CE F244

Highway Engineering

Dr. Nishant Bhargava

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Module 2
Geometric Design
Contents
• Control Factors of Geometric Design
• Cross-Sectional Elements
• Sight distance
• Horizontal Alignment
• Vertical Alignment

3
Contents – Part 1
• Control Factors of Geometric Design
• Cross-Sectional Elements
• Sight distance

4
References

5
Control Factors of Geometric Design
• Topography
• Design speed
• Other factors
 Design vehicles
 Driver performance
 Traffic
 Environment and Economy

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Topography
Terrain conditions
• Based on the general slope of the country across the road alignment

Terrain % cross slope of country

Plain 0-10 % 1 in 10 or more
Rolling 10-25 % 1 in 10 to 1 in 4
Mountainous 25-60 % 1 in 10 to 1 in 1.67
Steep > 60 % Less than 1 in 1.67

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Design Speed
Choice of design speed
• Functional classification of road
• Terrain conditions

Ruling design speed

Guiding criterion for correlating various geometric design features
Design
speed
Minimum design speed
Exceptional cases – Width, site conditions or cost constraints

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Design Speed
• Functional classification of road ; Terrain conditions
Design Speed (km/h)
Nature of 4/6/8-lane
2-lane NH/SH MDR ODR/VR
Terrain NH/SH
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
Plain 100 80 100 80 80 65 50 40
Rolling 100 80 100 80 65 50 50 40
Mountainous 60 40 50 40 40 30 30 20
Steep 60 40 40 30 30 20 30 20

Expressways – 120 km/h

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Design Vehicles
Design purpose
• Examine all vehicle types
• Establish general class groupings
• Select vehicles of representative size within each class
Importance of dimensions of vehicles
• Width : Width of traffic lanes and shoulders
• Height : Vertical clearance – Bridges, overhead structures
• Length : Horizontal and vertical curves, and overtaking

Design – Largest design vehicle with considerable frequency

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Design Vehicles
Max. Length
MoRTH notification vide G.S.R. 414(E) Single unit truck 12 m
dated 26th June, 2020 Single unit bus 15 m
Truck-trailer/semi-
18.75 m
trailer/ tractor-trailer

Max. Width
Motor vehicle 2.6 m
Construction equipment 3.0 m

Max. Height
Motor vehicle 4.0 m
Construction equipment 4.75 m
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Driver Performance
Vision
Physiological
Hearing

Factors affecting
geometric design Perception

Intellection
Psychological
Emotion

Volition

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Driver Performance
Physiological Characteristics
• Vision
 Visual acuity
Zone of sharper vision
o Cone of angle 3°
o Reasonably sharp within central angle upto 10°
Importance – Locate traffic signs and signals
 Depth perception
Importance – Ability of driver to judge height and distance of an object

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Driver Performance
Physiological Characteristics
• Vision
 Peripheral vision
Total visual field for 2 eyes
o Horizontal direction = 160°
o Vertical direction = 115°
 Color vision
 Glare recovery
o Glare recovery time = 3-6 sec
• Hearing
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Driver Performance
Brain
Psychological (PIEV)
• Perception: Perceiving sensations I - E
received through sensory organs

Spinal cord
• Intellection: Identification of stimuli by
P V
development of new thoughts and ideas
• Emotion: Individual trait of person
Stimulus Response
governing decision making process
• Volition: Will to react to situation Reflex Action

PIEV time = 2.5 sec (Stopping Sight distance)

= 2.0 sec (Overtaking sight distance)
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Traffic, Environment and Economy
Traffic Environment Economy
• Directional distribution • Human • Construction
• Composition • Animal • Operation
• Speed • Plant communities • Maintenance

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Cross-Sectional Elements
• Right-of-Way
• Roadway
 Carriageway
 Shoulders
 Median
• Kerb
• Camber/Crossfall

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 Cross-Sectional Elements
Overall Width Between Control Lines
Overall Width Between Building Lines
Road Land Width
Roadway
Carriageway

Centreline of Road
Building Line

Building Line
Control Line

Control Line
Road Land

Road Land
Boundary

Boundary
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Road Land, Building and Control Lines
Road Land Width (Right-of-Way)
Width of land acquired for road purposes

Building lines
Hypothetical line set back from the road
boundary to restrict building activity within
a prescribed distance from road

Control lines
Control on the nature of building activity for
a further distance beyond the building line

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Right-of-Way
Factors governing RoW
• Width of formation
• Height of embankment
• Side slopes of embankment
• Drainage system and size
• Sight distance considerations
• Reserve land for future expansion

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Right-of-Way

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Right-of-Way

Road Plain and Rolling Terrain Mountainous and steep terrain

S.
Classifi Open Areas Built-up Area Open Areas Built-up Area
No.
cation
Normal Range Normal Range Normal Exceptional Normal Exceptional
1 MDR 25 25-30 20 15-25 18 15 15 12
2 ODR 15 15-25 15 15-20 15 12 12 9
3 VR 12 12-18 10 10-15 9 9 9 9

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Roadway Width
Width of Carriageway + Shoulder + Median

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Width of Carriageway
Refer Section 4.2.3 of the text book
“Highway Engineering” by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

Multi-lane pavements Multi-lane pavements

Type of
Single lane NH, SH, MDR, ODR & VR Expressways
Facility
width per lane width per lane

Width (m) 3.75 3.5 3.75

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Shoulder
Refer Section 4.2.6 of the text book
“Highway Engineering” by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

Plain and Rolling Terrain Mountainous and Steep Terrain

Type of Section
2 lane 4/6/8 lane Hill Side Valley Side
Open country with
2.5 m 3.5 m 1.5 m 2.5 m
isolated built-up area
Built-up area 2.5 m 2m 1.75 m 1.75 m

Either side
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Median
Refer Section 4.2.4 of the text book
“Highway Engineering” by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

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Median Width & Openings
Multi-Lane Highways
• Depressed / flushed median
• Width
 Plain and rolling terrain (open areas) = 7 m
 Land unavailable (≤ 2.5 m) – Collapsible crash barrier and anti-glare measures
• Drainage

Location Distance between

two median openings Length of median opening = 18 – 20 m
Open Country ≥ 2 km
Additional 3.5 m storage lane
Built up area ≥ 500 m
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Kerb
Barrier type

Vertical or sloping member

along the edge of a pavement
or shoulder, clearly defining
the edge to vehicle operators Semi-Barrier type

Refer Section 4.2.5 of the

text book “Highway
Engineering” by Khanna,
Mountable type
Justo and Veeraragavan

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Camber / Crossfall
Slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off the
rainwater from the road surface

Refer Section 4.2.2 of the text book

“Highway Engineering” by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

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Camber / Crossfall
Camber on straight sections
• Carriageway, paved shoulders
 Bituminous surface = 2.5%
 Cement concrete = 2.0%
• Earthen shoulders
 At least 0.5% steeper than carriageway slope
 1.0% steeper desirable

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 Problem
For a 2-lane SH with bituminous surfacing, calculate the height of crown with
respect to two edges. Assume shape of camber as (i) Straight line and (ii) Parabolic

𝑥 2 𝑥2
𝑦= 𝑦=
𝑛 𝑛𝑤
Crown ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑤/2
𝑤 7 2.5 2 𝑤2 7 2.5
𝑦= = × = 0.0875 m 𝑦= = × = 0.0875 m
2𝑛 2 100 4𝑛𝑤 2 100
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Sight Distance

• Sight distance and importance Refer Section 4.3.1 of the text book
• Restrictions to sight distance “Highway Engineering” by

• Types of sight distance Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

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Types of Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Clear distance ahead needed by a driver to stop the vehicle before
meeting a stationary object in the path on the road

Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

Minimum sight distance that should be available to a driver on a
two-way road to enable them to overtake another vehicle safely

Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)

Sight distance provided in sections of roads where the customary
OSD cannot be provided

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Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance
Sight Distance Driver's Eye Height Height of object
SSD 1.2 m 0.15 m
ISD 1.2 m 1.2 m
OSD 1.2 m 1.2 m

• Sight obstructions

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Stopping Sight Distance
Factors affecting stopping distance

Refer Section 4.3.2 of the text book

“Highway Engineering” by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

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SSD – Design Criteria

Stopping Lag Braking

distance distance distance
Distance travelled by the vehicle at Distance travelled by the
uniform speed during perception vehicle during the braking
and brake reaction time, 𝒕 time, until vehicle stops

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SSD – Design Criteria
Lag distance (or Perception and Brake Reaction time)
𝒅𝟏 = 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 𝑽 𝒕

𝒅𝟏 = Distance travelled during total reaction time, m

𝒗 = Speed, m/s
𝑽 = Speed, km/h
𝒕 = Perception and reaction time = 2.5 sec

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SSD – Design Criteria
Braking distance – Level roads
𝒅𝟐 = Braking distance, m
𝒇 = Coefficient of longitudinal friction between vehicle 𝒇
tyres and road pavement
𝑾 = Total weight of vehicle, kg
𝑾
𝒗 = Speed, m/s
Work done against friction force to stop the vehicle = Kinetic energy of the vehicle

1 𝑊 2 𝒗𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑊 𝑓 𝑑2 = 𝑣 ⇒ 𝒅𝟐 = =
2 𝑔 𝟐 𝒈 𝒇 𝟐𝟓𝟒 𝒇

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SSD – Design Criteria
Braking distance – At slopes
𝒏%
𝒅𝟐 = Braking distance, m
𝒇 = Coefficient of longitudinal friction 𝑾
𝑾 = Total weight of vehicle, kg 𝜶 𝒇
𝒗 = Speed, m/s sin 𝛼 ≈ tan 𝛼 = 𝑛/100
𝒏 = Gradient, %
Work done against friction force to stop the vehicle = Kinetic energy of the vehicle

𝑊𝑛 1 𝑊 2 𝒗𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑊𝑓+ 𝑑2 = 𝑣 ⇒ 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒏 = 𝒏
100 2 𝑔 𝟐𝒈 𝒇+ 𝟐𝟓𝟒 𝒇 +
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
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SSD – Design Criteria
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2

SSD – Level roads

𝑣2 𝑉2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + = 0.278 𝑉 𝑡 +
2𝑔𝑓 254 𝑓

SSD – At grades

𝑣2 𝑉2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑛 = 0.278 𝑉 𝑡 + 𝑛
2𝑔 𝑓± 254 𝑓 ±
100 100
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SSD – Level Surface
𝑉2 𝑉 = 80 km/h ; 𝑡 = 2.5 sec ; 𝑓 = 0.35
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 0.278 𝑉 𝑡 +
254 𝑓 SSD = ???

Speed Perception and brake reaction Braking SSD (m)

(km/h) Time (sec) 𝒅𝟏 (m) 𝒇 𝒅𝟐 (m) 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐 Design values
20 2.5 14 0.40 4 18 20
40 2.5 28 0.38 17 44 45
60 2.5 42 0.36 39 81 80
80 2.5 56 0.35 72 128 130

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Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
• Overtaking requirement
• Factors influencing OSD

Refer Section 4.3.3 of the text book

“Highway Engineering” by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

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 OSD – Design Assumptions
A B
A3

C
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
𝒔 𝒃 𝒔
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟑

𝒅𝟏 = Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during reaction time, 𝒕 sec of the driver from position A1 to A2
𝒅𝟐 = Distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A from A2 to A3 during the actual overtaking operation in time 𝑻 sec
𝒅𝟑 = Distance travelled by on-coming vehicle C from C1 to C2 during overtaking operation of A, 𝑻 sec.

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OSD – Design Assumptions

• Speed of vehicles being overtaken = Design speed – 16 km/h (or 4.5 m/s)
• Overtaking maneuver
 Vehicle follows vehicle ahead for a short while
 Vehicle accelerates rapidly to design speed for overtaking
 Overtaking vehicle returns to its own side
• Speed of oncoming vehicle = Design speed
• Completion of maneuver – Face of oncoming vehicle alongside overtaking vehicle
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OSD – Design
𝒗𝒃 = Initial speed of overtaking vehicle, m/sec
𝒕 = Reaction time of driver = 2 sec
𝒗 = Design speed
𝑻 = Overtaking duration, sec
𝒔 = Spacing of vehicles, m
𝒂 = Acceleration, m/sec2
1
𝒅𝟏 = 𝒗 𝒃 𝒕 𝑑2 = 𝑣𝑏 𝑇 + 𝑎 𝑇 2 = 𝑏 + 2𝑠
2
𝒅𝟑 = 𝒗 𝑻
1 4𝑠
𝑣𝑏 = 𝑣 − 4.5 ; 𝑏 = 𝑣𝑏 𝑇 ; 2𝑠 = 𝑎 𝑇 2 ⇒ 𝑇 =
𝒅𝟐 = 𝒃 + 𝟐𝒔 2 𝑎

𝑶𝑺𝑫 = 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐 + 𝒅𝟑 Empirical relation, 𝑠 = 0.7 𝑣𝑏 + 6 , m

Design speed, km/h 25 30 40 50 65 80 100
𝒂, m/sec2 1.41 1.30 1.24 1.11 0.92 0.72 0.53
OSD – Design (IS 73, 2023)
• Time component
 Overtaking maneuver = 9 – 14 sec
 Opposing vehicle = 2/3rd of overtaking maneuver

Time component, sec

Speed, km/h For overtaking For opposing Safe OSD, m
Total
manoeuvre vehicle
40 9 6 15 165
60 10.8 7.2 18 300
80 12.5 8.5 21 470
100 14 9 23 640

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Overtaking Zone 3 × OSD = Minimum
5 × OSD = Desirable

SP2

SP1

SP1
SP2 OSD OSD
OSD OSD

SP1 = Sign post “Overtaking zone ahead”

SP2 = Sign post “End of overtaking zone”

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Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
Also known as desirable minimum sight distance

𝑰𝑺𝑫 = 𝟐 × 𝑺𝑺𝑫

• Improves visibility appreciably

• Affords a reasonable chance to drivers to overtake with caution

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Application of Sight Distance
• Single carriageway with two-way traffic
 Provide OSD
 Economic or terrain constraints, minimum sight distance = 2 × SSD
 Absolute minimum sight distance = SSD
• Undivided 4-lane or divided highways with 4 or more lanes
 New ⇒ Provide desirable minimum sight distance = 2 × SSD
 Existing ⇒ Provide SSD
• Expressways
 Minimum sight distance = 500 m

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Headlight Sight Distance (HSD)
Length of roadway illuminated by vehicle headlights to enable the vehicle to brake to
a stop if necessary.

𝑴𝒊𝒏. 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑺𝑺𝑫

Criteria for measurement

• Height of headlight = 1.2 m above road surface
• Height of object = Nil
• Useful beam of headlight = Upto 1° upwards
from the grade of the road

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Sight Distance at Intersections
Sufficient visibility at 𝑣1
intersection to enable operator
of vehicles simultaneously
Sight Line 𝑑1
approaching intersection to
see each other in time

𝑣2
𝑑2

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Intersections – Some Terminologies …
Uncontrolled Intersections
Intersecting roads – Nearly equal importance
No established priority
At- grade
Intersections
Priority Intersections
Major-Minor road intersection
One road takes virtual precedence over the other

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Intersections – Some Terminologies …
Sight triangles 𝑣1
Specified areas along the
intersection approaches and
included corners within which Sight Line 𝑑1
the line of sight from the vehicles
of two adjacent approaches lie Sight triangle

• Types 𝑣2
𝑑2
 Approach sight triangles
 Departure sight triangles

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Intersections – Some Terminologies …
Approach Sight triangles
Two intersecting roads – Vehicles travelling at design speeds
Driver see any potentially conflicting vehicle approaching from other roadway
Slow down or stop before colliding at intersection

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Intersections – Some Terminologies …
Departure Sight triangles
Stopped vehicle on minor road and travelling at design speed on major road
Driver of stopped vehicle enter or cross major road without colliding

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Uncontrolled Intersections – Design
Approach sight distance = Desirable minimum sight distance

Assumptions
• Perception – reaction time =
2.5 sec
• Vehicle speed
 Major road = Design
 Minor road = 60% reduction

Major road = 80 km/h Length of legs along the two approaches ???
Minor road = 60 km/h 260 m and 90 m
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Priority Intersections – Design
Stop Control on Minor road
• Distance required to cross for two-lane highway
 Distance from stop sign to edge of carriageway = 3 m
 Length of the vehicle ≈ 4.7 m
 Width of roadway = Carriageway (7 m) + Shoulder (3 m) = 10 m
 Total distance = 17.7 m
• Speed of crossing
 0 to 20 km/h (acceleration rate = 1.5 m/sec2)
 Maintain at 20 km/h

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Priority Intersections – Design
Stop Control on Minor road

17.7 m

0 to 20 km/h @ 1.5 m/sec2 7.4 m

Perception 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
reaction 20 km/h
𝑣2 = 𝑢2 +2𝑎𝑠
time
2.5 sec 3.71 sec 1.33 sec
10.3 m

Total time required = 7.54 sec ≈ rounded off to 8 sec

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