UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

Units

A unit is an internationally accepted standard for measurements of quantities.

 Measurement consists of a numeric quantity along with a relevant unit.

Measurement of physical quantities

Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities. The fundamental
quantities that are chosen are Length, Mass, Time, electric current, thermodynamic
temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity.

Base quantity and Fundamental Units

Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardised reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin,
mole and candela.

The units for the fundamental base quantities are called fundamental or base units and two
supplementary units in relation to quantities plane angle and solid angle radian, Ste radian..

S.No. Fundamental Quantities Fundamental Units Symbol

1. Length metre m
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second S
4. Temperature kelvin kg
5 Electric current ampere A
6 Luminous intensity candela cd
7 Amount of substance mole mol
Derived units

Other physical quantities derived from the base quantities can be expressed as a combination
of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units both fundamental and
derived units are called a system of units. Example :- volume, density etc.

International System of units

*The International System of units based on seven base units is at present internationally
accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world. In computing any physical
quantity the units for derived quantities involved in the relationships are treated as though
they were algebraic quantities till the desired units are obtained

1. CGS System In this system, the unit of length is centimetre, the unit of mass is gram
and the unit of time is second.
2. FPS System In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound and
the unit of time is second.
3. MKS System In this system, the unit of length is metre, the unit of mass is kilogram
and the unit of time is second.
4. SI System This system contain seven fundamental units and two supplementary
fundamental units. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the
base quantities and the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units
are expressed by means of SI units of special names such as joule, newton, watt etc.

* In computing any physical quantity the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationships are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired units are
obtained

* In SI system that is System Internationale d’ Units there are 7 base units’ and two
supplementary units.

S.No. Supplementary Fundamental Quantities Supplementary Unit Symbol

1 Plane angle radian rad
2 Solid angle steradian Sr

* Direct and indirect methods can be used for the measurement of physical quantities. In
measured quantities while expressing the result, the accuracy and precision of measuring
instruments along with errors in measurement should be taken into account.

* In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.

Measuring large Distances – Parallax Method

 Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed

along two different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of
 inclination between those two lines. Distance between the two viewpoints is called
Basis.

Measuring distance of a planet using parallax method

Similarly, α = d/D

Whereα = angular size of the planet (angle subtended by d at earth) and d is the diameter of
the planet.αis angle between the direction of the telescope when two diametrically opposite
points of the planet are viewed.
Special Length units

Unit name Unit Symbol Value in meters

fermi f 10-15 m

angstrom Å 10-10m

astronomical unit(average
AU 1.496 X 1011 m
distance of sun from earth)

light year(distance travelled

by light in 1 year with ly 9.46 X 1011 m
velocity 3 X 108 m/s)

parsec(distance at which
average radius of earth’s
pc 3.08 x 1016 m
orbits subtends an angle of 1
arc second)

Accuracy and Precision of Instruments

 Accuracy of a measurement is how close the measured value is to the true value.

 Precision is the resolution of a series of measurements of a same quantity under similar

conditions. Precision tells us to what limit the quantity is measured.

 If the true value of a certain length is 3.678 cm and two instruments with different
resolutions, up to 1 (less precise) and 2 (more precise) decimal places respectively, are used.
If first measures the length as 3.5 and the second as 3.38 then the first has more accuracy but
less precision while the second has less accuracy and more precision.

Significant figures: -

The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured quantity which are known
reliably plus one additional digit that is uncertain.
Example, period of oscillation of a pendulum is 1.62 s. Here 1 and 6 are reliable and 2 is
uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three significant figures.

For counting of the significant figure rule are as:

(i) All non- zero digits are significant figure.
(ii) All zero between two non-zero digits are significant figure.
(iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point are
not significant. But such zeros are significant if they come from a measurement.
(iv) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are significant.
(v) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant.
(vi) All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are not
significant. Single zero conventionally placed to the left of the decimal point is not
significant.
(vii) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units.

Cautions to remove ambiguities in determining number of significant figures

 Change of units should not change number of significant digits. Example, 4.700m
= 470.0 cm = 4700 mm. In this, first two quantities have 4 but third quantity has 2
significant figures.
 Use scientific notation to report measurements. Numbers should be expressed in
powers of 10 like a x 10b where b is called order of magnitude. Example, 4.700 m =
4.700 x 102 cm = 4.700 x 103 mm = 4.700 x 10-3 In all the above, since power of 10
are irrelevant, number of significant figures are 4.

Addition or subtraction with significant figure :-

In addition or subtraction , the result should be reported to the same number of decimal
places as that of the number with minimum number of decimal places.

For ex: A= 334.5 kg; B= 23.45Kg then A + B =334.5 kg + 23.43 kg = 357.93 kg

The result with significant figures is 357.9 kg

Mutiplication and division in significant figure :-

In multiplication or division, the result should be reported to the same number of significant
figures as that of the number with minimum of significant figures

ROUNDING OFF:

While rounding off measurements the following rules are applied

Rule I: If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit should be left
unchanged. For ex: 9.32 is rounded off to 9.3
Rule II: If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit should be raised
by 1 For ex: 8.27 is rounded off to 8.3
Rule III: If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding
digit should be raised by 1
For ex: 9.351 on being rounded off to first decimal, becomes 9.4
Rule IV: If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is not
changed if it is even, is raised by 1 if it is odd. For ex:
5.45, on being rounded off, become 5.4
5.450 on being rounded off, becomes 5.4
7.3, on being rounded off, becomes 7.4

Use of Dimensional analysis

* The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe the nature
of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the dimensional
consistency of equations, deducing relations among physical quantities etc. A dimensionally
wrong or inconsistent equation must be wrong.

DIMENSIONS, DIMENSIONAL FORMULA AND DIMENSIONAL

EQUATION

Dimensions of a derived unit are the powers to which the fundamental units of mass, length
and time etc. must be raised to represent that unit.

Dimensional Formula is the expression which shows how and which of the base quantities
represent the dimensions of a physical quantity.M1L1T-2 is the dimensional formula of Force.

Dimensional Equation is an equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its

dimensional formula.

[V] = [M0 L3 T0]--------Volume [ρ] = [M L-3 T0]---------mass density(mass per unit volume)

CATEGORIES PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Dimensional Constants: These are the quantities which possess dimensions and have a fixed
value.
Ex: Gravitational Constant

Dimensional Variables: These are the quantities which possess dimensions and do not have
a fixed value
For ex: velocity, acceleration etc.
Dimensionless Constants: these are the quantities which do not possess dimensions and
have a fixed value.
For ex: πetc.

Dimensionless Variables: These are the quantities which are dimensionless and do not have
a fixed value.
For ex: Strain, Specific Gravity etc.

Importance of dimensional analysis

A given physical relation is dimensionally correct if the dimensions of the various terms on
either side of the relation are the same.

USES OF DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

Homogeneity Principle of Dimensional Analysis

Principle of Homogeneity states that dimensions of each of the terms of a dimensional

equation on both sides should be the same. This principle is helpful because it helps us
convert the units from one form to another. To better understand the principle, let us consider
the following example:

Example 1: Check the correctness of physical equation s = ut + ½ at2. In the equation, s

is the displacement, u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, a is the acceleration
and t is the time in which change occurs.

Solution:

We know that L.H.S = s and R.H.S = ut + 1/2at2

The dimensional formula for the L.H.S can be written as s = [L1M0T0] ………..(1)

We know that R.H.S is ut + ½ at2 , simplifying we can write R.H.S as [u][t] + [a] [t]2

[L1M0T-1][L0M0T-1] +[L1M0T-2][L0M0T0]

=[L1M0T0]………..(2)

From (1) and (2), we have [L.H.S] = [R.H.S]

Hence, by the principle of homogeneity, the given equation is dimensionally correct.

LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

* It supplies no information about dimensionless constants. They have to be determined

either by experiment or by mathematical investigation.
* This method applicable only in the case of power functions. It fails in case of exponential
and trigonometric relations.
* It fails to derive a relation which contains two or more than two quantities of like nature.
* It can only check whether a physical relation is dimensionally correct or not. It cannot tell
whether the relation is absolutely correct or not. A dimensionally consistent equation need
not be actually an exact equation
* It cannot identify all the factors on which the given physical quantity depends upon.

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Intermediate results in multi-step computation should be calculated to one more

significant figure in every measurement than the number of digits in the least precise
measurement.

Example:1/9.58 = 0.1044
Now, 1/0.104 = 9.56 and 1/0.1044 = 9.58

Hence, taking one extra digit gives more precise results and reduces rounding off errors.

Advantages of S.I units: (i) It is a rational system, in which only one unit is used for one
physical quantity. (ii) It is a coherent system, which means all the derived units can be
easily obtained form basic and supplementary units. (iii) It is a metric system which means
that multiples and submultiples can be expressed as powers of 10(iv)Absolute system of
units.