Chapter Two

Vectors
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Vectors in 2-Space
In science, mathematics, and engineering, we distinguish two important quantities:
scalars and vectors. A scalar is simply a real number or a quantity that has magnitude. For
example, length, temperature, and concrete pressure are represented by numbers such as 80
m, 20⁰C, and 27 N/mm2. A vector, on the other hand, is usually described as a quantity that
has both magnitude and direction.

 Geometric Vectors
Geometrically, a vector can be represented by a directed line segment—that is, by an
arrow—and is denoted either by a boldface symbol or by a symbol with an arrow over it; for
example, or
A vector whose initial point (or end) is A and whose terminal point (or tip) is B is
written . The magnitude of a vector is written . Two vectors that have the same
magnitude and same direction are said to be equal. Thus, we have = . Vectors are said
to be free, which means that a vector can be moved from one position to another provided its
magnitude and direction are not changed.

The negative of a vector , written , is a vector that has the same magnitude as
but is opposite in direction.
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 Addition and Subtraction

Two vectors can be considered as having a common initial point, such as A in figure.
Thus, if nonparallel vectors and are the sides of a parallelogram as in figure below,
we say the vector that is the main diagonal, or , is the sum of and . We write

The difference of two vectors and is defined by:

If , then

Vectors in a Coordinate Plane

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The vector shown in figure, with initial point the origin O and terminal point P(x1, y1), is
called the position vector of the point P and is written:

In general, a vector is any ordered pair of real numbers

The numbers and are said to be the components of the

vector .

 Definition
Addition
Scalar
Multiplication
Equality if and only if

Example [1] If and , find , and .

Solution:

The zero vector 0 is defined as .

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 Magnitude

The magnitude, length, or norm of a vector a is denoted by . Motivated by the

Pythagorean theorem and figure, we define the magnitude of a vector:

 Unit Vectors
A vector that has magnitude 1 is called a unit vector. The normalization of the vector a
is a unit vector

Example [2] Given , form a unit vector in the same direction as a. In the
opposite direction of a.
Solution:

 The i, j Vectors
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Any vector can be written as a sum:

The unit vectors and are usually given the special symbols i and j. Thus if:

become

Example [3]
Let and . Graph and .

Solution:
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Exercises 2-1

H.W 1- Find (1) ,(2) ,(3) ,(4) and (5) if :

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

H.W 2- Find the vector

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

H.W 3- Find the terminal point of the vector if its initial point is (3, 10).
H.W 4- Find the initial point of the vector if its terminal point is (4,7).
H.W 5- Determine a scalar k so that and are parallel.
H.W 6- Determine which of the following vectors are parallel to
1.
2.

3.

4.
5.
H.W 7- find a vector b that is parallel to the given vector and has the indicated
magnitude.

1.
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2.

H.W 8- Find a vector in the opposite direction of but as long.

H.W 9- Given that and . Find a vector in the same direction as but
five times as long.

Vectors in 3-Space
A vector a in 3-space is any ordered triple of real numbers:

If and are the position vectors of the points and , then

the vector is given by:

 Distance Between Two Points

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 Midpoint Formula

 Definition

Addition
Subtraction
Scalar Multiplication
Negative
Zero vector
Magnitude
Equality if and only if
A Unit Vector

Example [4]
Find the vector if the points P1(4, 6,-2) and P2(1, 8, 3).

Solution

Example [5]
Find a unit vector in the direction of .

Solution
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Example [6]
If and , find .

Solution
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Exercises 2-2

H.W 1- Find the vector :

1.

2.
3.
4.

H.W 2- If , , and . Find the vector or

scalar.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

H.W 3- Find a vector that is four times as long as in the same

direction.

H.W 4- Find a vector for which that is parallel to but

has the opposite direction.
H.W 5- solve for the unknown
1.

2.
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The Dot Product

A product of two vectors and can be formed in such a way that the result is a
scalar. The result is written and called the dot product of a and b. The names scalar
product and inner product are also used in place of the term dot product.

Let and be any two vectors that after a translation to bring their bases into
coincidence are inclined to one another at an angle θ:

 Orthogonal Vectors

Two nonzero vectors and are orthogonal if and only if .

Example [7]
If and , find and angle θ.
Solution
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 Direction Cosines

For a nonzero vector in 3-space, the angles , , and  between and
the unit vectors i, j, and k, respectively, are called direction angles of .

 Component of A on B

we write the components of as:

The component of on an arbitrary vector .

 Projection of A onto B

The projection of a vector in any of the directions determined by i, j, k is simply the

vector formed by multiplying the component of in the specified direction with a unit
vector in that direction.

The general case of the projection of onto

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Example [8]
Find the direction cosines and direction angles of the vector

Solution

Example [9]
Let and .Find and .

Solution

Example [10]
Let and .Find and .

Solution
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Exercises 2-3

H.W 1- If , and , Find the indicated

scalar or vector:
1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

8.
7.

10.
9.

H.W 2- Determine a scalar x so that the given vectors are orthogonal.

1.

2.

H.W 3- Find a vector that is orthogonal to both and

.
H.W 4- Determine a scalar c so that the angle between and is
45o.
H.W 5- If and , Find the vector and
.
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H.W 6- If and , Find the vector and

.
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Cross Product
The cross product, introduced in this section, is only defined for vectors in 3-space
and results in another vector in 3-space. is orthogonal to the plane containing and
. The cross product of two vectors and is the vector:

 Magnitude of
the Cross Product
For nonzero
vectors and , if  is the
angle between and (
), then

 Parallel Vectors

Two nonzero vectors and are parallel if and only if .

 The Distance from a Point to a Line in
Space

 Areas
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Two nonzero and nonparallel vectors and can be considered to be the sides of a
parallelogram. The area A of a parallelogram is:

the area of a triangle is:

 Volume of a
Parallelepiped

If the vectors , and do not lie in the same plane, then the volume of the
parallelepiped with edges a, b, and c shown in figure is the
absolute value of the scalar triple product of the vectors.:

Example [11]
Let and .Find .

Solution

Example [12]
Determine whether and are parallel vectors.
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Solution

The vectors and are parallel vectors.

Example [13]
Find the area of the triangle determined by the points , ,
and .
Solution

Example [14] Find the volume of the parallelepiped for the vectors are three edges.
, and .
Solution
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Exercises 2-4

H.W 1- Find , Find Distance ( ) and Distance ( ):

1. P1(2, 1, 3), P2(0, 3, 1), P3(1, 2, 4)
2. P1(0, 0, 1), P2(0, 1, 2), P3(1, 2, 3)
H.W 2- Find a vector that is perpendicular to both and
1.

2.

H.W 3-If , and . Find the indicated scalar or

vector.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
H.W 4-(a) verify that the given quadrilateral is a parallelogram, and (b) find the area
of the parallelogram.
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H.W 5-Find the area of the triangle determined by the given points.
1. P1(1, 1, 1), P2(1, 2, 1), P3(1, 1, 2)
2. P1(0, 0, 0), P2(0, 1, 2), P3(2, 2, 0)
3. P1(1, 2, 4), P2(1, 1, 3), P3(1, 1, 2)
4. P1(1, 0, 3), P2(0, 0, 6), P3(2, 4, 5)
H.W 6-Find the volume of the parallelepiped for which the given vectors are three
edges.
1.
2.
H.W 7-Determine whether the four points P1(1, 1, 2), P2(4, 0, 3), P3(1, 5, 10), and P4(7,
2, 4) lie in the same plane.
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Lines and Planes in 3-Space

As in the plane, any two distinct points in 3-space determine only one line between them.
To find an equation of the line through P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2), let us assume that P(x, y,
z) is any point on the line. In figure, if , , and , we see that vector
is parallel to vector .
 A vector equation
A vector equation for the line is

The scalar t is called a parameter and the nonzero vector is called a direction vector.

 Parametric Equations

Example [15] Find a vector equation for the line through (2,-1,8) and (5,6,-3). Then
find parametric equations for the line.
Solution
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Example [16] Find a vector that is parallel to the line La whose parametric equations
are .
Solution

Example [17] Write vector, and parametric equations for the line through (4, 6,-3) and
parallel to .
Solution

 Planes: Vector Equation

 Cartesian Equation

If the normal vector is , then yields a Cartesian equation of the plane

containing :

Example [18]
Find an equation of the plane with normal vector
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containing the point (4,-1,3).

Solution

Example [19] Find an equation of the plane that contains (1,0,-1), (3,1,4), and (2,-2,0).

Solution

 Line of Intersection of Two Planes

Example [20] Find parametric equations for the line of intersection of ,

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Solution

 Point of Intersection of a Line and a

Plane

Example [21] Find the point of intersection of the plane and the line
.
Solution

Substituting the parametric equations into the equation of the plane gives:

 The Distance from a Point to a Plane

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Example [22] Find the distance from to the plane .

Solution

Example [23] Find the distance from the point S(1,1,5) to the line x = 1+t, y =3-t, z =2t.

Solution
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Example [24] Find the distance between the parallel planes 10x+2y-2z =5 and 5x+y-z
=1.
Solution

 Angles Between Planes

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Exercises 2-5
H.W 1- Find a vector equation and the parametric equations for the line through the
given points.

H.W 2-Determine the points of intersection of the given line and the three
coordinate planes.
1. .
2.
H.W 3-Determine whether the given lines intersect. If so, find the point of
intersection.

1.

2.

3.

4.
H.W 4-Find an equation of the plane that satisfies the given conditions.
1. Contains (2,3,-5) and is parallel to x+y-4z=1.
2. Contains the origin and is parallel to 5x-y+z=6.
3. Contains (3, 6, 12) and is parallel to the xy-plane.
4. Contains (7, 5, 18) and is perpendicular to the y-axis.
5. Contains the lines x=1+3t, y=1-t, z=2+t; x=4+4s, y=2s, z=3+s.
H.W 5-The line through (2,3,0) perpendicular to the vectors u=i+2j+3k and v= 3i+4j+5k.
H.W 6-Find the distance from the point to the given line x =1+t, y= 3-2 2t, z=4- 3t and
point (4, 1, -2).
H.W 7-Find the distance from the point to the given plane. (1, -2, 4), 3x + 2y+ 6z= 5.
H.W 8-Find equations of the planes that are parallel to the plane x +2y - 2z= 1 and two
units away from it.