative engineering through more robust and resilient are linked in the emerging
challenges. So is the ever greater waste infrastructures, more eff ective warning
disposal problem, including the thorny systems, and more realistic evacuation or
problem of nuclear waste, to protect shelter-in-place plans. 11 Dzenis, Y. 2008. Structural nanocomputers. Science, Vol.
human health and the environment. Th e 319, pp. 419–420, 25 January.

preservation of the integrity of critical Th roughout the range of urban 12 Vaia, R. and J. Baur. 2008. Adaptive composites. Science,
habitats of other spe cies to enable them to sustainability needs of the developing Vol. 319, pp. 420–421, 25 Janu ary.

coexist with human activities demands world, good enough solutions will have to
careful infrastructural design and site be engi neered that are more aff ordable
planning. All these chal lenges can only be than the traditional ones of the developed
overcome through the synergy of new tech world, and that can rapidly satisfy a
nologies and public understanding of the majority of needs. Th ey range from
necessity of new policies. cheaper and faster construction, to simpler
maintenance and repair, ‘green’ energy-,
Urbanization material- and environment-saving
Urbanization is a second urgent, emerging technologies, more fl exible urban mobil
global development issue with now half the ity solutions (as in bus rapid transport
global population living in cities. In the (BRT) systems) and telecommunications
developing world, that percentage is systems that provide broadband inter
projected to continue to rise explosively in connections without expensive land links.
the foreseeable future, while the developed
world is already largely urbanized. Th is Globalization
makes global sustain ability increasingly aff Globalization of the world economy
ected by the impact of cities, large and presents engineering with a third major set
small. Th e rapidly changing demographic of challenges: to help provide populations,
profi les of cities chal regions and individuals with access to
lenge engineering to address the needs of global knowledge, mar kets and institutions
the massive wave of young populations in by enhancing transportation systems, the
cities of the developing world, with out diff usion of information and fast Internet
neglecting their eventual greying as their technologies, the provision of technical
life expectancy increases, already a training required to participate in the global
burgeoning problem in the developed economy, and through the development of
world. Th is will require rethinking the common standards to facilitate the
design of many inter faces between synergies of engineering capacities across
humans and artefacts to facilitate their use. the globe.
Th e urban engineering challenges are to
help fi nd ways to provide for this tidal New fundamental
wave of urban growth with solutions for engineering
adequate housing, mobility, water, endeavours
sanitation, electricity, telecommuni cations, New and prospective challenges in four
and clean air for all citizens by using local fundamental engi neering domains:
resources as much as possible to develop materials, energy, information and systems,
infrastructure systems that can follow the as well as bioengineering, off er vast new
expansion of urban areas, and thus help possibilities for the future. Th e Eastgate Centre in Harare, Zimbabwe,
reduce the horrendous blight of urban designed from a termite mound for natural
poverty by creating new job opportunities In the domain of materials: it is becoming ventilation.
(Bugliarello, 2008).10 Urbanization also increasingly possible through
requires the improvement of quality of life nanotechnology and bionanotechnology to
in cities by managing con create, ion-by-ion, atom-by-atom, or
gestion and reducing pollution and noise – molecule-by-molecule, materi als with a
in any country. broad range of capabilities, from enhanced
struc tural strength (Dzenis, 2008)11 to
sensing, transferring energy, interacting
with light at the scale of light’s wavelength,
10 Bugliarello, G. 2008. Urban sustainability and its engineering and changing characteristics on command
challenges. Journal of Urban Technology, April. (Vaia and Baur, 2008).12 Th is will have the
 © CCBY - Wikimedia - Mandy Paterson

57
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
impact on areas not reached by traditional
telephone systems for reasons of geography, cost
or organization. Con tinuing advances in
concept of deconstructable structures and in the semiconductor electronics and computer
develop ment of recycling, so as to reuse as much architecture (Ferry, 2008)13 will make ever more
as possible the mate rials and the energy powerful (pen
embedded within them. tafl ops and more) computers possible, with
enormous impact on engineering analysis and
In the energy domain: developments in fuel cells, design and the study of biological, social and
biomass and waste incinerators, bacterial environmental phenomena. Information is key to
electricity generators, biofuel engines, increasing the effi ciency in the use of energy and
photovoltaic generators and thermal collectors materials. It is also key – in synergy with systems
with greater effi ciencies, in both large and small engineering – to globally improving the
scale advanced wind turbines and in micro-hydro performance of healthcare systems, social ser
turbines, all have imme diate applications to vices, manufacturing, transportation and other
development. High-voltage supercon infrastructural systems, agriculture and
ducting direct current lines off er the prospect – by geophysics, and mineral prospecting and
reducing long distance power losses – to capture extraction, all major development challenges.
distant sources of energy and to transmit energy
globally. Also of considerable potential impact is In every major global challenge, from the
the demonstrated possibility of using the energy eradication of the endemic blight of poverty, to
from walking in order to generate a current suffi universal and eff ective health care, economic
cient enough to power low wattage electronic development, urbanization, security and glo bal
devices. A future challenge responding to a warming, systems engineering of the highest order
universal need is the design of bat teries with is called for as it must encompass and harmonize
greater specifi c storage capacity per unit weight. social, political and
Advanced new lighting systems can replace CO2
generating fuel burning lamps and fi res as well 13 Ferry, D. K. 2008. Nanowires in nanoelectronics. Science, Vol. 319,
as ineffi cient incandes cent bulbs. Nuclear fusion pp. 579–580, 1 February.

is still a hope of distant realization, but building a economic systems, healthcare and nutrition issues,
large number of advanced, inherently stable fi as well as the more traditional engineering
ssion reactors with a safe proliferation-proof fuel systems that deal with water and energy supply,
cycle to supply base power will become construction, infrastructures and production. To
increasingly necessary to reduce greenhouse respond to many of these systems engineer
emissions, and in the absence of other kinds of ing challenges, the incipient developments of
energy supply. agent-based and multi-scale modeling off er the
possibility of including more realistic behavioural
In the information domain: personal portable components as well as encompassing in a model
devices, which are revolutionizing individual dimensions that range from the nano- to the macro
communications and access to the internet, will scale. A promising systems engineering frontier is
become ever more integrated into single also the crea
multi-function, multi-purpose devices combining tion of more sophisticated robots and robotic
voice, data, and imaging thanks to the future systems for use in a wide range of applications,
development of billion tran sistor microchips and from helping the disabled to manufacturing and
universal open standards. Th is will have great the performance of dangerous tasks.
 bioengi neering is biomimesis, the search for new
Bioengineering ideas and ‘proofs of concept’ for engineering
Bioengineering, the interaction of engineering with designs stemming from research in the
biology and medicine, will be of increasing signifi characteristics of living systems. It can be
cance in health care, industry and agriculture, and expected to lead to cheaper or more effi cient and
in everyday life. A host of emerging achievements eff ective solutions, as in the simple example of
encompasses for instance biological treatments of ventilation systems inspired by the design of
drinking water (Brown, 2007),14 tissue engineer termite mounds, or in the great structural strength
ing for the replacement of diseased biological achieved in nature by the synergy of multiple
tissues and the creation of new tissues, the hydrogen bonds.
engineering of all sorts of sophis ticated artifi cial
organs (including artifi cial limbs and ocular A new branch of
prostheses), advances in instrumentation, sensors, engineering
as well as more powerful and faster diagnostic Out of all these new challenges and possibilities, a
approaches and drug delivery to the organism, new inter disciplinary thrust of engineering can be
accelerated vaccine production (Heuer, 2006),15 expected to emerge, what can perhaps be called
and the engineering of proteins, genes and engineering for development – and would not just
organisms. Many of these advances, of potentially be for developing countries. Engineer ing for
great sig development would respond to the global need for
nifi cance for development, are made possible by engineers who understand the problems of human
progress in miniaturization (e.g. the laboratory or devel opment and sustainability, and can bring to
the factory on a chip), computational soft- and bear on them
hardware, imaging and visualiza tion, and by
mechatronics – the combination of mechanical 14 Brown, J. C. 2007. Biological treatment of drinking water, The Bridge,
devices and electronics. Winter, pp. 30–35.

15 Heuer, A. H. (Ed.). 2006. Engineering and vaccine production for an

An emerging but still largely unfathomed aspect of infl uenza pan demic. Th e Bridge, Vol. 36, No. 3, Autumn.

58
E N G I N E E R I N G: E M E R G I N G I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S
ease arising from the damming of rivers in tropical
regions,
the destruction of thin soils created by mechanized
their engineering knowledge. Th ey are motivated farming equipment, or the social instabilities
by a sense of the future, and are able to interact caused by too rapid an introduction of automation.
with other disciplines, with communities and with
political leaders, to design and implement Training a sufficient number of engineering
solutions. In this context, an often overlooked but professionals focused on development should
essential responsibility of engineering is to help become a high priority as a critical ingredient in the
recognize, prevent or mitigate possible unwanted ability of the global community to deal with the
consequences of new technological emerging and urgent issues that confront it today.
developments, such as the onset of tropical dis

3.3 A changing climate and engineers of the

future16 Charlie Hargroves
‘the world has less than eight years to arrest
global warming or risk what many scientists warn
In his closing words to the Australia 2020 Summit,
could be catastrophic changes to the planet’, it
Prime Minister Kevin Rudd said that ‘Climate
would be easy to despair. However this is
change is the overarching moral, economic,
balanced by a growing realiza tion of the vast
scientifi c, and technological challenge of our age.’
opportunities such a focus can deliver, such as
Responding to the challenge of climate change
that ‘Creating the low-carbon economy will lead to
provides both the greatest challenge and the
the great
greatest opportunity the engineering profession
est economic boom in the United States since it
has ever faced, and this dual nature may turn out
mobilized for the Second World War’, as stated by
to be the most important ‘convenient truth’ ever
the former US President Bill Clinton in late 2007.
realized.

In the last two years there has been a signifi cant

When considering Th e Intergovernmental Panel
shift in the global conscience on these issues and
on Climate Change’s statement from 2007 that
few now believe that not taking action is a viable
 approach; some even consider it a disastrous, skill sets to redesign technologies, pro cesses,
costly and amoral one. Th e daunting question that infrastructure and systems to be both effi cient,
many are now asking is ‘are we actually destroying produc tive and eff ective.
the world we are creating?’ Th ese messages are
not new, however, in light of compelling evidence Th e challenge for engineers of the future is to
of both the challenges and opportuni ties for over understand the science, engineering and design
thirty years now there is still hesitancy; there is still issues vital to a compre hensive understanding of
a lack of action on a broad scale, there are even how national economies make the transition to a
eff orts to block such progress. Much of this low emissions future. Given the rapid growth of
results from a lack of understand ing, a lack of greenhouse gas emissions globally there is a real
education and competency in the proven eco need for a greater level of urgency and
nomic policies, scientifi c knowledge, and sophistication around the reali
technological and design solutions currently ties of delivering cost eff ective strategies, policies
available. and engi neering designs to achieve emissions
stabilization globally. Th e Stern Review explored
Rather than seeking a ‘silver bullet’ solution – the in detail the concept of stabiliza tion trajectories
one engi neering answer to save the world – it is and pointed out that there are two distinct phases:
becoming clear that 1) global emissions need to stop growing i.e.
emissions levels would peak and begin to decline;
and 2) there would need to be a sustained
16 Th is material is based on a submission by the author and colleagues
reduction of annual greenhouse gas emissions
of Th e Natural Edge Project to the Garnaut Climate Change Review
initiated by the Australian Federal Government. Th e full submission across the entire global economy. Th e Stern
can be downloaded at http://www.naturaledge Review states that ‘Th e longer action is delayed,
project.net/Documents/TNEPSubmission.pdf (Accessed: 5 May 2010). the harder it will become. Delaying the peak in
what we need is more like a ‘silver shotgun’ global emissions from 2020 to 2030 would almost
approach, an inte grated solutions-based double the rate of [annual] reduction needed to
engineering portfolio of options, all travelling in the stabilize at 550ppm CO2e. A further ten-year delay
same direction. Th e engineering profession must could make stabilization at 550ppm CO2e
now focus the creativity and ingenuity that has impractical, unless early actions were taken to
delivered today’s incredible levels of human and dramatically slow the growth in emissions prior to
industrial development on the task of delivering the peak.’17
sustainable engineering and develop
ment solutions.

17 Stern, N. 2006. Th e Stern Review: Th e Economics of Climate

Engineers of the future will focus on leading eff orts Change, Cambridge Univer sity Press, Cambridge, Chp 8: Th e
to reduce pollution, fi rst by reducing material fl Challenge of Stabilisation, p 10. Available at http://
ows and then by creating critical knowledge and www.sternreview.org.uk/ (Accessed: 5 May 2010).

59
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
for 450–550ppm CO2e
to be re-built or replaced; renewable energy, cogeneration and
high effi ciency energy supply technologies (such as fuel cells)
Figure 1: BAU emissions and stabilization trajectories
90

80

70

2 60
Global Emissions (GtCO e)
50
450ppm COe
100 40

30

20

10

0
could replace them.’18
 cult to reduce emissions faster than transition in the engineering profession is
around 3 per cent per year, this so we can capitalize on the already
Th e risk is that if the peak is too soon it emphasizes the importance of urgent abundant opportunities for short-term
may have signifi cant impacts on our ability action now to slow the growth of global reductions to achieve the peak, while also
to maintain gradual reductions, and if the emissions, and therefore lower the peak.’19 build
peak is too late the corresponding annual ing the experience and economies of scale
reductions may be too much for the to seriously tackle
economy to bear. As the Stern Review Th e benefi t of using stabilization
points out, ‘Given that it is likely to be diffi trajectories as the basis for informing a
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100 stations will be more than thirty years old, and they will have
the issue of sustained reductions. Th e beauty of the sustained
Source: Stern Review reductions model is that it allows an economy to stage the
activities it undertakes to allow for certain industries to be given
more time, or ‘head room’ to respond as the industries that can
make short and medium term gains contribute to achieving the
Th e key to the economic impact of an ambitious approach to average overall reduction, potentially rewarded through an
emissions trading scheme or other financial mechanism. When
emissions reduction is to achieve a balance in the timing of
considering each country’s role in the glo bal community the
the emissions peak and the corresponding requirement for a
situation becomes more complex: eff orts across the economy of
tailing off of emissions annually. Th e challenge is the range of
a country will need to be aggregated to deliver the annual
combinations of ‘peaks’ and corresponding ‘tails’ (i.e. trajec reductions overall; and international eff orts need to be
tories) that may deliver a given stabilization level, especially aggregated across countries to achieve the global stabilization
when considering that each trajectory will have a diff erent curve. Th e Garnaut Interim Report, a 2008 economic analysis
impact on the economy. A late peak will allow short-term for Australia, presented a number of country specifi c trajectory
reduction levels to be relaxed but will then require a greater curves based on per capita emis sions that could be aggregated
level of annual sustained reduction to meet the overall target. to achieve the overall global stabilization trajectory.
An early peak will require a rapid short-term reduction level,
but these eff orts will be rewarded by a lower level of required
sustained annual reductions. It is widely agreed that expecting the rapidly developing countries
of China and India to halt their use of fossil fuel con sumption is
unreasonable considering that the United States, Australia and
Australian Professor Alan Pears from the Royal Melbourne
other developed countries have capitalized on fossil fuels for
Institute of Technology explains, ‘[Greenhouse Gas] Emis
decades to underpin their development. Th e strength of the
sion reduction sounds like a daunting prospect, and many
model proposed by Professor Garnaut, and the main reason for
people imagine that we will have to freeze in the dark, shut
our support of it, is that it provides head room for both China and
down industry, and face misery. But remember, we don’t have India to develop. Moreover, if all countries follow their per capita
to slash greenhouse gas emissions in a couple of years – we curves this may actually make a global transition to stabilization a
are expected to phase in savings over decades. Th is allows reality, considering that
us to take advantage of the fact that most energy producing
or using equipment, from fridges and computers to cars and 18 Smith, M. and Hargroves, K. 2006. Th e First Cuts Must be the Deepest, CSIRO ECOS, Issue
power stations, has to be replaced every 5 to 30 years. So we 128, Dec–Jan. pp. 8–11.

can minimize costs by making sure that, when old equipment 19 Stern, N. 2006. Th e Stern Review: Th e Economics of Climate Change, Cambridge Univer
is replaced, low greenhouse-impact alternatives are installed. sity Press, Cambridge. Available at http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_sum mary.htm
(Accessed: 5 May 2010).
For example, by 2020, most of Australia ‘s coal-fi red power

60
E N G I N E E R I N G: E M E R G I N G I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S

Table 1: Illustrative emissions paths to stabilization

Stabilisation Date of peak Global Percentage reduction in
Level (CO2e) global emissions emissions below 2005 values
emissions reduction
rate (% per 2050 2100
year)

450 ppm 2010 7.0 70 75

2020 - - -

500 ppm 2010 3.0 50 75

(falling to450
 ppm in 2150) 2020 4.0 – 6.0 60 – 70 75

2030 5.0[1] – 5.5[2] 50 – 60 75 – 80

2040 - - -

550 ppm 2015 1.0 25 50

2020 1.5 – 2.5 25 – 30 50 – 55

2030 2.5 – 4.0 25 – 30 50 – 55

2040 3.0 – 4.5[3] 5 - 15 50 – 60

Source: Stern Review

already China20 and India21 are making increasingly signifi cant

commitments to energy effi ciency, such as the Chinese 11th fi
ve-year plan calling for a 20 per cent fall in energy consump tion
per unit of gross domestic product (GDP).

Experts predict the global market for climate change solutions will
rapidly reach US$1 trillion dollars and will continue to grow.
Already many markets for specifi c low carbon products and
services are among the fastest growing in the world. Th e
European Union, Silicon Valley in the United States, China and USA/ Australia
Japan especially are competing to ensure that their research and
development (R&D) bodies and leading businesses inno vate the
next generation in lighting technologies, energy effi -
2
Global Emissions (GtCO e)
cient appliances, renewable energy systems, and fuel effi cient EU/Japan
cars because these will create multi-billon dollar revenue streams
for their businesses over the coming decades. Profes sor Garnaut
summed up the challenge well in February 2008 when launching
the Interim Report. He stated that, in reaching targets, Australia
will have to ‘face the reality that this is a hard reform, but get it
right and the transition to a low-emissions economy will be
manageable … get it wrong and this is going to be a painful
adjustment.’22

20 See China Energy Bulletin at: http://www.energybulletin.net/3566.html (Accessed: 5 May

2010).

21 See India Bureau of Energy Effi ciency at: http://www.bee-india.nic.in/ (Accessed: 5 May
2010).

22 Maiden, S. 2008. Garnaut eyes massive carbon reductions, Th e Australian. Available at:
http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,23251141-11949,00.html (Accessed: 5
May 2010).
As Professor Jeff rey Sachs stated at the 2008 Delhi Sustainable
Development Summit, ‘what is needed is good arithmetic, and
good engineering and good economics, all combined… We
haven’t done the work on that yet. But that is the work that we
China

Global average
Figure 2: Contraction and convergence for diff erent
countries with ‘head room’ for the rapidly developing
economies: a stylised, illustrative scenario. India

time
 Source: Garnaut Interim Report * Territory Governments of Australia. Available at http://www.garnautreview.org.au/index.htm
(Accessed: 5 May 2010).
* Garnaut Climate Change Review, 2008. Interim Report to the Commonwealth, State and

61
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
feedbacks and the disproportionate burden of
climate change on the poor and vulnerable
globally. It predicts that if fast and dramatic
need to do in the next 2 years in my view – to
show a path.’23 When facing the issues of climate 23 Sachs, J. 2008. Valedictory Address, delivered to the Delhi Sustainable
change, it is easy to become hypnotized by the Development Summit, Delhi (7–9 February 2008).

complexity. In order to meet the complex ity of the 24 Th e Natural Edge Project has undertaken a comprehensive national
challenges with sophistication and ingenuity of the survey of the state of education on energy effi ciency in Australian
universities funded by the National Framework on Energy Effi ciency,
solutions our professions need to work together to
and covering 27 of the 33 universities.
inform on each others’ eff orts.
25 Stern, N. 2006. Th e Stern Review: Th e Economics of Climate
Change, Executive Summary Cambridge University Press,
Th e study of economics – if well informed by Cambridge, p 10. Available at: http://www.hm-treasury.
science – can provide valuable guidance as to the gov.uk/media/8AC/F7/Executive_Summary.pdf (Accessed: 29 May
2010).
potential impact on an economy from a range of
emissions reduction trajectories. A study of action is not taken on climate change, then climate
science, engineering and design, informed by eco change could cause an economic recession to
nomics, can provide valuable guidance as to the rival the great economic recession of the 1930s,
concluding, ‘If a wider range of risks and impacts
potential for our industrial economies to achieve
is taken into account, the estimates of damage
such trajectories in light of best practices and
could rise to 20 per cent of GDP or more. Th e
balanced by the potential impacts on the
investment that takes place in the next 10–20
environment. Th erefore, on its own, a study of
years will have a profound eff ect on the climate in
economics cannot provide all the answers to our
the second half of this century and the next.
leaders who are seriously considering the
(Inaction now) and over the coming decades could
trajectories our emissions must follow without
create risks of major disruption to economic and
being informed by what is physically possible, i.e.
social activ ity on a scale similar to those
by the physi cal sciences, engineering and design
associated with the great wars and the economic
professions. Likewise, a study of science and
depression of the fi rst half of the twentieth
engineering on its own cannot provide all the
century. And it will be diffi cult or impossible to
answers either without being informed by
reverse these changes.’26
economics as to the impacts on the economy from
a range of potential engineering and design
options.
Developing and meeting greenhouse gas reduction
targets is urgent because emissions
Whether business, government and the community concentrations are now exceeding environmental
around the world identify and implement the most thresholds as regards how much the biosphere
cost eff ective greenhouse gas mitigation options can accommodate. As Lester Brown writes, the
depends signifi cantly upon the state of education impact of our current form of development means
and training on climate change mitiga that, ‘we are crossing nat ural thresholds that we
tion solutions. Whether or not decision-makers cannot see and violating deadlines that we do not
choose wise policy settings and practice wise recognize. Nature is the time-keeper, but we
adaptive governance on the climate change cannot see the clock. Among other environmental
issues in coming decades, or whether busi nesses trends undermin
respond well to a carbon price signal depends on ing our future are shrinking forests, expanding
their knowledge and skills at being able to identify deserts, falling water tables, collapsing fi sheries,
and implement cost eff ective mitigation options disappearing species, and rising temperatures. Th
such as energy effi ciency.24 e temperature increases bring crop withering heat
waves, more-destructive storms, more-intense
Th e Stern Review, having analysed the costs of droughts, more forest fi res, and of course ice
action and inac tion, concluded that costs of action melting.’27 Scien tists like NASA’s James Hansen
to the global economy would be roughly one per argue that if rapid greenhouse gas reductions do
cent of GDP, and stated that ‘We estimate the total not occur in the next ten years then these
cost of business as usual climate change to ironically termed ‘positive feedbacks’, once
equate to an average reduction in global per capita unleashed, will cause a global catastrophe
consump tion of 5 per cent at a minimum now and increasing the risk of sea level rises and extreme
for ever.’ 25 Th e Stern Review describes how the weather events, and resulting in signifi cant eco
cost would increase were the model to take into nomic and business losses globally.28 More than
account additional impacts on environmental and ever there is recognition of the need for
human health, and the eff ects of positive unprecedented global cooperation to undertake
 action as rapidly as possible to avoid triggering 27 Brown, L. R. 2008. Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization. W.W.
such feedback eff ects. Al Gore has called the Norton & Company, 398 p.
situation noth
28 Hansen, J. and Sato, J. et al. 2007. Climate change and trace gases,
ing less than a ‘planetary emergency’, which is Phil. Trans. Royal Soc, Vol. 365, pp 1925–1954. Available at
surely the most signifi cant future challenge for our http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/abstracts/2007/ Hansen_etal_2.html
current ‘young engineers’, and which will shape (Accessed: 5 May 2010).

the future of engineering.29 29 Barringer, F. and Revkin, A.C. 2007. Gore Warns Congress of
‘Planetary Emer gency’, The New York Times. Available at
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/22/ washington/22gore.html
(Accessed: 5 May 2010).

26 Stern, N. 2006. Stern Review.

62
E N G I N E E R I N G: E M E R G I N G I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S

3.4 Th e engineering message – getting

it across Philip Greenish and Beverley Parkin
‘not very much’ about engineering, and six out of
Engineers make a huge contribution across the ten people thought that ‘hardly anyone knows what
world but – in the UK at least – their role is engineers do.’ Younger people in particular were
generally poorly understood. Public policy benefi found to have a limited understanding of
ts from having the engineering dimen sions engineering.
considered early in the policymaking process but –
again in the UK – engineers are not always Engineers operate across a broad range of
engaged. Engineering solves global problems and activities and sec tors and it may be that this very
increases the health and wealth of nations, so the breadth is, in fact, a barrier to awareness and
world needs more engineers to help address the understanding of what they do. Indeed, the study
enormous challenges we all face. found that engineering was regarded as diffi cult to
defi ne with eight out of ten respondents agreeing
Th ese propositions drive the Royal Academy of that there are so many types of engineers that it
makes ‘engineering’ a diffi cult role to grasp. Th is
Engineering’s mission to ‘put engineering at the
is not helped when, for example, the media cloaks
heart of society.’ Th is is about helping engineers
the specifi c word ‘engineering’ under diff erent
that need institutional support make their fullest
terms such as ‘design’, ‘science’ or ‘ innovation’. A
contribution for both the benefi t of society and to
study of US magazine Science Times found that
create recognition of the value of that contribution.
engineers and engineering
Th e issue also calls for more work to inspire
young people with the fasci nation and excitement
of engineering, and to encourage more of them go 30 Go to: http://www.raeng.org.uk

on to become the next generation of engineers. 31 New survey fi nds deep misconceptions of engineering among young
people that could worsen shortfall in engineers. Available at
http://www.raeng.org.uk/news/releases/ shownews.htm?NewsID=416
Perceptions
/pa (Accessed: 5 May 2010).
So what are the key public perception issues that were explicitly mentioned in only one in fi ve of the
need to be tackled? In 2007, the UK Royal stories that were clearly about engineers and
Academy of Engineering30 and the UK Engineering engineering.32 UK broadcast programming and
and Technology Board commissioned a survey to print articles similarly lack content that is actually
fi nd answers to this question.31 Th e survey verifi designated as ‘engineering’ even when the subject
ed much of what the engineering community had is actually engineering-focused.
suspected over many years – that people in the
UK have little or no under standing of the nature of Communicating with young people is a particular
engineering, its scope, diversity and impact on
challenge. In the UK, we need more young people
society. Th is limited awareness and understanding
to choose engineering as a career. We must also
of engineering is coupled with a signifi cant lack of
engage many more young people with the societal
confi dence in and knowledge of the profession
impacts of engineering so that they can take part in
and the work that engi neers do. Nearly half of the
the debate on the big issues of the day. Th e
survey respondents felt they knew ‘very little’ or
 essence of engineering can be hard for young that engineers have every opportunity to get their
people to grasp so conveying an engineering important messages across. After all, engineering
message has to start in school. Entering a career in is for and about people, about making the world a
engineering depends on young people studying the better place. Many of the Academy’s own Fellows
right subjects and having access to eff ective (elected members) regu larly appear in the media
guidance, communications and role models. Very and have a high public profi le as a result of their
few young people in the UK can name a famous work, yet are not necessarily described or recog
engineer other than perhaps Brunel, who died in nized as ‘engineers’.
1859. Th ere is a growing research base that
suggests that the key to success in communica Th e case study in the following box outlines the
tions with young people is having engineering rolethree work streams that the Academy has
models who look and sound like the young people developed in response to these challenges: public
they are talking to. Role model recognition is also a
affairs and policy, communicating with the public at
factor. A key concern, therefore, is the large, and communicating with young people.
under-representation in the profession of women Increasingly, the Academy is working in these
and of people from ethnic backgrounds and some areas with part ners in the professional engineering
socio-economic groups. community to create a unifi ed voice and more
visible presence. Although the Acad emy has a
The world is experiencing a time of rapid national remit, the achievement of its objectives
technological advancement, driven by requires a global outlook and an appreciation of
engineering. Society needs to engage and explore the wider international context of engineering.
important questions with its engineers. As a pro
fession, engineering needs to work together, 32 Clark, F. and Illman, D.L. 2006. Portrayals of Engineers in Science
nationally and internationally, to ensure that Times, Technology and Society Magazine, IEEE, Vol. 25, No.1, Spring
communications challenges are addressed and 2006. pp.12–21.

63
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

CASE STUDY: Th e UK Royal Academy of Engineering

understanding of the engineer ing dimensions with an understanding of the engineering
Introduction of delivery is more likely to be workable. dimensions of delivery is more likely to be
Th e Royal Academy of Engineering is the UK’s Equally, the engineering approach to workable. Equally, the engineering approach to
national academy for the engineering problem-solving can support the formation of problem solving can support the formation of
profession. Fellows and staff work with a wide policy that is fi t for purpose and sustainable. policy that is fi t for purpose and sustainable.
range of partner organizations, includ ing the Eff ective responses to the grand challenges Eff ective responses to the grand challenges
government Offi ce of Science and Innovation, such as climate change, energy security, world such as climate change, energy security, world
the British Council, the UK research councils, poverty, glo bal disease burdens and poverty, global disease burdens and
and parliamen international terrorism can only be developed international terror ism can only be developed
tary and governmental groups. Th e Academy is with engineering input. with engineering input.
a founding member of both the International
Council of Engineer ing and Technological
Through its Fellows (elected members), the UK Building infl uence
Royal Academy of Engineering is well
Sciences ( CAETS), the European Council of Over the last year, the Academy has been
networked with govern ment and parliament. A
Applied Sciences and Technologies and Engi working with partners across the UK
programme of public aff airs work seeks to
neering (Euro-CASE); all are important vehicles professional engineering commu nity to ensure
build on that network and promote a focused
for infl u encing international policy. In the that government policymakers have access to
set of messages based on policy in education,
UNESCO Commission, an the engineering expertise across the sectors.
engineering and international aff airs to target
Academy-nominated member of the Natural Th is has resulted in government departments
audiences across par
Sciences Committee helps to ensure that the enlisting our support and the expertise of our
liamentary institutions, government and its
engineering dimen sion is represented in leading engineers for a range of policy areas
agencies. We brief all UK Parliamentary parties
debate. as climate change and energy, water secu
and their spokespeople on policy interests.
rity and national infrastructure. Furthermore, in
You can view the Academy’s website, including Very few UK politicians have an engi neering
order to see the engineering perspective
links to our recent media coverage at background so the Academy runs a programme
underpinning decision making across
http://www.raeng.org.uk and read our fl agship of meetings to provide information on the key
government, the Academy is working to
publication at http://www.ingenia.com issues. With so much legislation deriving from
improve engineering capacity and
the European Union, this work is now
understanding within the civil service (policy
Public policy extending into EU institutions as well. Finally,
staff ).
because the Academy is independent of
Society benefi ts when engineers are involved
government, it is able to provide impartial, The global economic downturn and some high
in public life and public debate. Almost all
expert advice. Almost all govern ment policy profile failures in the fi nancial services industry
government policy has an engineering
has an engineering dimension, which is crucial are providing an opportunity to highlight the
dimension, which is crucial to the successful
to the successful delivery of its objectives. importance of engineering innovation to
delivery of its objectives. Policy that has been
Policy that has been designed from the outset support a more resilient future economy and
designed from the outset with an
 address the huge challenges we face. aims to raise the profi le of the organization Ingenia, our quarterly magazine, is mailed out
and the role, contribu tion, achievements and free of charge to over 3,000 UK secondary
Another important element of the Academy’s challenges facing engineers. Com munications schools and to 11,000 destinations around the
work in national policy is in infl uencing the try to engage people of all ages and from all world. Th e online version has also become a
education of young people, particularly in walks of life in the debate on engineering and signifi cant engineering resource, with hundreds
encouraging them to study science, technology, its impact on society, the nation and the world. of thou sands of visitors logging on each year. A
engineering and mathematics subjects. Th e A key means of com munications with the public recent publication Engineering Change is a
Academy helped to create a are the media. We set our book of essays highlighting the role of
vocationally-focused yet aca demically robust selves the goal of getting a serious engineering engineering in international development,
qualifi cation for 14–19 year old students particularly in Africa.*
story into the national media every week of the
known as the Diploma and advises government
year. Our success in this endeavour is due to
on a range of aspects of engineering
the Academy’s Fellows who regu larly appear in Public engagement
education. If public relations are about persuading and
the print and broadcast media on a range of
topical issues. inspiring the public with the aim of creating
Fellows and staff work with a wide range of
impact and raising profi le, public engagement
partner org anizations to promote the Now that the scientifi c case for climate change is about helping people debate and refl ect on
Academy’s policy agenda, including the Offi ce has been proven to most people’s satisfaction, the impact of engineering on the world. Th e
of Science and Innovation, the British Council, the media debate in the UK is shifting its focus Academy undertakes public engagement
the UK research councils, the parliamentary towards how to adapt and mitigate the risks. Th through a variety of activities that raise
com mittees for Science and Technology and e media has developed an appetite for ideas awareness and stimulate nationwide or local
the Foreign and Commonwealth Offi ce’s and stories on the new technologies and innova debate about engineering, including media
Science and Innovation network. Th e tive solutions to mitigate climate change, cover age, live events, festivals, exhibitions and
Academy is a founding member of both the providing a fruit drama produc tions. Current issues include
Interna tional Council of Academies of ful opportunity for engineers to showcase their developments in electronic patient databases
Engineering and Techno logical Sciences ( ideas and engage in the debate. for healthcare research, robotics and artifi cial
CAETS), the European Council of Applied
intelligence, and synthetic biology.
Sciences and Technologies and Engineering An important part of the strategy is to make the
(Euro-CASE); all are important vehicles for link between engineering technologies and the
influencing international policy. Euro-CASE is impact they have or may have on society,
already proving its value in drawing the devising ways to convey them that are
European Commission’s attention to such engaging and thought-provoking, and to
issues as the engineering dimension of engage with topical issues. Policy issues such
renewable energy targets. In the UNESCO as privacy and surveillance, autonomous
Commission, an Academy-nominated member vehicles and other systems, synthetic biology
of the Natural Sciences Committee helps and nanotechnology all have powerful
ensure that the engineering dimensions is implications for society and the Academy’s work
* Go to:
represented in debate. in these areas has received considerable
http://www.raeng.org.uk/news/publications/list/reports/
media interest worldwide. Engineering_Change.pdf (Accessed: 5 May 2010).
Media profi le
We also communicate through our publications.
Th e Academy’s communication with the public

64
E N G I N E E R I N G: E M E R G I N G I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S

3.5 Engineering and technology in the third

millennium Tony Ridley
dramatic development of technol ogies such as
How will engineering and technology develop in computing, global communications, biomedical
the next thou sand years? Nearly forty years ago engineering and nanotechnology (to name a few)
Toffl er (1971)33 argued that by changing our have shown us. As an academic coming towards
relationship to the resources that surround us, by retirement at the end of the twentieth century, I
violently expanding the scope of change and most suddenly realized that my career would not end
crucially, by accelerating its pace, humanity has when I reached sixty-fi ve, but until about 2040
broken irretrievably with the past. We have cut when the undergraduates I have been teaching
ourselves off from the old ways of thinking, of would themselves reach retirement. We have
feeling, of adapting. We have set the stage for a learned that teachers, researchers, govern
completely new society and we are now racing ment and business need to look far ahead in order to
towards it. keep up.

What we could see only dimly in the 1970s, we Recognition of the need for change is a main
now both witness and understand better as the driving force. Th e engineering profession will be
infl uenced by wider political, social and economic
 trends over which it currently has little infl uence in reduced to technical analysis, project management
return. Sustainability has had widespread and far must not be reduced to administrative control. Risk
reaching infl uence on the profession. Th e growth manage ment is becoming a central aspect of
of alterna tive sources of fi nance (such as public, developing optimum solutions, not least because
private partnerships, etc.) demands a far more of a growing awareness of fi nan cial risks.
proactive and commercially oriented approach
than we have been used to. Engineering activity
What kind of engineering is going to take us
Political changes also off er an opportunity to forward in the twenty-first century? The Universe
reassess and re-invent the role of engineering in of Engineering (RAEng, 2000)34 takes a
meeting society’s needs. comprehensive view of that question, and it is
necessary to fi rst consider a number of defi nitions
33 Toffl er, A. 1971. Future Shock. Pan Books, London. of related sub jects (Box 1).

Subjects related to engineering Th e title ‘Universe of Engineering’ was used to

Building consensus among all interested parties is describe the range of activities in which
becoming an increasingly important element of engineering is involved. It is much larger than
this role. To enhance our value to society, we also generally supposed. At least half of the companies,
have to maintain an involvement in all stages of other than purely fi nancial companies, quoted
the life cycle of our products and services. Sustain daily in the fi nancial pages of the newspapers
ability, ethics and acceptability are becoming depend on engineering to be competitive, and so
closely interlinked themes within our work. We survive and prosper. Th e so-called ‘new
must therefore take the lead in set ting ethical economy’ was created, and continues to be
standards in our areas of responsibility. created through

Creative and successful engineering can be found 34 Royal Academy of Engineering. 2000. Th e Universe of Engineering –
a UK perspective, London.
in the inter action of design and project
management. While design must not to be
and technology disciplines; coupled to an it relates to something of
understanding of the fi elds of application. practical use that has signifi cant technical
Engineering Design: Th e process applied – content and achieves commercial success. In
know-how – is the creative process that applies the context of society it relates to improvements
Science: the body of, and quest for,
knowledge and experience to seek one or in the quality of life. Innovation may be wholly
fundamental knowl edge and understanding of
more technical solutions to meet a require new, such as the fi rst cellular telephone, or a
all things natural and man made; their structure,
ment, solve a problem, then exercise informed signifi cantly better version of something that
properties, and how they behave. Pure science already exists.
judgement to implement the one that best
is concerned with extending knowledge for its
meets constraints.
own sake. Applied science extends this Th e central role of engineering in society and
knowledge for a specifi c purpose. Science as Technology: an enabling package or tool the economy is neither evident to the public at
large nor to the media in particular. Th e
an activity is not a profession, though strong formed of knowl edge, devices, systems,
popular perception is generally confi ned to
socially responsible codes of conduct and processes and other technologies created for a
manufacturing and major building works. Th e
practices have developed. specific purpose. The word ‘technology’ is used
engineer
colloquially to describe a complete system, a
capability or a specifi c device. ing profession is considered by many, including
Engineering Science: The knowledge required
unfortu nately many young, as a somewhat dull,
– know-what – is the growing body of facts,
Innovation: the successful introduction of uncreative activity wholly associated with the
experience and skills in sci ence, engineering ‘old economy’.
something new. In the context of the economy

65
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
scientists, metallurgists, pro grammers and many
others who practise engineering in one form or
another, to a greater or lesser degree, in the
the process of engineering. Economists have course of their professional activities. It is much
added technology to the traditional three prime larger than generally recognized. For example,
inputs to all economic activity – labour, capital and there are about two million people in the UK who
materials. It is the engineering process that call themselves engineers, about three-quarters of
creates technology, and which makes technology whom have a professional engineering qualifi
useful to people. cation, and only 160,000 are formally ‘registered’.
Th ere are no common or reli able fi gures – or
Engineering community even in some cases measures – to estimate the
numbers of people in the wider engineering
Th ere is a wider engineering community that
community who do not call themselves engineers,
describes the very many people, engineers, but who practise engineering in the course of their
 work. market place. Technological knowledge is
cumulative and grows in path-dependent ways.

In 1995 the UK Institution of Civil Engineers suggested

Ziman (1995)35 has pointed out the distinction
that in the fi eld of infrastructure, engineers were
between tech nology-based science and
responsible for much of the essentials of modern life:
science-based technology where novel
■
Th e muscles and sinews that hold our society technologies have developed from basic,
together (bridges, roads, railways, dams, airports, discovery-based research. Th e electrical
docks, tunnels). industry, nuclear engineering and radar are
■ examples of the latter. Conversely,
Th e provision and maintenance of its hearts and
technology-based science has developed out of
lungs (clean water, natural resources in, waste out).
practical techniques such as mining and
■
Transport for safe and eff ective movement. metallurgy that have their origins in the mists of
■ antiquity.
Energy to make it all work (off shore gas and oil,
nuclear, hydro, tidal and wind power).
In the nineteenth century, a variety of ancient crafts
transformed the technology-based science of
We know that the whole life cycle of an industrial chemistry, whilst in the twentieth century
engineering project must be addressed if we are the practical technical knowledge of the
to make wise decisions to proceed with planning, metallurgist has been incorporated in a new
fi nance, design, procurement, construction, science of mate
commissioning, operations and maintenance, and rials. Th e same process is to be observed in
decommis sioning. In the past there has been a almost all fi elds of practical human activity as we
tendency to concentrate on the design stage. seek to explore and understand. Agriculture, civil
engineering, food processing, architecture and
To create successful projects, we need engineers many other fi elds have developed their respective
who can command the totality of the physical sciences to guide further technical progress. In
attributes of a project: operation, communication these cases, engineering is not a sub-set of
and human resources, fi nance and funding, science but has actually created new opportuni ties
organizational and institutional questions, and envi for scientifi c research.
ronmental impacts. Th is may be summed up as a
pentagon of hardware, software, ‘fi nware’, Morita (1992)36 has said that technology comes
‘orgware’ and ‘ecoware’. Not only is each element from employing and manipulating science into
of the pentagon important in its own right in the concepts, processes and devices. Th e true
creation of an engineering project, it is also the missionaries who can really capture technology
inter and use it to chart the future course of industry are
relationship between them that raises the greatest what he called ‘ tech
problems. Nearly all engineering problems, in the nologists’, individuals who have a wide
design, development and operation of any system, understanding of science and engineering, as well
arise at interfaces. At a larger dimension it is at as a broad vision and true commitment to the
the interfaces between the fi ve elements of the needs of society. It is technology that drives
pentagon that the greatest diffi culties arise. industry and it is the engineer who guides
Technology is the subject of technique, but it is technology.
also about products and processes. Civil
engineering, for example, relies on science but Krugman (1994)37 suggests that it often takes a
specifi cally on technology-based science. In the
very long time before a new technology begins to
late twentieth century and early twenty-fi rst
make a major impact on pro ductivity and living
century, biology and chemistry have been
standards. Th e reason for these long lags is that
increasingly important to the future of civil
technology often does not have its full impact when
engineering, as are maths and physics. Th is refl
it is
ects the broader, larger view of the profession that
is appropriate for the future. Th e family of civil
35 Ziman, J. 1995. An introduction to science studies – the philosophical
engineers now includes disci plines not traditionally and social aspects of science and technology, Cambridge University
thought to be part of the profession. Press.

36 Morita, A. 1992. First UK Innovation Lecture, Royal Society, London.

Engineering process
37 Krugman, P. 1994. Peddling prosperity – economic sense and
Technological change is a complex process that nonsense in the age of diminished expectations, Norton, New York
must be man aged all the way from concept to the and London.

66
E N G I N E E R I N G: E M E R G I N G I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S
 (actual or potential)? What are the potential
applications? and, What is
the mechanism (business process) for advancing
used in isolation. It is only when it becomes research into practice? The process is iterative.
broadly applied and interacts with other The industrialist/business man defi nes the
technologies that its true potential can be problem, the technological challenge sets the
exploited. In these circumstances, engineering research agenda, but the research equally defi nes
education must recognize the importance of the techno logical possibilities.
synthesis and design as well as more
conventional analysis. But it must also recognize If we are to advance research into practice it is not
the importance of the iterative approach enough for governments, industry or research
(feedback) whether in design, in sus tainability or in councils simply to sit in judgement on research
innovation. proposals. Th ey must actively seek out good
researchers and, through mutual discussion,
Researchers in technology would be well advised develop pro
to address customer and societal needs and grammes that address societal needs. Engineers
market requirements and not just research for provide services to meet the needs of society and
research or technology’s sake. However, indus try it is creativity that is our essen tial contribution. Th
would be better served if it sought out good and e Latin ingenerare means ‘to create’.
relevant research more positively, and if it
developed more industry/aca demic partnerships. The engineering community in the third millennium
Th ereafter industry and academia together should needs to create a new vision, goal and strategy for
treat the task of taking research into practice as a itself. Th ough it is impossible to predict what the
busi ness process to which the disciplines of good world will be like even in 2020, that vision should
project manage ment can and should be applied. include a genuine improvement in the qual
ity of life for all as well as long-term environmental,
Th us, a way ahead for both researchers and social and economic sustainability. Th e goal of
industrialists might be to ask in each case: What is engineering would then be to contribute towards
the societal problem? What is the technological achieving that vision, with its strategy focusing on
challenge? What is the business driver? How to the development of whatever structures, skills and
defi ne the research project? What are the fi ndings technologies are needed.
 67

4 An Overview of Engineering
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

Th e engineering profession and its organization is

then dis cussed, with reference to the history and
Th is is one of the main chapters of the Report and development of engineering, national, regional
presents an overview of engineering around the and international cooperation. Reference is also
world. Th e chapter begins with a review of made to leading engineering organizations,
statistics and indicators on engineering, with including the World Federation of Engineering
reference to the need for and availibility of Organizations ( WFEO), the International Council
information on engineering, how engineering and of Academies of Engineering and Technological
engineers are defi ned, OECD and UNESCO Sciences ( CAETS), the International Federa
statistics relating to engineering, engineering tion of Consulting Engineers ( FIDIC), the
education and employment. As noted here and European Federation of National Engineering
elsewhere in the Report, there is a particular need Associations (FEANI), the Federation of
for better indicators on engineering at the Engineering Institutions of Asia and the Pacifi c
international level. Th e chapter continues with (FEIAP), the Association for Engineering
reviews of the major fi elds of civil, mechanical, Education in Southeast and East Asia and the
electri cal and electronic, chemical, environmental, Pacifi c (AEESEAP), the Asian and Pacifi c Centre
agricultural and medical engineering to give a fl for Transfer of Technology (APCTT) and the
avour of the diverse range of fi elds in industry, African Network of Scientifi c and Technological
manufacturing, government, research and Institutions (ANSTI). Organi zations focused on
development, and consulting in which engineers engineering and technology also make an
work. Con sulting engineering, for example, is a important contribution to international
major industry with an annual revenue of around development, and include Practical Action,
US$490 billion, and helps generate half the Engineers Without Borders, Engineers Against
world’s GDP.
 Poverty and Engineers for a Sustainable World. systems, with reference to New Zealand and
South Africa. Th is is followed by a section on
Compared to science, engineering has lacked a engineering eth
refl ective dis ciplinary focus on social and policy ics and anti-corruption, which includes
issues. It is good therefore that an international contributions on engi neers against corruption, and
network on engineering studies has recently been business integrity management systems in
developed, which is presented in the following consulting engineering. Th e chapter concludes
section together with a discussion on engineering, with a section on women and gender issues in
science and technology policy and the engineering, includ ing a case study from Australia.
transformation of national science and engineering

4.1 Engineering indicators – measurement and

metrics Gunnar Westholm
theoretical defi nitions
Section 4.1 summarizes the methods developed and practical applications, and make reference to
human S&T resources in general and, where
and employed (and the problems encountered) by
applicable, to engineer ing and engineers in
the principal international agencies for the
particular. Th e role of the principal international
collection, analysis and distribution of interna
organizations involved in the development of
tionally comparable data on ‘science and
international classifi cations and data collection
technology’ person nel in general and, where
(UNESCO, OECD , Eurostat, ILO, etc.) will be
applicable, on engineers in particular. It outlines
discussed. Th e experience of a small number of
some historical issues, the challenges faced in
national science and technology policy agencies
using these methods, and the role of the principle
(notably the United States National Science Foun
international agencies involved (UNESCO, OECD
, Eurostat, ILO etc.). dation) with recognized practice in the fi eld is
mentioned to show procedures that may perhaps
inspire other countries or institutions.
Specifi c attention is given to the OECD Frascati
Manual for the measurement of research and
development resources, the OECD / Eurostat Some local or regional data are presented in other
Canberra Manual for the measurement of stocks sections of this Report, so this section attempts to
and fl ows of human resources devoted to science present reasonably comparable statistics currently
and technology, and to the recent OECD available at the international level (the bulk of
/UNESCO/ Eurostat project on the careers of which comes from the databases of the above
doctorate holders. Th e international education international agencies, and principally concerning
and employment classifications (ISCED, ISCO) engineering education). Data are more-or-less
are reviewed. A number of statistical tables on complete for most industrial ized economies
engineering education and employment (typically full members of the OECD or Euro
(enrolments, graduates, gender) are also pean Union) but are weaker elsewhere (note that
presented and briefl y discussed. data collection eff orts are taking place at the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics and the data
Th is section will explore some historical issues of coverage is rapidly improving, albeit from a low
science and technology (S&T) indicators, their base).

70
AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING
family of engineers is sometimes fi rst environmental issues, and so on).
associated with ‘big science’ (high
technology, aerospace, nuclear, defence Th e lack of qualifi ed engineers and
4.1.1 Th e need for etc.), their presence is more strongly technicians is currently reported to be one
experienced in everyday life by creating, of the principal obstacles to economic
science and technology operating, maintain ing and improving publicgrowth encountered by innovative fi rms in
data and and private infrastructure (in areas such as many industrial ized and industrializing
industry, energy, transportation, countries. Th e importance of engi neering
indicators communications, agri and engineers and the signifi cance of their
culture, health and utilities) and perhaps role can therefore be appreciated, and is
Capacity and competence are central to
also in creating new understanding vital for highlighted throughout this Report.
proficient science and technology policies
all aspects of sustainable development for However quantitative and qualitative data
where engineering and engineers are of
the future of society (such as renewable are not always available, known to
crucial signifi cance. Even if the broad
energy technologies, climate change and policy-makers or kept up to date.
 countries. Th is, in turn, is due to the fact objective and meet specifi ed criteria...
Data on scientists and engineers, however that there about as many types of ... One who practices engineering is called an
defi ned, have since the early days of organization for the education and training engineer and those licensed to do so may have
statistics been widely assembled within the of engineers as there are countries (and more formal designations such as Profes sional
customary statistical framework of countries certainly more than for the training of Engineer, Chartered Engineer or Incorporated
such as, for instance, in population, labour scientists). Engineer...
force and education surveys or national
... Th e broad discipline of engineering
censuses. Interest in such data for policy encompasses a range of more specialised
reasons (such as in science and sub-disciplines, each with a more specifi c emphasis
technology policy) was recognized much on certain fi elds of application and particular areas
later, as was the inadequacy of existing of technology...’
data to meet the new demands in many
cases. A number of initiatives have
therefore been taken, at both national and © EWB-UK
interna tional levels, to gather data to meet Furthermore, there are no clear-cut defi
these new demands. Policy-makers nitions, in particu lar defi nitions that might 4.1.3 Frascati Manual Th e
wanted to address, among other things, wor allow international comparisons of what is OECD on the
ries about the increasing age of the science covered by the concept of ‘engineering’, or
and technology workforce, the expected who in the workforce is really an engineer.
measurement of
general or specifi c levels of sup ply and An engineer may be someone who has research and
demand for highly-qualifi ed personnel (and graduated, at one level or another, from
hence capacity to adapt and innovate etc.), engineer ing education (an education and
development
gender considerations, brain-drain and training approach), or they may be resources
brain gain (to inform immigration policy, registered or working as an engineer (a
and so on), and the levels of interest in membership or an occupation approach).
Th e basic defi nitions
science and technol Th e same defi nition problem also aff ects
ogy studies among young people. technicians. And the analysis of the Th e fi rst proposals for guidelines for
situation is certainly not helped by the fact systematic measurement of national
that the fi eld of engineering, technology science and technology (S&T) expenditures
4.1.2 Th e statistical and engineers, from the earliest days of and workforces were those of the OECD in
dilemma: What is statistics and indicators, has been merged the early 1960s, resulting in the Frascati
with the fi eld of science (it is common to fi Manual. Named after meetings held in
engineering? nd data of ‘science and technology’ or Frascati, Italy, the manual is currently in its
Who is an engineer? ‘scien tists and engineers’ as statistical sixth edition issued in 2002.
measures).
Engineering is a multi-dimensional
socio-economic activity and there are a
multitude of educational and/or functional
One of the many defi nitions of engineering and of
proposals to identify the engineers’ profi le, engineers is that suggested by open collaborative
with diff erent approaches to meet national online encyclopaedia ‘Wikipedia’, in an article which
and international needs for has had many individual contributions and edits:
comparable data and indicators. Th ere are
‘Engineering is the discipline and profession of
hence signifi cant diff erences in the
applying scientifi c knowledge and utilizing natural
availability of information from one country
laws and physical resources in order to design and
to the next, and particularly between already implement materials, structures, machines, devices, Good information is
industrialized countries and industrializing systems and processes that realize a desired important to promote women in engineering.
 71
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

Th e collection of international R&D data was a

totally new exercise that called for new concepts,
Even though the very first guidelines in 1962 defi nitions and explora tory guidelines. Th e
discussed appraising the total annual resources Frascati Manual defi nes R&D as:
for S&T in a country, they were soon reduced to
the measurement of research and development ‘Research and experimental development (R&D)
(R&D) expenditures and personnel only. R&D comprise creative work undertaken on a
represents only a very small part of the total systematic basis in order to increase the stock
science and tech nology activities within a country of knowledge, including knowledge of man,
(discussed in more detail with UNESCO, below) culture and society, and the use of this stock of
and the boundaries between R&D and other knowledge to devise new applications.’
related activities were hard to defi ne. Th ese
boundary issues have, ever since, been more Paragraph 63 of the 2002 Frascati Manual
thoroughly discussed in all successive editions of
the Frascati Manual and concern both fi nancial Th e manual defi nes the basic statistical coverage
and human resources in R&D. of R&D per sonnel as:
 Analysis of the information was not yet a main
‘… All persons employed directly on R&D concern.
should be counted, as well as those providing
direct services such as R&D man agers, Gradually, however, the OECD became the prime
administrators and clerical staff .’ customer of its own R&D statistics, used for a
rising number of policy studies. Th is analytical
Paragraph 294 of the 2002 Frascati Manual drive helped to identify weaknesses in the
proposed theoretical guidelines that were then
Th e above defi nition of R&D is very theoretical, amended in subsequent editions of the Frascati
and covers ‘basic research’ or ‘fundamental Manual. Th e same work was also the opening of
research’, ‘applied research’ and ‘experimental the fi rst OECD R&D/S&T indicators series, largely
development’. However, this definition has never inspired by the experience of the National Sci ence
been abandoned, despite numerous debates. Note Foundation (NSF) in the United States.
that the OECD collected data only for natural
sciences and engineering using the Frascati Th e principal
Manual until, in 1983, the short phrase international standard
‘…knowledge of man, culture and society’ was classifi cations
added with a view to embracing R&D in the social
All the Frascati Manual recommendations were,
sciences and humanities (in line with UNESCO
from the out set, soundly backed up by references
practice).
to internationally-adopted standard classifi
cations, including the United Nations Systems of
Problems of measuring
National Accounts (SNA), the International
human resources
Standard Clas sifi cation of Education (ISCED), the
A specifi c dilemma emerged regarding the International Standard Classifi cation of
measurement of R&D personnel. R&D is not a Occupations (ISCO) and the International
full-time activity in many cases, such as in some Standard Classifi cation of All Industrial Activities
enterprises or in tertiary education institu tions (ISIC). Th ese classifi cations have over time been
(universities), for example, where it may be more a revised on several occa sions (further revisions still
part time activity. Th erefore, to include every underway) and, as a consequence, the OECD
person engaged in R&D in some way in the guidelines also had to follow. Th is notably aff
‘head-count’ would grossly infl ate the human ected the R&D human resource series, referenced
resource input. Since interest focused at the time in terms of educa tion or occupation classifi
on the overall real R&D resource, it was cations, or both.
recommended from the start that the head-count
data be converted (i.e. reduced) into full-time
Over the years, the Frascati Manual had to
equivalents (FTE) or ‘person-years’, for a long time
respond to new political priorities or the latest S&T
this was the only recommended approach.
policy interests, from the fi rst post-war ‘big
Interest in head-counts reappeared only much
science’ objectives (aerospace, nuclear, defence
later, with the intensifi cation of indicator work
etc) to more society-directed goals (social policies,
correlating diverse data sets expressed in
environment, health, energy, information and
numbers of persons (such as engineers as a share
communication technologies, biotechnologies, and
of total population, women scientists as a
so on).
proportion of total scientists, etc.). Th erefore,
equal signifi cance is now given to both full-time
equivalents and to head-counts in the latest Th e Frascati Manual recommends an institutional
version of the Frascati Manual (2002). breakdown of the national economy into four broad
sectors of R&D expen ditures and employment
From research and (personnel): Business Enterprise; Government;
development statistics to Higher Education; and Private Non-Profi t. With
science and technology the exception of the government sector, additional
indicators and more detailed sub-sectors are suggested. For
the Business Enterprise sector, this is by detailed
At the time, the R&D statistics service at the OECD industrial branches defi ned in terms of ISIC. For
acted more-or-less like any national central Higher Education and Private Non-Profi t sectors,
statistical bureau: col lecting data (via surveys this is
addressed to the national authorities) and
processing and publishing the resulting statistics.

72
AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING
drawing on ISCED, namely ‘natural sciences’,
‘medical sciences’, ‘agricultural sciences’, plus the
‘social sciences’ and ‘humanities’ and – of specifi c
by six broad fi elds of science and technology inter est to this Report – ‘engineering and
technology’ (see Box). elds, e.g. systems analysis, metallurgy, min
ing, textile technology and other allied subjects).
It goes without saying that no international application of concepts and operational
engineering data of the very detailed kind above methods, nor mally under the supervision of
have ever been published; the only (and usually researchers. Equivalent staff perform the
still rather scarce) information available is for R&D corresponding R&D tasks under the supervi sion
expenditures and personnel in the higher of researchers in the social sciences and
education and private non-profi t sectors. humanities.’
However, some new fi elds-of science aspects are
discussed later (referring to a few of the statistical
■
Other supporting staff: ‘…includes skilled and
tables of human resources, mainly education statis unskilled craftsmen, secretarial and clerical staff
tics, compiled for this Report). participating in R&D projects or directly
associated with such projects.’
Th e specifi c classifi
Th e ‘researchers’ category is frequently also
cations of research and
referred to as ‘sci entists and engineers’ (RSEs)
development science and
and is of most specifi c relevance to this Report.
technology personnel
For the analysis of the R&D personnel series (and
In classifi cation by level of formal qualifi cation
for other S&T personnel series as well), two
approach, six broad categories are suggested
parallel approaches are recom mended in the
(ISCED 1997) and defi ned in terms of the level of
Frascati Manual. Th e fi rst is by occupation and
study (as a rule linked to the duration of study)
the second is by level of formal qualifi cation. Th
regardless of the specifi c fi eld of science and
ese are defi ned in terms of the 1990 International
technology in which the highest degrees have
Standard Classifi cation of Occupation (ISCO) by
been attained:
the International Labour Offi ce (ILO) and the 1997
International Standard Classifi cation of Educa ■
ISCED level 6: holders of university degrees at
tion (ISCED) by UNESCO. PhD level (with a highest sub-class second
stage of tertiary education, leading to an
In the classification by occupation approach, three advanced research qualifi cation)
broad classes of R&D personnel have been defi
ned:
■
ISCED level 5A: holders of basic university
degrees below the PhD level
■
Researchers: ‘…professionals engaged in the
conception or creation of new knowledge,
■
ISCED level 5B: holders of other tertiary diplomas
products, processes, methods and systems and
also in the management of the projects
■
ISCED level 4: holders of other post-secondary
concerned.’ non-tertiary diplomas

■
Technicians and equivalent staff : ‘…persons
■
ISCED level 3: holders of diplomas of
whose main tasks require technical knowledge
secondary education ■ Other qualifi cations
and experience in one or more fi elds of
engineering, physical and life sciences or social
Compared to the previous version of ISCED,
sciences and humanities. Th ey participate in
dating back to 1976, the current 1997 ISCED
R&D by performing scientifi c and technical
constitutes another break in the series of
tasks involving the
education statistics, specifi cally in the distribution
of levels of formal qualifi cation. Th e new
Engineering and Technology sub-class of the highest tertiary level, ‘leading to
(ISCED 1976 Classifi cation) an advanced research qualifi cation’ (to be
understood as preparing for PhD degrees), is an
1. Civil engineering (architecture engineering, building impor tant novelty in the education statistics on
science and engineering, construction enrolments for the recently (2004) initiated OECD
engineering, municipal and structural engineering /UNESCO/ Eurostat study of labour market
and other allied subjects). characteristics, careers and international mobil ity
2. Electrical engineering, electronics ( electrical of doctorate holders.
engineering, elec tronics, communication engineering
and systems, computer engineering (hardware only) ISCED is fi rst and foremost a catalogue of
and other allied subjects). education by levels of study, but it also provides a
3. Other engineering sciences (such as chemical, record of very detailed fi elds of study that
aeronautical and space, mechanical, metallurgical frequently serves as a proxy list of fi elds of
and materials engineer ing, and their specialised science and technology for purposes of classifi
subdivisions: forest products; applied sciences cation other than just education (such as the
such as geodesy, industrial chemistry, etc.; the classifi cation of institutions, scientifi c
science and technology of food production; programmes, reports and articles, and so on).
specialised technologies of interdisciplinary fi
 particularly true for the duration of the various
From the international point of view, the education intermediate qualifi cation levels (with or without
and training of engineers and technologists, practical train
however defi ned, is very country specifi c. Th is is

73
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
there were setbacks however due to issues
Th e principal theoretical contribution of such as confusion between occupa
UNESCO to the system atic measurement tional and educational criteria in the
of total S&T expenditures and personnel in UNESCO guidelines. Also, and with the eff
the global economy date back to 1978 and ect of making comparisons yet more diffi
its ambitious Recom mendation Concerning cult, UNESCO personnel data were often
the International Standardization for Sta reported by head-count (whereas the
tistics on Science and Technology and OECD used full-time equivalents) and
related practical guidelines. measured staff in a broad range of S&T
activities (whereas OECD data was
The Recommendation suggested a focused only on staff in R&D activities).
complete and detailed inventory of the
‘scientifi c and technological activities’ (STA) In other words, the UNESCO fi gures from
to be measured: UNESCO Member States (both expenditure
and personnel) were much higher when
Th e Frascati Manual ■
Research and Experimental Development compared to the corresponding OECD data
provides guidelines on the measurement of (R&D), similar to the OECD Frascati for OECD Member States. In the days of
research and development. Manual defi nitions. the Cold War, this manifested in an
ing or apprenticeships associated with apparent dominance of socialist/communist
academic study). In some countries, the
■
Science and Technology Education and countries in S&T resources (resources that
level of some polytechnic institutions has Training (STET) at broadly the third level. were to a high degree associ ated with the
upgraded over time to university status (this military) and raised concern in the West
is also true, for instance, for the training of Scientifi c and Technological Services
■
(where the critical competence in data
(STS).
nurses and other medical personnel). analysis had perhaps not yet reached its
Th e coverage of the STS group was best!).
complete for the mid 1970s but is today
Statistical work at UNESCO was hampered
4.1.4 statistics and outdated and is, accordingly, in serious
need of revision. It does not, for instance, by drastic budget cuts after the withdrawal
UNESCO indicators in take into account recent fi elds such as of a number of the Organization’s member
Science space sciences, information and communicacountries (among which its principal
tions services, innovation, biotechnologies economic con tributor, the USA) in the
& Technology, Research or nanotechnolo gies) and is, accordingly, in middle of the 1980s. It was only in 1999,
& Development serious need of revision. with the creation of the new independent
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS)
Roughly at the same time as the OECD , installed in Montreal, Canada (and replacing
UNESCO also initiated its fi rst international Comparisons of OECD and UNESCO data the former Division of Statistics), that
surveys in science and technology. Th ey were not easy, espe cially for S&T and R&D UNESCO’s statistical activi
were intended to cover all S&T activities in a expenditures. At the time, OECD was
country but in practice, like those of the measuring in US dollars for its international ties on education and literacy, S&T, and
OECD , became mainly focused on assessments of expenditure – a moderately culture and communi cation recovered. Th is
required intensifi ed in-house work and
measurement of R&D only. Th e provisional uncomplicated approach given cooperation on data collection, diff usion and
UNESCO guidelines for the surveys had to the relative homogeneity of its Member methodological developments with the other
take into account the very diverse political States. Th is was how ever not the case for international agencies, and more of its own
and economic structures of the UNESCO which was reduced to publish ing
Organization’s Member States, which its expenditure data in national currencies or out-sourced analytical eff orts.
grouped ‘capitalist countries’ (many already and that did not facilitate international
members of the OECD ), analysis. Th ese currency conversion
‘socialist/communist countries’ and problems have been gradually overcome 4.1.5 / Eurostat Canberra
‘developing countries’. UNESCO had to following the launch of Purchasing Power
develop a particular institutional sector Parities (PPPs), now systematically used Th e OECD Manual on the
breakdown for the common reporting of S&T for most international comparisons of fi measurement of stocks
nancial data.
and R&D resources that – though both and fl ows of S&T
were based on the UN SNA classi fi cations
– was very dissimilar from those of the Given the technical problems with
OECD (indeed, only the Higher Education expenditure, one would have expected that
sector breakdowns were identical). personnel data would be easier to handle
for international comparisons. Even here,
 In the late 1980s, serious concern was
expressed in a number of Western
economies (notably the United States) that
crucial mismatches might soon occur on
the labour market between the supply and
the demand for engineers, scientists and
tech nicians. Of particular concern were the
imminent massive departures of people
who had begun their S&T careers during

personnel
74
AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING
signs of decreasing interest in S&T careers among
young people. At the same time, however, there
were concerns that other changes such as
the Second World War or during the fi rst post-wareconomic restructuring and the downsizing of
big-science period who were about to retire. Otherdefence industries in some countries might in fact
factors reinforced these concerns such as lead to a surplus of highly-skilled engineers and
demographic trends, the technicians.
increasingly
technology-intensive nature of national economies
(for exam None of these problems really came about. Th e
ple the growth in new information and enrolments in S&T studies continued to grow in
communication tech nologies) and some disturbing absolute terms (though were decreasing in relative
terms) compared to other study opportunities. Technology’ (HRST) was coined. Once again, all
‘Untapped’ labour resources, such as women and guidelines proposed were strictly in line with inter
minorities, who in the past had acquired S&T national standards to account for as many aspects
competence but may never have taken up jobs in as possible of supply ( education, in terms of
the sector (the ‘leaky pipe-line’), integrated into the qualifi cations) and demand (occupation, in terms
S&T workforce. Th e so-called ‘brain-gain’ of jobs or posts) of highly skilled person
continued in several industrialized countries, either nel, allowing for possible cross-classifi cations
by way of immigration of trained specialists or between the two. It was not possible to give
through larger numbers of international students priority to any of the two criteria; both features had
who then stayed in their host country after to be exploited for the HRST exercise (cross
graduation. classifi cations according to ISCED-1976 and
ISCO-1988).
Many of the concerns were without doubt based
more on anecdotal evidence than on solid data.
Th e broad and general defi nition of the HRST
No international agency was, at the time, able to
reads as fol lows:
provide policy-makers with rel evant information
and statistics. Th is drove the OECD , in close
‘HRST are people who fulfi l one or other of the
cooperation with Eurostat, to develop in 1989
following con ditions: successfully completed
another set of guidelines and indicators to assess
education at the third level in an S&T fi eld of
the total national stocks and fl ows of highly qualifi
study; or not formally qualifi ed as above, but
ed persons. Th e new guidelines were similar to its
employed in an S&T occupation where the
other manuals on measuring S&T activities but
above qualifi ca
went well beyond the coverage of the Frascati
Manual for R&D only. In the specifi cations for the tions are normally required.’
new indicators, it was clearly asserted that no new
Paragraph 49 of the 1995 Canberra Manual
data surveys should be initiated. Instead, work
would only draw on the deployment and scrutiny of
already existing data sets (such as education and Th is description of course is still rather vague and
labour force statistics), though it was recognized therefore is accompanied by a number of
from the start that these data had never been supplementary criteria. ‘Stocks’ provide a
intended to serve as a basis for specifi c S&T snapshot of the HRST situation at a specifi c
analysis. Th e same approach has been suggested moment in time whereas ‘fl ows’ refer to
for some of the other subsequent OECD manuals movements in or out of the stock over a given time
on measuring science and technology activities period (generally a year).
(see Box).
After several years of intense work and For these variables the Canberra Manual
discussions, a new manual was approved at an suggests the follow ing defi nitions:
experts’ meeting in Australia in 1994. In
recognition of the support of the national ■
HRST stock: ‘...the number of people at a
authorities, it came to be known as the Canberra particular point in time who fulfi l the conditions
Manual. of the defi nition of HRST’ (paragraph 107 of the
1995 Canberra Manual). For example, the
For the purposes of the Canberra Manual, a new number of PhDs in physics employed in a
term ‘Human Resources in Science and country and sector on a fi xed date.

Th e ‘Frascati Family’ of guidelines for the measurement of science and technology activities
Technology Indicators (revision underway ■
■ 2005: Guidelines for Collecting and
1990: Proposed Standard Method of 2008) – the Patent Manual ( OECD)
■ Interpreting Innovation Data – the Oslo
Compiling and Interpreting Technology 1995: Proposed Standard Method of
Manual, third edition ( OECD/ Eurostat 2005)
Balance of Payments Data – the TBP Compiling and Interpreting Technology ■
Manual ( OECD, 1990) 2005: Using Patent Data as Science and
Balance of Payments Data – the TBP
Manual ( OECD, 1990) Technology Indicators – Patent Manual (
■
1993: Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys OECD, 1994) (revision underway 2008)
■
of Research and Experimental Development The Measurement of Human Resources
■
– the Frascati Manual, fi fth edition ( OECD, Measuring Globalisation – OECD Handbook
devoted to Science and Technology – the
1993) Canberra Manual ( OECD/ Eurostat 1995) on Economic Globalisation Indicators ( OECD,
2005)
■
1994: Using Patent Data as Science and

75
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
during the period (infl ow) as well as the
number of people who ful fi l one or other of Th ere is also a commented record of
the conditions of the defi nition of HRST at potential international and national data
the beginning of a time period and cease to sources for the inventory of HRST stocks
fulfi l them during the period (outfl ow)’ and flows, principally the OECD , Eurostat
(paragraph 109 of the 1995 Canberra and UNESCO education and R&D
Manual). For example, the number of statistics, the labour force statistics of the
electronics engineers graduating from a United Nations International Labour Offi ce
country’s universities in a given year would (ILO) and national population censuses. All
be an infl ow. the basic data have been provided to these
international bodies by national bureaus
■
Internal fl ows: ‘...people who are part of of statistics whose databases are by and
the HRST stock, some of whose large more exhaus tive than the
characteristics change during the time consolidated data published (the
period considered without, however, losing international data issued being for the
the essential characteristics for inclusion in lowest common denominator). Some
HRST’ (paragraph 112 of the 1995 smaller industrialized countries (such as
Canberra Manual). For example, the Scandinavian countries) also keep detailed
number of people who change their sector national registers of their HRST workforce,
of employment or achieve a qualifi cation at as do a number of professional bodies
a higher ISCED level. (here, inter
national and national engineering
In its very broadest sense, nearly everybody associations are particularly present).
who has a relevant academic qualifi cation Population censuses are undertaken only at
or is employed in some relevant activity inter vals of several years (sometimes fi ve
may be considered HRST. It is however to ten years) but their coverage usually
clear that some qualifi - cations or some surpasses that of more frequent (annual or
occupations are of more specifi c science even quarterly) household or
and technology policy interest than others. employment/labour force sur veys. Th ese
Th e HRST are therefore split into two are usually based on sampling only,
major categories: university level HRST and meaning that much of the detailed HRST
tech information requested vanishes (such as
nician level HRST (who, furthermore, may the gender dimension of the fi gures).
have graduated in a number of diff erent fi
elds of study, not all of which are of equal As has been already suggested, the
interest for our analysis of the S&T labour Canberra Manual is theoretically rigorous
force). but diffi cult to use in practice for
harmonized comparisons, despite several
Th e diff erent diplomas are then broken signifi cant meth odological and analytical
down into categories, the highest being the attempts (notably by Eurostat). Th e
‘core coverage’ for the top tertiary-level problems are essentially due to the
qualifi cations in the natural sciences, inadequacy of the recommended data
engineering and tech nology, medical sources. ISCED was revised in 1997 with a
sciences, the agricultural sciences and the number of breaks in coverage of levels and
social sciences. The other categories disciplines (as mentioned earlier) but no
(‘extended coverage’ and ‘complete revision of the Canberra Manual has
coverage‘) refer to other fi elds of study, followed as yet. Th e Canberra Manual
such as the humanities, or to lower-level HRST concept and defi nitions are,
Engineering is fun!
training that may be of less relevance. however, now globally recognized and
serve as key references for most analytical
Th e Canberra Manual also reviews, studies of the sci ence and technology
similarly with the Frascati Manual, a workforce.
number of technical issues, such as: units of
clas sifi cation (the reporting vs. the
statistical unit); head-count vs. full-time
equivalence; demographics of the HRST
labour force (age distribution, gender,
national origin, ethnicity); and combined
© UKRC quantitative and qualitative matters including
■
HRST fl ows: ‘...the number of people who
unemployment, training and retraining,
do not fulfi l any of the conditions for
salaries, retirement ages, public attitudes to
inclusion in the HRST at the beginning of a
science and technology, and so on.
time period but gain at least one of them
 eld of doctoral degree, graduation age,
study of careers of duration of doctoral degree in months,
doctorate holders primary sources of doctorate funding);

Th e most recent – and certainly most

promising – international HRST project
underway is on mapping the careers of
doctor ate holders (CDH) and their mobility,
once again involving the OECD , the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics and
Eurostat. Th is project has called for
additional guidelines, which to a large
extent are drawing more from national
practice than from the Frascati or the
Canberra manuals.

Th e purpose of the CDH exercise is to

collect quantitative and qualitative
information on a large number of variables
for this important category of S&T
personnel, not only absolute or rel ative
numbers (in relation to population, labour
force or other denominators) but also, for
instance, information on their:

■
demographic characteristics (gender, age
etc);

■
educational characteristics (level of
education, year of doc toral degree, age, fi
4.1.6 Th e international
76
AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING
by a second survey launched later the same
year and responses were received by
Th e country coverage of the 2005 CDH
mid-2008 by the OECD from no less than
survey was obviously neither exhaustive
■
labour market status and characteristics twenty-fi ve countries, of which several were
nor representative for the global economy
(inactivity and unemployment rates, Eastern European states as new members
and, furthermore, not particularly
full-time vs. part-time, type of employ ment of the European Union.
engineering-oriented (nor was the second
contract), salaries (median annual salaries
survey). Th e experience of the fi rst
for persons working as researchers, by Th is wide and rapid survey participation exercise however, seems to be confi rmed
gender, sector of employment, and fi eld of clearly emphasizes the very strong by the results of the second survey and
employment); international and national policy interest in responds to most of the concerns of the
the new CDH approach of assessing human S&T com munity and policy-makers today.
■
national origins, mobility (international, resources for S&T and, furthermore, that it
national, job-to-job mobility, mobility is closely linked to public and private
Once further enlarged and refi ned, these
intentions); innovation concerns, especially in the
CDH surveys may shed light upon issues
services sector where R&D investments
related to the stocks and fl ows of highly
now grow faster than in manufacturing.
■
employment satisfaction; and qualifi ed and skilled personnel at the global
scale and, hope fully, in the medium and
A wealth of statistics on doctorate holders longer terms, the results may be of signifi
■
outputs (articles, books, patents,
and their work ing conditions was cance to specifi c branches of interest as
commercialized products or processes
assembled in the two surveys, though they well, such as the engineering profession.
etc.).
have not yet been systematically published. To this end, however, additional resources
For further analytical purposes, a subset of and supplementary methodological
A fi rst pilot CDH survey embracing just these data – common to all participating developments are necessary. Th is is particu
seven volunteering countries (Argentina, countries – was isolated for a target larly important for the detailed subgroups of
Australia, Canada, Germany, Portugal, population of persons, under the age of the international standard classifi cations
Switzerland and the United States) was seventy, having earned their diplo (ISCED, ISCO and ISIC) where it is still diffi
initiated in 2005, and the fi rst preliminary mas during the time period 1990 to 2006. cult to separate out, from S&T more
results were issued in 2007. It was followed generally, engineering as a fi eld of study, or
engineers (and technicians) as a profes awarded in the OECD area as a whole, ably. Within the extended European Union,
sion. Lobbying will undoubtedly be required around 200,000 were registered in 2006, an the natural sci ences represent, with only
to induce these statistical agencies to meet increase of more than 40 per cent. Th ere one or two exceptions only, at least 20 per
customers’ needs for more specifi c data – are not yet any estimates for the worldwide cent of doctorate holders with some seven
but by whom? stock of doctorate holders in general or countries in the 30–40 per cent interval.
engineering doctorates holders in particular
Pending a more comprehensive but the CDH studies suggest that, for According to the same series, in about half
presentation by OECD / UIS/ Eurostat of the instance, by 2006 some 340,000 the European countries, for which data are
results of the fi rst two CDH surveys, a few (1990–2006) doctoral graduates (all reported, engineering doctorates account
items of interest are commented below. disciplines) were found in the United States for about 20 per cent of total doctorates but
Note that these data are for overall S&T and nearly 275,000 in Germany. once again there are large variations
doctorate holders with only some limited between countries in compari son with other
linkage to engineering or engineers (and Th e number of doctorate holders were also disciplines. Th e relative importance of engi
many fi gures are still to be considered as analysed per 1,000 of the national labour neering is notable in the East European
broad orders of magnitude). force. In 2002 (fi rst CDH survey) the countries (see below)
following ratios were obtained showing quite
One of the principal indicators is the number large variations between countries:
of doctorate holders in the population, Switzerland (27.5), Germany (20.1), United
reported in absolute terms. As a result of States (10.7), Canada (8.2), Australia (7.8),
massive expansion of higher education both Portugal (2.6), and Argentina (0.5).
inside and outside the OECD area (for
instance in China, India and Brazil), the All the European countries covered by the
world stocks of highly skilled personnel are survey show that the natural sciences are
rapidly growing in a context of economic the prime (fi rst or second) major fi eld of
globalization. Whereas in 1998 broadly specialization of their doctorate holders,
© UNESCO
some 140,000 doctoral degrees were whereas the weighting of the other main
UNESCO toolkit on Gender Indicators in SET.
S&T fi elds of S&T varies consider
 77
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT
perhaps some 15 per cent.

Whereas the numbers of women are increasingly equalling or

Doctorates in engineering as a percentage of total surpassing those of men at the lower levels of tertiary educa
doctorates in 2006 (rounded fi gures) tion (enrolments, graduates) – of course still with variations
between countries and fi elds of study – they are still under
Slovak Republic (27%), Poland (26%), Bulgaria (25%), Romania (23%),
represented among overall doctorate holders and as science
Czech Republic (22%), Cyprus (21%), Belgium (20%), Portugal (20%),
and engineering graduates compared to men. Th ey are also
Lithuania (19%), Latvia (18%), Denmark (16%), Austria (14%), Estonia (9%),
overall less engaged in typical engineering and technician pro
Germany (9%), Spain (9%).
fessions and in research occupations. Female 1990–2006 doc
torates accounted for between 30–50 per cent of the total; the
whereas, for instance Germany, Estonia and Spain (with around median of some twenty-two countries ( Europe and the United
10 per cent) show other preferences (medical sciences are 30 States) being just under 40 per cent in 2006. Th ere are however
per cent in Germany and 20 per cent in Spain). Th e humanities clear signs that since 1998, the numbers of female doctorates
show between 10–15 per cent of total doctorate degrees in a are now increasing faster than those of men, but they still have
majority of the countries observed. Th e study estimates the to catch up in both the science fi elds (with 38 per cent on aver
share of engineering science doctorates in the United States as age of total doctorates) and notably in engineering where they
 only represented 21 per cent of the total doctorates in 2006.
Argentina .. .. 33

Overall unemployment rates for doctorate holders (not Australia 31 31 31

exceeding 2–3 per cent in 2006) are currently about half those
of graduates with lower level diplomas and still lower than Austria 30.9 32.5 32.4
those of the population as a whole, though with variations
Belgium 29 28 28
between countries and fi elds of training. Women are more
likely to be unemployed than men and are also engaged in
Bulgaria 34 45 44
more unstable positions than men. Unemployment rates are
generally higher in the humanities and social sciences (where Cyprus .. 28 28
there is a majority of female doctorates) than in the ‘hard sci
ences’ (including engineering) where men still constitute the Czech 33.5 40.0 39.5
majority of the workforce. Th e fi rst CDH survey had shown Republic
that in the United States (2003), the unemployment rate for
engineering and technology doctorate holders (and also in Denmark 31.7 31 31.2
the natural sciences) was higher than that of any other broad
Estonia 37.0 32.0 34.5
discipline, notably the social sciences and the humanities but,
apparently, this situation is slowly becoming more balanced. Finland 34 33 33

Th e world median age at graduation of doctorate holders in Japan 33.5 34.0 ..

engineering appears to be about 32 years around 2005–2006
(with some fi fteen countries in the 30–35 years interval), but Latvia 32 32 32
this fi gure reveals considerable diff erences notably between
Western and Eastern Europe countries – lowest in Belgium and Lithuania 31 29 30
Cyprus (only 28 years) but significantly higher in, for instance
Norway 30.7 31.1 31.0
Bulgaria (44), Lithuania (42), Romania and the Czech Republic
(40). In about half the countries surveyed, women obtained their
Poland 32 32 32
engineering doctorates faster than their male counterparts
(Table 1).
Portugal 34 36 36

Broadly three-quarters of the overall doctorate holders are Romania 38 43 40

working in the higher education sector. Th e government sec tor
is also an important employer of doctorate holders who are Slovakia 30 30 30
active in research and teaching activities or otherwise working in
management and professional positions. Engineering doc torate Spain 31 32 32
holders would be expected essentially to work in the enterprise
sector but in nine out of the thirteen countries for which such Sweden 32 32 32
sector of employment data are available, the uni versity sector
Switzerland 30 31 31
attracts more engineering doctors than fi rms. In the other four
countries (Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic and the United
United 30.2 31.0 30.8
States) enterprise is employing something like at least 10 per
States
cent of the engineering doctors population.

Table 1: Median age at graduation of engineering Source: OECD, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Eurostat
doctoral graduates 2005–2006
Women Men Total

78
doctorate holders in the United States, 40 per cent in Portugal
and 55 per cent in Argentina. Th e percentages were even higher
among women (2003).

It is a well known fact that there are signifi cant salary diff er
Concerning the outputs of doctorate holders working as
ences between men and women also for doctorate holders
researchers, the data available are not yet suffi cient for overall
across sectors. In the United States women’s salaries were
conclusions, though the United States’ data suggest that, in
overall 25 per cent lower than those of men in 2003, and in
general, men produce more in terms of, for example, articles and
Canada 20 per cent lower. Discontent with salaries is a princi pal
publications than women who are ‘more comfortable with other
cause of employment dissatisfaction and mobility inclina tion.
means of knowledge diff usion, such as teaching.’
Dissatisfaction with salaries touched some 20 per cent of the
Concerning the measurement of doctorate holders of foreign
origin, a noteworthy section of the fi rst CDH survey examines
the difference between two basic concepts for the understanding
of the results: Are the data for foreign born people, or are they for
people of foreign nationality? Th e former category refl ects the
culmination of immigrants over a longer time period, some of
whom may eventually have obtained the citizenship of the
receiving country, while the second – more or less – presents the
circumstances at a given date.

Table 2: Th e principal OECD methodological manuals

AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING

Depending on the approach chosen, the statistical results

may diff er. Th e fi rst CDH report indicates that individuals of
foreign origin are very present among doctorate holders in
Switzerland in terms both of foreign-born at 41 per cent and
of foreign nationality at 30 per cent. In Canada and Australia,
they are are even higher at 54 per cent and 46 per cent respec
tively, but those of foreign nationals considerably lower at 18
per cent and 14 per cent. Th e shares of foreign-born doc engineers in education and
torate holders are much larger in Canada and in Australia
than in the United States. In absolute terms, there are more employment
foreign-born doctorate holders in Canada than are born in Introduction to the statistics
the country. Propensities are high among foreign doctorate
holders to acquire citizenship in the settlement countries, The tables and charts in this section show education and
notably in Australia, Canada and the United States. On the employment statistics for recent years from UNESCO, OECD
other hand, international mobility of United States doctor and Eurostat. They attempt to place engineers in the glo
ate holder citizens is low. bal context. Th is education data was initially collected from

4.1.7 Statistics and an analysis of

A. Th e ‘Frascati Family’ of Manuals:

R&D Th• e Measurement of Scientifi c and Technological Activities Series: - “ Frascati Manual:
Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys of Research and Experimental Development” – 6th
Edition ( OECD 2002)
• “R&D Statistics and Output Measurement in the Higher Education Sector” – Frascati Manual
Supplement ( OECD 1989)

Technology • “Manual for the Measurement and Interpretation of Technology Balance of Payments Data –TBP
Balance of Manual” ( OECD 1990) *
Payments

Innovation “ • Oslo Manual - Guidelines for Collecting and Interpreting Innovation Data” (3rd Edition, OECD 2005)

Patents “ • OECD Patent Statistics Manual “( OECD 2009)

S&T Personnel • “Th e Measurement of Human Resources Devoted to Science and Technology - Canberra Manual” (
OECD / Eurostat 1995) *

B. Other Methodological Frameworks for S&T:

High technology “Revision of High-technology Sector and Product Classifi cation” ( • OECD, STI Working Paper
1997/2)
 Bibliometrics “Bibliometric Indicators and Analysis of Research Systems: Methods and Examples”, by Yoshiko
OKUBO ( • OECD, STI Working Paper 1997/1 ( OECD 1997) **

Globalisation “Measuring Globalisation – • OECD Handbook on Economic Globalisation Indicators” ( OECD 2005)

Productivity “Measurement of Aggregate and Industry-Level Productivity Growth - • OECD Manual” ( OECD 2001)

Biotechnology “A Framework for Biotechnology Statistics” ( • OECD 2005)

* Dealing mainly with the classifi cation and interpretation of existing information (not originally collected for the purpose of S&T analysis and policy)

** Working paper, without recognised manual status

79
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

UNESCO data on education is only available for

the broad ‘engi neering, manufacturing and
respective Member States using a common construction’ category as a whole, whereas in the
questionnaire, though each agency manages its case of OECD and Eurostat they issue separate
own database and analysis. data for its three sub-categories. Th erefore, with
the worldwide UNESCO data as the lowest
With regard to engineers in particular, the ISCED common denominator, the tables and charts show
1997 classi fi cation introduces a new set of ten the data for the whole category as a priority. Some
broad fi elds of education, one of which is the separate data from OECD and Eurostat are
‘engineering, manufacturing and con struction’ available in the three sub-categories for the new
category with three new sub-categories (diff erent levels introduced for the highest classes of the
from the ISCED 1976 classifi cation described in revised ISCED, notably 6, 5A and 5B (see section
section 4.1.3). Th ey are, as much as possible, 4.1.3 for more detail). Th e UNESCO data for
used for the data presented in the tables and ISCED cat egories 5 and 6 have been
charts. amalgamated and this again is used as the lowest
common denominator for comparison.
Tables 1 to 6 show data for the world. Tables 7 to
12 show data for countries in the OECD and the Discrepancies in data availability can also be seen
European area, as there are no corresponding in the tables, particularly those between
worldwide data available. (Go to section 4.1.8 to industrialized countries (typically OECD and
view the Tables). associated states) where the bulk of the world’s
engi neers are still found, and the emerging
economies. Unfortunately, statistical information
Engineering, Manufacturing and
for the industrializing countries, which are the
Construction (ISCED 1997 Classifi
major regional economies, is also not yet available.
cation)
Trends are often more important for policy analysis
Engineering and engineering trades: engineering than exam ining absolute fi gures at a given
drawing, mechan ics, metal work, electricity, moment in time. Time series are most complete
electronics, telecommunications, energy and chemical for the industrialized countries, though the
engineering, vehicle maintenance and surveying. situation is steadily improving for a number of the
industrial izing UNESCO Member States.
Manufacturing and processing: food and drink
processing, textiles, clothes, footwear, leather,
materials such as wood, paper, plastic and glass. Data for tertiary education statistics are collected
for students entering education (enrolments),
Architecture and building: architecture and town
students in the pipeline, and students leaving
planning, struc tural architecture, landscape
education with an appropriate qualifi cation
architecture, community planning, cartography,
building construction and civil engineering.
(graduates). Enrolment numbers may refl ect
present interest in specifi c studies, whereas,
several years previously, graduate numbers
Notes on the statistics perhaps refl ected more on policy or employment
concerns. Gender data are by and large available
Th ese macro-statistics should be interpreted with for both enrolments and graduates.
care given that the quality of the data is not always
fully satisfactory. As a rule, analysing trends is more informative for
policy analy sis than examining absolute fi gures at
a given moment in time. Time series are still most
 complete for ‘developed’ countries though the drawing, mechanics, metal work, electricity,
situation is steadily improving also for a number of electronics, telecommu nications, energy and
industrializing UNESCO Member States. chemical engineering, vehicle mainte nance,
surveying.
Given that the quality criteria of the data are not
always fully satisfactory, these ‘macro’ series ■
Manufacturing and processing: Food and drink
should be interpreted with care. Furthermore, processing, textiles, clothes, footwear, leather,
statistical information is still unfortunately materials (wood, paper, plastic, glass, etc.)
unavailable for some of the principal regional
economies in the world (Russian Federation, ■
Architecture and building: Architecture and town
China, Indonesia, Singapore, Th ailand, Egypt, planning, structural architecture, landscape
Nigeria and others) though there is hope that the architecture, community planning, cartography,
statistical series concerned will already be building construction, civil engineer ing.
completed in the rather short term.
Whereas the OECD and Eurostat issue separate
As far as ‘engineers’ are concerned, the ‘new’ data for each of the above three sub-categories
ISCED (1997) introduces a novel set of ten broad (where the fi rst one, Engineer ing and engineering
groups of fi elds of edu cation, one of which is trades, is of particular interest), UNESCO only
‘Engineering, manufacturing and con struction’ provides their full subtotal, which – as the smallest
(different from the ISCED-76 version described com
earlier) with three new subcategories (and
programmes):

■
Engineering and engineering trades: Engineering

80
AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING
entering tertiary education, rather than a move
towards engineering studies by young people.

mon denominator – is presented as priority in the It is also clear that female engineering studies
worldwide enrolments and graduates series below. enrolments are increasing more quickly than those
Earlier (see the section 4.1.6 on the careers of of male enrolments, and accordingly also their
doctorate holders) we also discussed the share in the total student and gradu ate numbers.
breakdown of new levels of the highest classes of Th e proportions are however still low in most
the revised ISCED (notably 6 and 5A and 5B) for countries, and in some very low. It is not really
which some separate data are available from possible to pin point any common trends
OECD and Eurostat. However, once again, we (increases, stagnation or decreases) between and
shall have to draw on the UNESCO series where within the regions of the world (essentially
the above ISCED categories 5 and 6 have been UNESCO groupings). Whereas numbers are
amalgamated. reasonably stable over time in the largest
countries, more relative year-to-year variations
Introductory analysis of may be observed in smaller countries and, notably,
the statistics on education in those of the developing regions for which data is
What do these statistics tell us concerning the not regu
current and near-future supply of engineers? Are larly available.
the recurring concerns of mismatches between
demand and supply justifi ed? The overall tendency within the countries covered
by the OECD / Eurostat data is slow but steady
To begin with, engineering studies enrolments growth in the numbers of engineering studies
have increased in every country in absolute terms enrolments. Th e principal exceptions to this are
over the last decade, with only very few Japan, the Netherlands, Norway and Korea where
exceptions. Th e rates of increase, of course, are notable decreases of some 5 to 10 per cent have
varied. been recorded since the late 1990s. Such declines
are taken very seriously by national authorities at
a time of stagnating demographics and the
However, engineering studies enrolments indicate
retirement of engineers who graduated
a decline in most countries in relative terms over
immediately after the ‘baby boom’. In Japan for
the same period – despite their absolute growth –
instance, various measures are taken with a view
when compared to total enrolments in tertiary
to reinforcing immigration of qualifi ed scien tists
education in a country and enrolments in other
and engineers from, or outsourcing R&D to, other
disciplines. Th e increases in absolute enrolment
coun tries in the region. Initiatives are also
numbers are therefore explained, to some extent,
reinforced in a number of countries to stimulate
by the general overall increases in the numbers
 the return home of highly qualifi ed expatriates. many countries not yet reporting to UNESCO
It is worthwhile noting, just as an example, that despite the UIS’s steadily intensified
total engineer ing studies enrolments in Korea are capacity-building efforts. South Africa appears to
about one-third higher than those of Japan be the leading country in the region for engineering
(according to the UNESCO series). studies enrolments in absolute terms with a 60 per
cent increase between 2000 and 2006. All
In Europe and the broader OECD area, which reporting African countries (with only one or two
shows a median increase of 10 per cent, exceptions) saw average growth well above that of
enrolments appear to be growing faster in several Europe for instance; the growth is however starting
of the new European Member States, many of from a lower base. Here again, much of the
which were in earlier times integrated in the progress is due to increased female participation.
Eastern Bloc or part of the former Federation of For example, Ethiopia appears to have the second
Yugoslavia. Similar growth is seen in a number of highest growth rates in this vast region, and it
the former Soviet republics in Central Asia. nearly tripled its numbers over the fi ve years to
2005 (though followed by a dramatic drop in
Considerable and regular progress is noticed in the 2006). Th e increases included the quadrupling of
Mediter ranean region, including Turkey (an OECD female engineering students.
member) and the countries of North Africa and,
with the perceptible exception of Saudi Arabia, in UNESCO Member States in East Asia, the Pacifi c
the Arab countries in general. and the Car ibbean include a large number of
smaller states for which no data are reported.
In the South and West Asian region, enrolments in
engineer ing studies have risen fi ve-fold in No common picture may be drawn for Latin
Bangladesh since the start of the century and by America where enrolments in engineering studies
around half in India, Iran and Pakistan. In the fi rst are increasing in Columbia, Mexico and Brazil but
three of these countries, the numbers of female are decreasing in Argentina and Chile. Th e
students are also increasing at high rates but are situation again varies in the smaller countries in the
decreasing in Pakistan. con tinent, perhaps with a slight tendency though
towards slow growth or levelling-off .
In the sub-Saharan region of Africa, there are still

81
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT

4.1.8 Engineering indicators – Tables

Table 1: Students Enrolled in Tertiary-Level “Engineering”* Education, 1999-2006, Total (persons) - World
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Europe ( OECD/ Eurostat)

Austria ... 40,448 ... ... 31,158 30,004 29,674 29,890

Belgium ... 41,903 40,886 41,513 39,729 44,270 40,451 41,670

Bulgaria 49,639 52,426 52,777 51,941 50,948 50,463 50,504 51,083

Croatia 18,941 ... 19,916 20,920 20,722 ... 21,891 22,283

Cyprus 886 670 550 522 637 843 1,009 1,262

Czech Republic 51,105 40,800 41,536 58,958 58,661 65,655 66,248 ...

Denmark 17,481 18,982 19,720 19,406 21,771 22,501 24,005 23,077

 Estonia 7,517 7,420 7,320 7,107 7,357 7,859 8,269 8,412

Finland 64,738 69,230 72,303 73,363 77,596 80,167 80,827 80,153

France ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 252,882

Germany 338,901 325,667 323,953 332,161 341,652 360,034 ... 360,394

Greece ... ... ... 72,813 ... 90,404 106,528 93,626

Hungary 51,295 54,389 51,256 46,064 55,476 54,406 53,965 54,569

Iceland 483 556 606 693 870 980 1,022 1,149

Ireland 17,967 18,241 19,343 19,971 20,310 20,790 19,233 19,420

Israel 41,015 39,138 52,987 60,116 57,929 58,661 56,812 55,537

Italy 306,157 297,928 299,778 303,435 312,170 319,739 320,343 316,135

Latvia 13,215 9,300 10,128 11,320 11,764 12,280 12,352 13,159

Lithuania 24,122 27,275 29,419 30,059 33,099 35,578 36,376 35,775

Luxembourg ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 405

Malta 431 411 459 525 674 698 737 ...

Netherlands 51,008 52,218 53,641 54,219 53,084 44,576 44,475 47,292

Norway 15,733 12,953 12,386 12,598 13,395 13,874 14,726 ...

Poland 203,095 213,125 234,638 258,483 269,726 272,641 248,542 269,810

Portugal ... 67,007 ... 81,648 84,526 85,414 83,079 80,597

Romania 91,450 98,964 108,672 117,244 138,909 145,106 150,203 152,176

Russian Federation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Slovakia 26,152 28,210 29,637 29,069 28,279 28,621 31,521 32,439

Slovenia 14,980 15,450 16,026 16,530 17,456 17,508 17,753 17,962

Spain 281,760 295,266 303,122 314,066 322,932 324,936 319,340 318,881

Sweden 64,634 66,287 68,206 69,410 71,736 71,949 70,089 68,846

Switzerland 24,638 23,305 23,293 24,255 25,384 26,622 26,376 27,418

Turkey ... ... 211,449 220,243 259,069 281,986 292,623 312,420

United Kingdom 182,761 178,410 217,529 225,784 177,164 180,656 185,283 191,182

Other OECD (outside Europe)

Australia 98,305 97,686 99,662 108,113 110,171 108,488 108,319 108,319

New Zealand 10,568 11,586 11,607 10,793 13,975 14,839 15,124 15,788

Canada 122,974 ... ... 128,337 ... ... ... ...

Mexico 310,974 332,646 358,543 391,952 415,429 476,228 437,442 454,399

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