MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HCMC UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY
COURSE: Fundamentals of Design Chemical Machines and Factory

FINAL - COURSE REPORT

DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES USING THERMAL
Lecturer: PhD. Ly Tan Nhiem

Member: Student ID:

Nguyen Thi Minh Tam 21128352
Tran Nguyen Thao 21128353
Nguyen Hoang Nhut 21128209
Nguyen Phan Tuong Vy 21128273
Nguy Huu Tinh 21128356
Le Thanh Nhan 21128199

Ho Chi Minh City, November 2023

 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HCMC UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION
FACULTY OF CHEMICAL AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY

LIST OF MEMBERS PARTICIPATING IN THE REPORT

1. Subject code: FDMF232603
2. Lecturer: PhD. Ly Tan Nhiem
3. Title: DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES USING THERMAL
4. Member

No. Full name Student ID Process

1 Nguyen Thi Minh Tam 21128352

2 Tran Nguyen Thao 21128353

3 Nguyen Hoang Nhut 21128209

4 Nguyen Phan Tuong Vy 21128273

5 Nguyen Huu Tinh 21128356

6 Le Thanh Nhan 21128199

 Table of contents

Table of contents

List of Tables

List of Figures

List of Abbreviations

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1. The Role of Fresh water and Global Water Scarcity...................................................................................... 1

1.2. Desalination methods in the world ................................................................................................................. 2

1.3. Definition and Classification of Desalination Methods ................................................................................. 3

1.3.1. Definition ................................................................................................................................................. 3

1.3.2. Classification ............................................................................................................................................ 3

1.4. The trend in the development of thermal desalination methods .................................................................... 5

2. Single Effect Evaporation (SEE) ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.1. Introduce ........................................................................................................................................................ 6

2.2. Process Description ........................................................................................................................................ 6

2.3. Process Modeling ........................................................................................................................................... 7

2.4. Equipment Evaporation .................................................................................................................................. 7

2.5. Single Effect Evaporation – Vapor Compression .......................................................................................... 8

2.5.1. Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... 8

 2.5.1.1. Thermal vapor compression.................................................................................................................. 8

2.5.1.2. Mechanical vapor compression............................................................................................................. 9

2.5.1.3. Adsorption Vapor Compression ......................................................................................................... 10

2.5.1.4. Absorption Vapor Compression ......................................................................................................... 11

2.5.2. Results and Discussion........................................................................................................................... 11

2.5.2.1. Results................................................................................................................................................. 11

2.5.2.2. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 12

3. Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)....................................................................................................................... 12

3.1. INTRODUCE ............................................................................................................................................... 12

3.2. TYPES OF MED TUBE ARRANGEMENTS ............................................................................................ 13

3.2.1. MED horizontal tube arrangement ......................................................................................................... 13

3.2.2. Med vertical tube arrangement ............................................................................................................... 13

3.2.3. Vertically stacked tube bundles ............................................................................................................. 14

3.2.4. Discussion .............................................................................................................................................. 14

3.3. CONVENTIONAL MED PROCESS .......................................................................................................... 15

3.3.1. MED-FF ................................................................................................................................................. 15

3.3.2. MED-BF................................................................................................................................................. 16

3.3.3. MED-PF ................................................................................................................................................. 16

3.4. Multi-Effect Distillation with Thermal Vapor Compression (MED–TVC) ................................................. 17

 3.4.1. INTRODUCE......................................................................................................................................... 17

3.4.2. EQUIPMENT EVAPORATION ........................................................................................................... 17

3.4.3. PROCESS DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................... 17

3.4.4. PROCESS MODELING ........................................................................................................................ 18

4. Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF) Method ................................................................................................. 19

4.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 19

4.2. The multiple stage flash process .................................................................................................................. 20

4.3. Plants configurations .................................................................................................................................... 21

4.4. Discussion .................................................................................................................................................... 22

4.4.1. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Multi Stage Flash Distillation ....................................................... 22

4.4.2 The economic efficiency of Multi-Stage Flash Desalination (MSF) ...................................................... 23

4.5. Optimization of MSF Desalination Plants ................................................................................................... 24

5. Freezing Desalination (FD) Method ................................................................................................................. 25

5.1. History and Development of Freezing Desalination (FD) ........................................................................... 25

5.2. Freezing Desalination................................................................................................................................... 25

5.2.1. Freezing Desalination Process ............................................................................................................... 25

5.2.2. Capacity calculation ............................................................................................................................... 27

5.2.3. Results and Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 27

5.3. Secondary Refrigerant Freezing (SRF) ........................................................................................................ 28

 5.4. Desalination freezing through thermoelectric cooling ................................................................................. 28

5.4.1. Process ................................................................................................................................................... 28

5.4.2. Results and Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 29

6. The humidification-dehumidification (HDH) .................................................................................................. 30

6.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 30

6.2. The humidification-dehumidification process ............................................................................................. 31

6.3. Capacity calculation ..................................................................................................................................... 32

6.3.1. Recovery Rating (RR) ............................................................................................................................ 32

6.3.2. Energy reuse factor (F)........................................................................................................................... 33

6.3.3. Gained output ratio (GOR)..................................................................................................................... 33

6.4. Classify The humidification-dehumidification ............................................................................................ 33

7. Solar stills ........................................................................................................................................................ 34

References ............................................................................................................................................................ 38
 List of Tables

Table 1: An overview of the economic considerations related to thermal and membrane-based seawater
desalination methods. ........................................................................................................................................... 23

Table 2: The amount of diesel fuel needed to manufacture 10 m3 of clean water using RO technology. ............ 30
 List of Figures

Figure 1: Capacity of distillation processes for a) the globe b) USA c) Middle East countries in 2002 ................ 2

Figure 2: Summary of the desalination process...................................................................................................... 3

Figure 3: Thermal and membrane desalination processes ...................................................................................... 4

Figure 4: Energy classification or desalination processes. ..................................................................................... 4

Figure 5: The process of desalination through single-effect evaporation[10] ........................................................ 7

Figure 6: The temperature chart within the evaporation apparatus and the condensation [10] .............................. 7

Figure 7: Submerrget Evaporation ......................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 8: Falling film evaporator ........................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 9: MED horizontal tube arrangement. ...................................................................................................... 13

Figure 10: MED vertical tube bundle arrangement .............................................................................................. 14

Figure 11: MED vertically stacked tube bundles ................................................................................................. 14

Figure 12: Schematic of the forward feed MED configuration ............................................................................ 15

Figure 13: Schematic of the backward feed MED configuration ......................................................................... 16

Figure 14: Schematic of the parallel/cross feed MED configuration ................................................................... 17

Figure 15: Schematic of a MED–TVC process with n number of evaporators .................................................... 18

Figure 16: Distribution of desalination technologies............................................................................................ 19

Figure 17: The schematic diagram illustrating the configuration of an initial MSF stage and the accompanying
brine heater. .......................................................................................................................................................... 21

Figure 18: The schematic representation of a once-through MSF desalination plant. ......................................... 22
Figure 19:Scheme of a MSF brine circulation plant............................................................................................. 22

Figure 20 : Freezing Desalination Processes ........................................................................................................ 26

Figure 21: The relationship between the electrical energy consumption for producing 1 kg of potable water and
the COP of a freezer. ............................................................................................................................................ 27

Figure 22: A diagram illustrating the structure of a desalination unit utilizing SRF technology. ........................ 28

Figure 23. A schematic representation illustrating the integration of TAE, TAR and FD systems. .................... 29

Figure 24: The integration of a Freeze Desalination system with TAE/R and Diesel Engine. ............................ 30

Figure 25: Rain cycle[34] ..................................................................................................................................... 31

Figure 26: A schematic of the HDD process.[34] ............................................................................................... 32

Figure 27: Classifications of the HDH desalination systems.[35] ........................................................................ 34

Figure 28: A simple solar stills.[35] ..................................................................................................................... 35

Figure 29: Schematic of the solar stills system.[40] ............................................................................................. 35

Figure 30: Distillate flow rate verses time.[40] .................................................................................................... 36

 List of Abbreviations
Abbreviations Meaning
RO Reverse Osmosis
MSF Multi-Stage Flash
MED Multi-Effect Distillation
VC Vapor Compression
HDH Humidification–Dehumidification
FO Forward Osmosis
ED Electrodialysis
MEE Multiple Effect Evaporation
MVC Mechanical Vapor Compression
FD Freeze Desalination
LNG Natural Gas Liquefaction
MIGD Million Imperial Gallons per Day
GOR Gained output ratio
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
MEB Multiple Effect Boiling
MED–TVC Multi-Effect Distillation with Thermal Vapor Compression
SEE Single Effect Evaporation
TVC Thermal Vapor Compression
MVC Mechanical Vapor Compression
ABVC Absorption Vapor Compression
ADVC Adsorption Vapor Compression
SRF Secondary Refrigerant Freezing
L Left
R Right
TAEs Thermoacoustic engines
TAR Thermoacoustic refrigeration
PR Pressure Ratio
1. Introduction

1.1. The Role of Fresh water and Global Water Scarcity

Fresh water plays an extremely important role in human daily life as well as in production. It sustains
the lives of all plant species, animals, and humans. Clean water is also used for cooking, bathing,
personal hygiene, cleaning, laundering, and washing clothes. In agricultural production, fresh water is
a highly valuable resource for maintaining the life, enhancing the growth, and reproduction of crops.
In animal husbandry, clean water is indispensable for providing animals with hydration, ensuring their
health and preventing the spread of diseases.In various industries and manufacturing processes, fresh
water serves as the primary raw material for producing beverages and food. It is used as a coolant to
cool engines, machinery and to regulate temperature during industrial production. Moreover, fresh
water plays a special role in environmental conservation and biodiversity preservation. [1]
The Earth's surface is covered by approximately 71% water. Of this, about 97% is salt water, it
constitutes the majority of the water on Earth's surface. Meanwhile, about 3% of the remaining water
exists as freshwater. However, the freshwater that is not frozen can be found underground as
groundwater with only a very small. Although Earth has a vast amount of water resources, seawater is
not suitable for the needs of human life and society. The rapid increase in the world's population,
along with global warming, erratic climate changes, and the rapid industrialization of the world, has
led to an ever-growing demand for water supply. Additionally, environmental degradation, inefficient
management of water resources, wasteful water usage, and conflicts and wars have made clean water
increasingly scarce. [2]
Currently, around 1.1 billion people worldwide do not have access to clean water or come into contact
with it. People who use contaminated water are susceptible to waterborne diseases, which have a
significant impact on their lives and health, such as cholera, diarrhea, and dysentery. According to
annual statistical data, approximately 2 million people worldwide, most of whom are children, die
from diseases like diarrhea or dysentery.[3] According to predictions, the world population is expected
to increase rapidly in the coming years. It is forecasted that by 2030, approximately 60 countries will
face a severe shortage of clean water.[4] This harsh reality has already manifested in the city of Cape
Town, South Africa. Cape Town, the capital of South Africa with a population of 3.7 million people,
is experiencing a severe water shortage. According to calculations, "Day Zero" arrived in Cape Town
on July 9, 2018. The majority of the city's residents did not have access to municipal water for daily
use and consumption.[2]
In Vietnam, in recent years, the impact of climate change has become increasingly severe, with the
peak being the saltwater intrusion event in 2015-2016 and the current period in 2019-2020.
Particularly during prolonged drought seasons, the freshwater resources in the province of Ca Mau
have been significantly affected. Leaving thousands of households without sufficient freshwater for

1
drinking, daily activities. In particular, in remote and rural regions, where there is a high salinity and
alkalinity problem, people do not have access to sufficient freshwater due to the lack of groundwater
sources that meet the standard and the absence of a clean water supply system to meet their needs.[5]

1.2. Desalination methods in the world

Currently, both globally and in Vietnam, there is a serious risk of freshwater scarcity. The pressing
issue is to find a clean water source to meet the needs of the entire population on this planet.[6] In
addition, the shortage of energy and the depletion of resources remain challenging problems. Resource
and energy efficiency of desalination methods are crucial factors in addressing these complex issues.
Desalination is a primary technology aimed at meeting the demand for water supply by treating the
abundant saline water available on the Earth's surface. Therefore, desalination methods have been
chosen as an important approach for freshwater production. [7] [8]
The application of desalination methods is crucial in producing an adequate amount of clean water to
meet the daily needs of life and support various industries. During the period of 2005-2008, the annual
contracted capacity of reverse osmosis (RO) worldwide increased from 20 to 35 million cubic meters
per day, accounting for over 50% of the total installed desalination capacity on the planet. The world's
largest desalination plant in Ras al-Khair, Saudi Arabia, began operations in 2014 with a production
capacity of 1.025 million cubic meters per day, utilizing a hybrid system that combines multi-stage
flash (MSF) and reverse osmosis (RO) technologies[9] [10]. According to a survey conducted in the
previous decade, approximately 75 million people worldwide rely on distillation as their daily water
supply method.[11] Distillation is the sole source of freshwater for many countries. Saudi Arabia, the
United States, the United Arab Emirates, Spain, and Kuwait are the top five countries in terms of
desalination plant capacity, with capacities of 174, 16.2, 14.7, 6.4, and 5.8 percent respectively.[12]
[13] As of 2015, the total capacity of desalinated freshwater production was 86.55 million cubic
meters per day, generated by approximately 18,000 desalination plants worldwide.[14] [15] The
Middle East and North Africa accounted for nearly 44 percent of the total capacity.[16] According to
the Water Security Handbook by IDA (DesalData, 2019), desalination methods have been
implemented in over 100 countries. As of 2017, there were nearly 21,000 desalination plants
worldwide utilizing desalination technology to produce freshwater, with a capacity of 14,000,000
cubic meters per day.[17] [18]

Figure 1: Capacity of distillation processes for a) the globe b) USA c) Middle East countries in 2002
2
1.3. Definition and Classification of Desalination Methods

1.3.1. Definition

The industrial desalination processes involve separating freshwater and removing salts, ions from
seawater or brackish water. It can also be defined as follows: ―the desalination method is a process of
removing or reducing the amount of salt in water, making the water pure or less salty‖. [19]

1.3.2. Classification

Since 1960, the production of water through desalination methods to meet the demand for clean water
has been developing. Currently, research in this technology is receiving increasing attention and
advancement. This was demonstrated in 2010 when the number of patents doubled compared to 2005.
Based on the production processes, desalination plants using desalination methods are generally
categorized into two main types: thermal processes (including multi-effect distillation (MED), multi-
stage flash (MSF), vapor compression distillation (VC), humidification–dehumidification desalination
(HDH), freezing) and membrane processes (reverse osmosis (RO), forward osmosis (FO),
electrodialysis (ED)).[20] Additionally, other processes such as ion exchange and hybrid processes can
also be utilized. Figure 2, It is a summary of the desalination process. [9] [21] [22]

Figure 2: Summary of the desalination process

In electrolysis positive and negative ions are separated from brine, desalination processes can be based
on thermal or membrane methods. Figure 3. The thermal techniques include two main categories:
 Crystallization: evaporation followed by condensation of water
 Freezing: involves freezing followed by melting of water
The evaporation process in desalination involves heat transfer either through boiling or within the
liquid bulk, which is referred to as flashing. These processes are significant and are discussed in more
detail in chapter 3.
The primary membrane-based desalination process is reverse osmosis (RO), where fresh water
permeates under high pressure through semi-permeable membranes, while leaving behind a highly
3
concentrated brine solution. Another membrane process is electrodialysis (ED), which has limited
industrial applications. In ED, electrically charged salt ions are separated using selective ion exchange
membranes, resulting in low salinity product water. Simultaneously, a highly concentrated brine
stream is generated on the other side of the membrane. [8]

Figure 3: Thermal and membrane desalination processes

Desalination processes can be categorized based on the primary form of energy utilized to drive the
process. Figure 4 illustrates this classification. Thermal energy processes are divided into two
categories: processes where energy is added and processes where energy is removed. Processes where
energy is added include MSF, MEE, HDH, and processes combined with thermal, chemical,
adsorption, or absorption heat pumps. The heating steam in these processes can be sourced from a co-
generation power plant, a dedicated boiler unit, or solar energy. Desalination through energy removal
involves the freezing process. RO and Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC) systems are classified
as mechanical energy desalination methods. In the RO process, mechanical energy, or the pressure
difference across the membrane, propels water through the membrane while retaining salt in the brine
stream.[23] [24] In the MVC process, the mechanical energy from the vapor compressor augments the
pressure and temperature of the distillate vapor, which is then used to heat the feed seawater. [8][25]

Figure 4: Energy classification or desalination processes.

4
1.4. The trend in the development of thermal desalination methods

The need for water continues to rise, the supply of clean water remains constrained. This situation will
soon lead our planet into a severe freshwater scarcity crisis. As the majority of Earth's water is in the
form of seawater, it is considered a plentiful resource that can be utilized to produce freshwater.
Therefore, desalination technology has been regarded as a leading solution with significant potential to
meet global water supply needs in the future.[26] Currently, RO is widely recognized as the
predominant and widely adopted technology utilized by the majority of desalination plants worldwide.
However, Freeze Desalination (FD) is an emerging technology that presents significant advantages
over traditional thermal and membrane-based desalination methods. [7] [27]
In direct FD, the integration of hydrate gas with the liquefaction process of natural gas (LNG) is a
widely discussed approach aimed at reducing desalination costs. The advancement of simulation and
modeling techniques in indirect FD has contributed to a better understanding of ice formation and salt
trapping mechanisms, which are crucial areas that require additional experimental and numerical
investigations. Notwithstanding, the successful implementation of LNG refrigeration in the freeze
desalination process, the integration of FD with conventional desalination technologies, and the
utilization of ultrasound for enhanced freezing show promising potential for the commercial viability
of FD. [6] [28]
In the essay talk about the desalination technologies using thermal. Thermal desalination methods
replicate the natural water cycle process, which involves evaporation from the ocean, condensation as
rain or snow in the atmosphere, and subsequent collection. These methods heavily rely on heat, and
therefore, they are often integrated with power plants and refineries to utilize waste heat generated by
these facilities. [17]
Nowadays, the thermal desalination method has begun to be recognized due to several advantages over
the membrane desalination method. The characteristics of the thermal desalination method address the
limitations of membrane desalination technology, such as the ability to treat highly saline water (such
as seawater), which can cause membrane fouling and hinder the application of membrane-based
methods. In contrast to the RO method, the thermal desalination method does not require extensive
pretreatment and the use of chemicals during the process. Additionally, RO also produces highly
concentrated brine, which can be environmentally harmful. In addition, thermal desalination often has
the ability to counteract the effects of impurities and pollution in the source water better than
membrane desalination. The thermal desalination process can remove certain impurities such as
bacteria, viruses, and organic compounds through the use of heat for water purification. Thermal
desalination typically utilizes thermal energy from renewable sources such as solar power or waste
heat from other industrial processes. This helps reduce reliance on fossil fuel energy and decrease
carbon emissions. Thermal desalination can be applied in medium to large-scale plants to meet
significant demands for fresh water. It can also be used in temporary applications or in remote areas
5
where there is no readily available freshwater source [7]. The thermal desalination technology is
expected to continue to develop significantly in the future due to its numerous prominent advantages
and its compatibility with various clean technologies and energy sources in the production process,
thereby avoiding environmental pollution.[29]

2. Single Effect Evaporation (SEE)

2.1. Introduce

The industrial applications of single effect evaporation desalination systems are significantly
restricted. These systems find utilization primarily in marine vessels [30]. The limitation stems from
the thermal efficiency ratio of the systems being less than one, meaning that the amount of water
produced is less than the amount of hot steam needed to operate the system. Despite this limitation, a
comprehensive comprehension of the SEE process is imperative, as it constitutes a fundamental
component in various other SEE compression systems and MEE processes. [31] [32]

2.2. Process Description

Before being introduced into the evaporation system, seawater (Mf) undergoes chemical treatment and
degassing processes. The chemical treatment step is important to prevent foaming and formation of
deposits within the evaporation apparatus, both of which could significantly hinder its efficiency.
Within the evaporation apparatus, the incoming water is directed upward and falls as a thin film onto
horizontally arranged rows of tubes. The condensation of hot, saturated water vapor, along with the
release latent heat, provides the necessary thermal cues and latent heat input for seawater to undergo
evaporation. Consequently, the temperature of the incoming water (T f) is elevated to the boiling
temperature (Tb). [33]
Vapor is produced during boiling at a rate (Md), representing the salt's free vaporization. Figure 16
This indicates that the temperature of the vapor produced (Tv) is below the boiling point, factoring in
the increase in boiling point(BPE). Likewise, the temperature of the condensed vapor (Td) is also
lower than that of the produced vapor due to losses from degassing equipment, transmission lines, and
condensation. The vapor created passes through a demister, a woven wire mesh known as a steel mesh
demister, to eliminate entrained saltwater droplets.
Furthermore, in heat compression devices if water droplets get caught in the water spray nozzle, it can
cause wear and tear on the nozzle and diffuser. The saturation temperature of the vapor exiting the
demister apparatus is lower (Tv). This temperature reduction is a result of pressure loss caused by
friction within the demister apparatus. These factors collectively contribute to a further reduction in
the temperature of the condensed vapor."[31]

6
 Figure 5: The process of desalination through single-effect evaporation[31]

Figure 6: The temperature chart within the evaporation apparatus and the condensation [31]

2.3. Process Modeling

Divided into 5 parts:

 Mass balance.
 Energy balance of the evaporation and condensation apparatus.
 Boiling point elevation and irreversibilities.
 Heat transfer regions of the evaporation and condensation apparatus.
 Synthesis of performance parameters [31]

2.4. Equipment Evaporation

There are three common types of evaporative devices: Submerrget Evaporation, Falling film
evaporator, Plate evaporation[31]

7
 Figure 7: Submerrget Evaporation

Figure 8: Falling film evaporator

2.5. Single Effect Evaporation – Vapor Compression

2.5.1. Abstract

A comparative analysis was conducted on four distinct single-effect evaporative desalination systems
controlled by vapor compression pumps, namely Absorption Vapor Compression (ABVC), Thermal
vapor compression (TVC), Adsorption Vapor Compression (ADVC), and Mechanical vapor
compression (MVC) systems.[34] This research involved the formulation of mathematical models for
each of these systems, incorporating equations that preserve energy and mass, the design also utilized
equations to ascertain the heat transfer surface area in both the evaporator and condenser units [35].
The assessment was centered on comparing performance ratios, power consumption, heat transfer
area, and cooling water flow rate.[36] [37]

2.5.1.1. Thermal vapor compression

8
The utilization of the SEE-TVC desalination process is quite limited in industrial applications.
Nevertheless, TVC finds application in Multiple Effect Evaporation systems(MEE-TVC).[38] The
attractiveness of the TVC method lies in its uncomplicated operation, cost-effective maintenance,
straightforward geometry, and lack of moving parts. Subsequent sections encompass an overview of
the process components, TVC mathematical model, and an analysis of system performance in relation
to design and operational parameters. El-Dessouky established this mathematical model in 1997 [31] .
The system is composed of an evaporator unit, a water spray nozzle, and a fuel heater. Within the
evaporator unit, there is an evaporator/condenser heat exchanger, a vapor space, a water distribution
system, and a mist eliminator. Meanwhile, the water spray nozzle comprises a steam nozzle, a suction
blower, a mixing nozzle, and a diffuser. The heaters function as counter-current surface condenser
devices in reverse flow.[39] [40]
The single-effect evaporation system model is divided into five parts:
 Mass balance.
 Energy balance of the evaporation and condensation apparatus.
 Boiling point elevation and irreversibilities.
 Heat transfer regions of the evaporation and condensation apparatus.
 Synthesis of performance parameters [41]
This research presents an efficient theoretical model for analyzing single-acting vapor compression
desalination equipment. Comprehensive results illustrate the correlation between fresh water cost
control factors - namely, thermal efficiency ratio, specific heat transfer area, and specific coolant flow
ratio -and various design and operational variables. These variables include the boiling temperature of
brine, the vapor compression ratio, and the pressure of the engine steam [41]

2.5.1.2. Mechanical vapor compression

An examination of prior research indicates that MVC systems offer a distinct advantage in water
treatment, particularly when addressing challenging feed conditions and long-distance. Requirement
required:

 A thorough design and examination of evaporators and preheaters implemented in MVC

systems..
 Exergy analysis conducted with revised seawater properties [14].
 Second-law efficiency calculations using a recently proposed definition for desalting systems.
 Heat economic calculation model analysis at the component level within the plant,
 An investigation of output parameters in relation to crucial plant inputs such as compressor
efficiency, pump efficiency, unit electricity cost, and cost index factor.[42]

9
The compressor operates by superheating the vapor from the evaporator, elevating its temperature
beyond the boiling point of the brine. This compressed vapor then enters the evaporator tubes,
undergoing condensation as it cools to its saturation temperature and releases latent heat. Both the
resulting condensate and the discharged brine carry substantial energy, which is recuperated in the
feed heat exchanger. Consequently, the feed temperature increases from an initial 25°C to a level
within 3-6°C of the condensate and brine temperature [16].
A mathematical model is devised for a single-effect Multiple Vapor Compression (MVC) system
utilizing a water-injected twin screw compressor. The aim is to assess the system's operational traits
and the effects of significant design parameters. The model encompasses equations for mass and
energy balances in the evaporator/condenser, heat transfer equations for determining heat transfer
areas, a twin screw compressor model for calculating specific compressor power, determination of
injected water mass fraction, and brine water properties [17].
A comprehensive model of the MVC process is introduced, encompassing various novel design
elements. This involves sizing the evaporator unit, determining the dimensions of degassing
equipment and ventilation system capacity, as well as evaluating heat transfer area and power
consumption. Model predictions are validated against available field data for specific power
consumption and specific heat transfer area, indicating a favorable alignment between the model's
predictions and field data [18] [43].

2.5.1.3. Adsorption Vapor Compression

Heat pump adsorption-desorption refrigeration is environmentally friendly. The pump employs non-
harmful liquid substances that do not contribute to ozone depletion. Its impact on the greenhouse
effect is minimal, given its capacity to be powered by renewable energy or waste sources, in addition
to its high thermal efficiency. Moreover, the process is uncomplicated, with no moving parts, ensuring
longevity and minimal vibration. Consequently, adsorption-desorption heat pump systems have gained
growing attention in recent years as alternatives to traditional compression systems that involve ozone-
depleting substances. These heat pumps find applications in air conditioning and ice-making [36]
The system comprises the evaporator/condenser unit, two adsorption beds, feed preheaters, and a heat
exchanger dedicated to the thermal fluid circulating between the adsorption and desorption beds. It's
worth mentioning that in this setup, the evaporator and condenser are integrated into a unified unit,
doing away with the necessity for distinct condenser and evaporator components typically present in
conventional adsorption heat pumps [44]
The mathematical model of the single-effect adsorption vapor compression desalination system
comprises equations that balance the evaporator, feed preheaters, adsorption bed, and desorption bed
[44]
The ADVC system stands out as a highly effective vapor compression desalination system. It

10
incorporates typical unit processes found in other single-effect configurations, such as the evaporator
and the preliminary feedwater heater. Additionally, its heat pump is simple, consisting of two zeolite
layers for adsorption and desorption. The activities of these layers are regulated by pressure and
temperature, designed to absorb vapor and generate compressed vapor. A steady-state mathematical
model is introduced for system design and performance assessment [44]

2.5.1.4. Absorption Vapor Compression

Absorption heat pumps are widely employed for air conditioning. In these applications, ammonia-
water heat pumps, where ammonia serves as the evaporating component, are commonly utilized. The
literature explores alternative working fluids beyond ammonia-water to meet industrial demands and
applications beyond air conditioning . Other working fluids, such as LiBr-water and hydroxide
solutions like KOH and NaOH, are investigated [36]
The absorption heat pumps are composed of four key elements: the generator, the absorber, the
evaporator, and the condenser. Heat absorption occurs in the evaporator and the generator, while heat
rejection happens in the condenser and the absorber. This pump design allows for simultaneous
heating and cooling. The system includes six components: the generator, the absorber, the combined
evaporator/condenser, and three heat exchangers. In this setup, the desalination unit within the
evaporator serves the dual purpose of both a standalone evaporator and the traditional condenser in
conventional absorption heat pumps [45]
The steady-state model involves a sequence of material and energy equilibrium equations, heat
transfer formulations, and thermodynamic correlations. [45]
The thermal efficiency ratio remains unaffected by various design and operational parameters. It
fluctuates within the range of 2.4-2.8, exhibiting an increase of almost 50-70% compared to the
thermal compression ratio in single-effect systems . The impact of the LiBr mass fraction in the
concentrated solution on system performance is minimal. However, the choice of this parameter relies
on the available vapor quantity.
The specific heat transfer area decreases as the vapor heating temperature and the temperature
differential between vapor heating and boiling saltwater increase. Likewise, the specific flow rate of
cooling water decreases with a rise in the vapor heating temperature and a decrease in the temperature
difference between vapor heating and boiling saltwater.[45]

2.5.2. Results and Discussion

2.5.2.1. Results

A comparison is made between the adsorption vapor compression (ADVC) system and other single-
effect vapor compression methodologies, namely thermal vapor compression (TVC), mechanical
vapor compression (MVC), and absorption vapor compression (ABVC). Performance data for TVC,

11
MVC, and ABVC systems are gathered from studies conducted by El-Dessouky and Ettouney [13] for
TVC, Ettouney et al. [21] for MVC, and Mandani et al. [20] for ABVC. The ADVC system
demonstrates the highest thermal performance ratio, while TVC exhibits the lowest. In the case of the
MVC system, performance is evaluated based on specific power consumption in kWh/m3, aligning
with industry standards and proving highly competitive against reverse osmosis processes [21].
The specific heat transfer area is determined by the temperature difference between the condensing
vapor and boiling brine, acting as the driving force for heat transfer during evaporation. ADVC and
MVC systems share identical specific heat transfer areas, with TVC exhibiting the lowest area due to
the significant temperature difference between compressed vapor and boiling brine in the TVC system.
ABVC's specific heat transfer area is lower than that of ADVC and MVC systems, attributed to part of
the evaporation process occurring in the absorber [20].
Regarding the specific flow rate of cooling water, TVC records the highest value, influenced by the
vapor entrained by the ejector. ADVC and ABVC systems showcase similar values, significantly
lower than the TVC system. This suggests minimal heat rejection to the surroundings in ADVC and
ABVC systems, highlighting their higher efficiency.[46] [47]

2.5.2.2. Conclusion

Performance ratios of all four systems show an increase at lower boiling temperatures.
In the MVC system, higher temperature differences between compressed steam and boiling brine
result in increased specific power consumption. Elevated motive steam pressures enhance the
performance ratio of the TVC system. Conversely, ABVC and ADVC systems exhibit higher
performance ratios when the temperature differences between compressed vapor and boiling
temperature are lower.
While the MVC system doesn't require cooling water, it necessitates a feed preheater to elevate the
feed seawater temperature by recuperating thermal energy from reject brine and condensed vapor. On
the other hand, TVC, ABVC, and ADVC systems rely on cooling water to remove excess heat
provided by motive steam.
ABVC and ADVC systems generate hot utility water that could be utilized in other applications. In the
TVC system, the specific cooling water flow rate decreases at higher boiling temperatures and motive
steam pressures. Conversely, in ABVC and ADVC systems, the specific cooling water flow rate
increases with higher boiling temperatures and an increased temperature difference between
compressed vapor and boiling brine [11].

3. Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)

3.1. INTRODUCE

The MED process has a long history, with references and patents dating back to the 1840s.[48]

12
However, advancements in recent years have revitalized this method and put it in direct competition
with other technologies. Multi-effect distillation is currently the second most widely used thermal
desalination method globally, in terms of installed capacity [49] [50]. In particular, multi-effect
evaporation and multi-effect evaporation with thermal vapor compression processes have proven to be
highly advantageous compared to other thermal desalination methods. These techniques are especially
well-suited for large-scale operations and can effectively utilize industrial waste heat. [51] [52]
The MED process can be divided into three different types depending on how its heat transfer surface
is set up: vertical climbing film tube, rising film vertical tube, or horizontal tube falling film.[53] [54]
Another method of categorizing the process is by the direction in which brine and vapor flow between
effects, such as forward, backward, or parallel feed configurations.[55] [56]

3.2. TYPES OF MED TUBE ARRANGEMENTS

There are three main configurations of heat exchanger tubing: horizontal, vertical, and stacked
vertically. These arrangements are determined by the placement of the tubes within the exchanger.[55]

3.2.1. MED horizontal tube arrangement

In this arrangement, the tube bundles are positioned horizontally within the vessel, as depicted in
Figure 9. The feed water is evenly distributed over the exterior of the tubes, while the interior of the
tubes retains the heat necessary to convert the feed water into vapor. This vapor is then channeled into
the subsequent effect at a lower pressure level.[55]

Figure 9: MED horizontal tube arrangement.

3.2.2. Med vertical tube arrangement

Figure 10 illustrates the vertical arrangement of tube bundles. The feed water is introduced at the
upper end of the system and travels along the inner surface of the tubes. The heat required for
vaporization is applied to the outer surface of the tubing.[57] This design offers a significant
advantage over the horizontal tube configuration, as it allows for increased rates of heat transfer.
Increased heat transfer rates are a direct outcome of having a slender layer on both the interior and
exterior of the heat exchanger tubing. Nevertheless, one downside to this particular arrangement is the

13
challenge of guaranteeing equal flow distribution for every individual tube.[55]

Figure 10: MED vertical tube bundle arrangement

3.2.3. Vertically stacked tube bundles

Figure 11 illustrates the tubing configuration in the vertically stacked unit. In this particular design, the
concentrated liquid travels downwards between the effects, eliminating the requirement for pumping.
Similar to the previously mentioned vertical unit, the feed water is introduced to the inner surface of
the tubing while the heating for vaporization occurs on the outer surface of the tube bundle. The
diagram displays two sets of bundles, but the unit has the capability to include multiple sets.[55]

Figure 11: MED vertically stacked tube bundles

3.2.4. Discussion

The advantage of vertical tube bundle arrangement over the horizontal tube arrangement is higher heat
transfer rates. Higher heat transfer rates result from having a thin film on both the inside and outside
14
surfaces of the heat exchanger tubing.[58]
One downside of vertical tube bundle arrangement is the challenge of guaranteeing equal distribution
of flow for every tube.[59]
In the case of vertically stacked tube bundles, the concentrate effortlessly descends between the layers,
rendering the use of pumps unnecessary.[60]

3.3. CONVENTIONAL MED PROCESS

A typical MED system is comprised of a series of individual evaporators and a concluding condenser.
In addition, there are supplementary components such as a venting mechanism, distillate flashing
containers, and equipment for supplying and rejecting seawater.
Freshwater is acquired through the process of water evaporation in an evaporator. The evaporator is
made up of a horizontal bundle of tubes, a demister, and a vapor space. Diagrams of a MED (multi-
effect distillation) system can be seen in Figures 12, 13, and 14, showcasing the forward, backward,
and parallel-cross feed configurations respectively. These configurations vary in terms of the direction
in which the brine being evaporated and the heating steam flow. In every setup, superheated steam is
brought in from an external source and directed into the tube section of the initial stage to serve as a
heat source for the seawater being supplied. The resulting condensed water is then returned to the
outside source, which could be a boiler or other system.[55]

3.3.1. MED-FF

In the diagram depicted in Figure 12, the feedwater is directed into the first effect. Here, a portion of
the feed undergoes evaporation while the rest, referred to as brine, moves on to the second effect. In
the second effect, more of the brine evaporates and the remaining amount serves as the feed for the
subsequent effect. This cycle continues until it reaches the final effect.[55]
As the refreshing seawater makes its way into the condenser, it engages in a heat exchange with the
vapor from the final effect. This is because, in the forward feed setup, both the feed and vapor travel in
the same direction through the effects. The major benefit of this configuration is its capability to
function at elevated top brine temperatures.[55]

Figure 12: Schematic of the forward feed MED configuration

15
3.3.2. MED-BF

The reverse flow design, as illustrated in Figure 13, involves introducing seawater into the final
condenser before it enters the last effect of the system. This last effect operates at the lowest
temperature and pressure compared to the other effects. The brine that exits the last effect then flows
through each subsequent effect until it reaches the first one. From there, the brine is discharged back
into the sea. As we move from the last effect to the first, both the temperature and pressure of the
system increase. In this arrangement, the feed and vapor streams have opposing directions of flow.
The reverse flow setup involves exposing the brine with the highest level of concentration to the
hottest part of the system, which is a significant disadvantage. This can lead to the formation of
stubborn mineral deposits in the evaporator, causing potential scaling issues. Additionally, this
arrangement can also result in higher maintenance expenses and increased energy consumption for
pumping.[55]

Figure 13: Schematic of the backward feed MED configuration

3.3.3. MED-PF

Figure 14 illustrates the parallelcross feed MED systems, where the feed is evenly distributed among
all effects. The brine from each effect then enters into the next one, while both feed and vapor flow in
the same direction. This setup shares a similar flow pattern to the forward feed configuration and
boasts a straightforward design compared to other layouts. Additionally, this arrangement eliminates
the need for pumps to transfer unevaporated brine between effects, as the brine naturally moves from
higher to lower pressure effects. Overall, the parallelcross feed MED system is widely utilized in
industrial settings.[55]

16
 Figure 14: Schematic of the parallel/cross feed MED configuration

3.4. Multi-Effect Distillation with Thermal Vapor Compression (MED–TVC)

3.4.1. INTRODUCE

The fusion of TVC and traditional MED techniques yields a cost-effective and environmentally
friendly MED-TVC system. This particular process has garnered significant attention in recent years
due to its ability to handle large-scale operations, with some systems reaching an impressive 15 MIGD
output per day. [61] [62]
Out of all the different types of MED systems, the horizontal tubes falling-film evaporation (HT-FF-
MED) with integrated TVC stands out as the most desirable configuration.[63] This is especially true
for the Middle East region, where it has become a popular choice due to its versatility in utilizing
various heat sources, minimal formation of scale, and high performance ratios (PR).[61] [64]

3.4.2. EQUIPMENT EVAPORATION

The key elements of the system include the condenser, a steam jet ejector that serves as a thermal
compressor, and falling film evaporators, also referred to as effects.[55]

3.4.3. PROCESS DESCRIPTION

As depicted in Figure 15, the seawater used for feeding exits the condenser at temperature T f and
undergoes a heat exchange with the vapors produced in the final stage. The majority of this seawater is
then released back into the sea as cooling water, while the remaining portion, labeled as F, is evenly
distributed among the stages. This cooling water effectively removes any excess heat introduced by
the hot motive steam. The resulting vapor then moves from left to right, following a decrease in
pressure, while the feed seawater is sprayed perpendicularly.[65]
The outside source generates a powerful steam, which is then directed through the thermal vapor
compressor. This technique captures and intensifies some of the steam that was created in the previous
stage. The compressed steam from the thermal vapor compressor is then fed into the first effect's tube
side, where it acts as the heat source for the incoming seawater. The seawater is sprayed onto the
17
tubes' exterior surface, while the heating steam from the thermal vapor compressor is condensed
within the tubes. The feed seawater is heated up to the boiling point of the first effect, also known as
the top brine temperature (T1). This causes a portion of the seawater to evaporate and produce vapor
(D1). The vapor is then channeled to the second effect, where it acts as a heat source at a lower
temperature and pressure than the previous effect. The temperature of the vapor created in the first
effect (Tv1), is lower than T1 due to the boiling point being elevated (BPE).[66]
A type of wire mist separator, commonly referred to as a wire mesh demister, is employed in every
stage to eliminate any brine droplets that may be present. The condensate from the first stage is
divided, with some returning to its original source and the remainder entering the first flashing box. To
maximize the energy of the brine leaving the first stage (B1), it is directed to the subsequent stage and
continues in this manner until it reaches the final stage at a lower pressure than the previous one.
The creation of vapor in effects 2 – n is achieved through two distinct methods. The first involves the
boiling process occurring on the surface of the tubes, while the second utilizes the flashing process
within the liquid bulk. Additionally, flashing also takes place in designated boxes as a result of
condensation from the second effect and beyond. These special boxes play a crucial role in recovering
heat from the condensed freshwater.[67]
In the final stage, the resulting vapor (Dn) is split into two separate streams. The first stream, Dev, is
compressed by the thermal vapor compressor after being drawn in. Meanwhile, the second stream, Dc,
is directed towards the condenser, where it increases the temperature of incoming seawater from T cw to
Tf.[68]

Figure 15: Schematic of a MED–TVC process with n number of evaporators

3.4.4. PROCESS MODELING

18
The MED-TVC-PF system model is divided into six parts:[61]
 Mass and energy balance model
 Flashing box of brine
 Exergy model
 Performance parameters
 Computational algorithm
 Model verification

4. Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF) Method

4.1. Introduction

In 2016, the combined capacity of desalination plants worldwide reached 88.6 million m3/day,
providing daily access to clean water for approximately 300 million people [69]. The primary
desalination techniques used are RO, MSF, and MED. Specifically, RO technology accounted for 65%
of the total installed capacity globally.[70] Thermal desalination operations made up 28% of the total
capacity, with 21% attributed to the MSF process and 7% to the MED process . The remaining
capacity included nanofiltration, electrodialysis, and other operations . This distribution is also
illustrated in Figure 16 [69].

Figure 16: Distribution of desalination technologies

Among the various thermal desalination methods, The Multiple Stage Flash (MSF) evaporation
method, which belongs to the category of thermal desalination techniques, has been extensively
employed for numerous years and presently constitutes a significant segment within the desalination
sector.[71]. The plant capacity is typically measured in Million Imperial Gallons per Day (MIGD),
equivalent to 4546 m3/day, which represents the water demand of 200,000 people [72]. MSF units can
desalinate from 0.2 to 17 MIGD of saline water, and installations consisting of multiple units are used

19
to produce 0.2 to 210 MIGD of fresh water. The uppermost temperature of the brine in MSF units
ranges from 90°C to 110°C [72]. In terms of performance parameters, the current commercial MSF
solutions have a GOR (ratio of water vapor to saline water) and PR (pressure ratio) ranging from 8 to
10, varying based on the operational and structural characteristics of the plant [73] [74].

4.2. The multiple stage flash process

The MSF technique shares similarities with multicomponent distillation, but it differs in that there is
no transfer of materials between the counter-current flow streams. In practice, the MSF method
involves a rapid evaporation process within a vacuum setting, where the vacuum pressure and
evaporation temperature both undergo changes as the stages progress, with the temperature decreasing
from the initial stage to the final stage.[69].
In the MSF process, successive stages are maintained at lower pressures (vacuum) to optimize water
and energy recovery.[75] The vacuum is generated either by either using a steam ejector powered by
high-pressure steam or utilizing a mechanical vacuum pump. To optimize the efficiency of the MSF
process, a fraction of the brine effluent is re-circulated and blended with the incoming seawater in the
heat rejection section using a brine re-circulation pump. Nevertheless, the drawback of recirculation is
the heightened utilization of pumps and valves [76]. In smaller MSF facilities, the exclusion of the
heat rejection section may be considered for the sake of simplicity.[69] In an MSF system, a portion of
the seawater is obtained as distilled water (distillate), while the remaining portion is discharged as a
high TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) brine solution.[77] The concentration factor is maintained at
around 1.5 through a blowdown system to prevent scale formation on the heat transfer surfaces.[4]
A typical MSF plant consists of a minimum of 20 stages, where freshwater is completely separated
from the saltwater through the evaporation process.[78] In the initial stage, the brine is heated by the
hot steam supplied by the steam generator, which raises the temperature of the solution to the value
required for that particular stage. The higher the temperature, the higher the evaporation rate, as more
water vapor is extracted from the saltwater solution. Additionally, a preheater unit is integrated above
each stage to moderatebly rise the temperature of the brine before entering the steam generator. The
preheating is achieved through the condensation of the vapor extracted within the same stage.In each
flash chamber, the appropriate pressure value determines the conditions for flash evaporation. As soon
as the brine enters the stage, its temperature decreases to the saturation temperature corresponding to
that pressure. This creates the conditions for rapid evaporation to occur, where water in the brine
transforms into steam and is separated from the saltwater solution. [71]

20
 Figure 17: The schematic diagram illustrating the configuration of an initial MSF stage and the
accompanying brine heater.
Freshwater production is impacted by this temperature differential, which is dictated by the pressure
decrease. As the pressure rises, the vapor fraction within the vapor-liquid combination also escalates,
aligning with the proportion of freshwater extracted from the brine at each stage. However, it is
essential to ensure that the brine discharge is returned to the reservoir in an environmentally
responsible manner, taking into account the surrounding ecosystem. Consequently, the outlet
temperature must adhere to specific ranges. This is why the number of stages decreases for wider
temperature differentials, as the drain temperature would be attained more rapidly.

4.3. Plants configurations

An MSF plant can be designed with two different configurations: once-through and brine circulation.
Once-Through Configuration: In this configuration, as described in Figure 6, the brine flows through
each stage once. The brine enters the first stage, where flash evaporation occurs, and then moves
sequentially through each stage, with freshwater being separated from the saltwater in each stage. The
brine is not recirculated back to the earlier stages or preheaters. This configuration is simpler and often
suitable for small to medium-scale applications.

21
 Figure 18: The schematic representation of a once-through MSF desalination plant.
Brine Circulation Configuration: In this configuration, as shown in Figure 3, the brine is recirculated
in the preheaters of the last stages, typically the last 3-5 stages, before being sent back to the earlier
stages and the heater. Brine circulation helps improve thermal efficiency and energy savings. The
brine is reused and preheated before being recycled in the earlier stages, creating better conditions for
the evaporation process. This configuration is commonly used in larger MSF plants to achieve higher
efficiency and energy savings.

Figure 19:Scheme of a MSF brine circulation plant

4.4. Discussion

4.4.1. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Multi Stage Flash Distillation

The Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) process offers several advantages [79]. It incorporates a heat recovery
system that utilizes steam to heat the incoming seawater, resulting in energy savings. MSF also
exhibits a lower tendency for fouling and scaling, reducing maintenance and ensuring sustained
efficiency. It is capable of treating water with high salinity, making it suitable for sources with
elevated salt concentrations. Moreover, the process provides high-quality freshwater, surpassing the
quality achieved by Reverse Osmosis (RO) methods. MSF boasts high productivity in freshwater
production, making it suitable for areas with significant water demand.
However, the MSF process has some negatives [79]. It requires a substantial amount of heat energy to
22
produce freshwater, resulting in higher energy consumption compared to other methods like Multi-
Effect Distillation (MED) and RO. The elevated temperatures in MSF can lead to increased corrosion
and scaling, diminishing heat transfer efficiency and necessitating frequent maintenance. Additionally,
the production costs of water through the MSF process are relatively high due to energy requirements
and other technical considerations. The capital investment for MSF equipment is also higher compared
to RO systems. Furthermore, MSF equipment requires more space and has a larger footprint, making it
less suitable for applications with limited space availability.

4.4.2 The economic efficiency of Multi-Stage Flash Desalination (MSF)

The economic efficiency of the Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) process in freshwater production can be
evaluated based on its total capacity, specific energy consumption, and water production costs, as
show in table 1 [79]. MSF has the advantage of being able to achieve a large total capacity, making it
capable of producing a significant amount of freshwater to meet the demands of a region or even an
entire country.However, it's important to consider the specific energy consumption of the MSF
process. MSF requires a substantial amount of energy to heat and evaporate water, converting
seawater into freshwater. As a result, it tends to have higher energy consumption compared to
alternative methods like Reverse Osmosis (RO).In addition, the production costs associated with MSF
include capital investment, operational expenses, maintenance costs, and fuel requirements. These
costs can be relatively high due to the significant energy demands and other factors such as the
system's size, technology utilized, and local conditions. To determine the economic viability of MSF, a
thorough analysis is necessary, taking into account factors such as water prices and specific project
considerations. While MSF offers the advantage of high total capacity, it's important to carefully
assess its energy consumption and production costs to ensure optimal economic efficiency.
Table 1: An overview of the economic considerations related to thermal and membrane-based
seawater desalination methods.
Water Desalination Total Capacity Specific Energy Water production
Method (m3/day) Consumption (kWh/m3) Cost ($/m3)
MSF 50,000-70,000 13.5-25.5 0.84-1.6
MED 5,000-35,000 6.5-28 1.21-1.59
CSP +MED >5,000 2.5-3
RO 15,00-320,000 3-8 0.7-0.66
PV +RO <100 4-5 11.7-15.6
PV +RO 1,000 2.4 1.74-2.59
PV +RO 50,000-190,000 2.5-6.6 0.89-1.8

23
4.5. Optimization of MSF Desalination Plants

A dual-purpose desalination plant primarily comprises three interconnected systems: the steam
generating plant, the turbine-generator system, and the desalination process. It typically produces
steam at high temperatures and pressures (500°C and 87 atm)[80]. The maximum power output can be
achieved by fully condensing this steam using a condensing turbine. The desalination plant usually has
a maximum allowable temperature limit (114-121°C for acid treatment plants, 88-91°C for additive
treatment plants)[80]. To provide suitable steam within the restricted temperature range for the
desalination process, a backpressure turbine is commonly employed. As the exhaust temperature from
this turbine increases, water production also increases, but the generated power significantly decreases.
Backpressure turbines are characterized by a high thermal efficiency but a lower power-to-water ratio,
indicating a higher water demand. On the other hand, extraction turbines are preferred when the
power-to-water requirements are low.
In some large MSF plants, a dual-purpose approach is adopted, allowing for the simultaneous
production of power and water. This is achieved by utilizing either a backpressure turbine (using
steam from the low-pressure section of a steam turbine) or an extraction condensing turbine (also
known as a pass-out steam turbine)[80]. In an extraction turbine, steam is extracted and directed to
meet specific pressure and temperature requirements, while the remaining portion in the turbine is
used to generate electricity. Co-generation cycles using extraction condensing turbines with a power to
water ratio ranging from 10.2 to 17.5 MW/migd were employed until 1982 [80]. From 1983 onwards,
backpressure turbines have been used in most new dual-purpose desalination plants. [80]
A backpressure steam turbine is used in systems where the power-to-water ratio is lower (higher water
demand), and it is characterized by high thermal efficiency. It effectively utilizes low-temperature
heat, which is often rejected in other power generation cycles [80].
In a desalination plant, the water demand can vary over time, with certain periods experiencing lower
water demand compared to the plant's production capacity. During these times, when the entire steam
generated is not required, a backpressure steam turbine allows for the partial flow of steam through the
turbine to generate additional electrical power [80]. This maximizes the utilization of available energy
and enhances the system's efficiency.
A condensing steam turbine generates electricity by using steam and then condensing the resulting
water to release heat energy. In this case, the power-to-heat ratio is determined by the design and
cannot be flexibly adjusted. In contrast, in a backpressure steam turbine, the power-to-electricity and
power-to-heat ratios can be adjusted flexibly [80]. Steam is used to generate electrical power, and the
remaining portion of steam in the turbine can be used to supply heat energy. By controlling the flow
rate of steam through the backpressure turbine, the power-to-electricity and power-to-heat ratios can
be adjusted to meet specific requirements. This allows for the provision of desired power-to-electricity
and power-to-heat ratios.
24
5. Freezing Desalination (FD) Method

5.1. History and Development of Freezing Desalination (FD)

Freezing desalination is a method that was initially used by mariners in ice – covered areas to obtain
fresh water for drinking on vessels. These sailors discovered that when the temperature drops,
seawater freezes, forming ice blocks with high purity [9]. Recently, the cold desalination technology
has been widely used in various industries, with the current focus being on treating wastewater [9].
The freezing desalination process is a developing technology and is becoming a practical choice for
desalination of seawater due to its low energy consumption [81]. The freezing desalination method has
the advantage that the energy consumed for clean water production is lower than other desalination
methods. Thanks to the low latent heat of fusion (333 J/g), which accounts for only 17% of the
required heat of evaporation (2500 J/g). Furthermore, the use of freezing desalination is not limited for
high-concentration saltwater. Additionally, the removal of heat from concentrated seawater results in it
reaching the eutectic point, allowing simultaneous crystallization of icicel and salt solids. Compared to
membrane distillation (MD), freezing desalination achieves nearly 2.3 times higher salt removal in
three stages [17] [27].
So far, the freezing desalination method still has many limitations, it has not been widely adopted on a
commercial scale. Investigation and application of this method has been limited to laboratory and
mini - scale pilot plants. The main reason is the capital investment and operating costs associated with
the freezing and melting of ice. The process of salt removal during the freezing desalination process is
still not fully understood, including when to adjust various process parameters. A major challenge is
the retention of salt between ice crystals, leading to pockets of highly saline water during freezing
[82]. The desired decrease in salinity of the ice crystals upon melting is influenced by the retention of
a concentrated salt solution during the process of crystallization, necessitating additional necessary
steps like ice crushing and re-crystallization, leading to higher operational costs [17].
Compared to membrane-based desalination methods, freezing desalination is less susceptible to
expansion and corrosion. Therefore, the costs for pre-treatment and maintenance of desalination
components in high-tech applications will be reduced [17]. "Desalination" in freezing desalination
does not only refer to the freezing process but is mainly focused on the treatment of saline solutions
and its ability to separate pollutants. Therefore, freezing desalination has great potential and
advantages for expanding its application scale. Due to its significant potential for practical
applications, freezing desalination is expected to further develop in the future [7].

5.2. Freezing Desalination

5.2.1. Freezing Desalination Process

Desalination by freezing is a technique that involves either freezing or melting to eliminate salt and
25
filter out impurities from saline water, resulting in the production of fresh water. [81]. FD stands for
Freeze Desalination, which is a representative technology for desalination. It lowers the temperature of
a solution (such as saltwater) to initiate the onset of iceberg crystals formation [83]. As the ice crystals
grow, they automatically exclude impurities, including salt, from the crystal structure. These blocks of
ice that have been crystallized are gathered, washed, and eventually they are melted to collect fresh
water [84]
FD extracts heat from concentrated seawater until it reaches the eutectic point for the purpose of
separating ice and solid salts [84]. FD can be categorized into two types: direct FD and indirect FD.
Direct FD involves direct freezing, where heat is removed by directly mixing the refrigerant into the
brine mixture, causing it to absorb heat from the liquid and undergo vaporization. As a result, the
temperature of the solution decreases, and crystallization begins. Indirect FD, on the other hand,
entails utilizing indirect freezing, thereby heat is removed by circulating a refrigerant through the
seawater via the heat exchanger. The brine mixture and refrigerant are isolated by a vessel wall. The
heat from the solution is transferred to the refrigerant through the vessel wall, allowing the refrigerant
to absord the heat [81]. The indirect FD method has the advantage of producing water that does not
contain refrigerants. This FD process shows great promise in the production of fresh water from
saltwater.[84] Additionally, both indirect and direct FD processes comprise four main stages: freezing,
separation, washing, and melting, which are operated in continuous mode.[81]

Figure 20 : Freezing Desalination Processes

26
5.2.2. Capacity calculation

In the process of freezing seawater, heat is extracted from the seawater through two stages: latent heat
and sensible heat. In stage 1, the heat is extracted from the water to reduce its temperature to 0 at
atmospheric pressure. In stage 2, a specific amount of heat is taken away to undergo a phase transition
from liquid to solid, which is the latent heat. Equation (1) is used to determine the sensible heat
required to lower the temperature of the water to 0 , while equation (2) is used to calculate the latent
heat. [81]
q = m.cp. (1)
 q: The quantity of energy losted during the temperature change of a matter (kJ).
 m: The weight of the matter (kg).
 cp: Specific heat capacity in kJ/kg·K.
 ΔT: Temperature variation range in K.
q = m. (2)
 the specific latent heat for a fusion substance in kJ/kg.

5.2.3. Results and Conclusion

Figure 21: The relationship between the electrical energy consumption for producing 1 kg of potable
water and the COP of a freezer.
The desalination process using freeze desalination demonstrates that high-grade drinking aqua can be
obtained by supplying saline water into a multi-stage freezing process for desalination. Approximately
45% of the supplied water is treated and converted into drinking water, requiring 170 Wh of electricity
to desalinate 1 kg of drinking aqua. The efficiency of this process can be further enhanced if cold
energy is pumped into the region where the saline water freezes, creating a cold energy reservoir.[81]

27
5.3. Secondary Refrigerant Freezing (SRF)

This is a desalination process based on phase transition. The SRF method can be employed to produce
clean water from saltwater because the amount of salt present in the ice during crystallization is
minimal. This technique utilizes a refrigerant to freeze the saline water, and liquefied natural gas
(LNG) has been used to freeze the seawater and obtain ice. [85] [86]
The system consists of a reversible heat pump, two chambers, and solenoid valves. This device
operates by producing alternating ice and fresh water in the left (L) chamber or the right (R)
chamber.[85]

Figure 22: A diagram illustrating the structure of a desalination unit utilizing SRF technology.
In the initial step, the L chamber is filled with seawater.Heat is transferred from this chamber to the
other chamber through the heat pump. As a result of the heat transfer process, the saline water in the L
chamber is transformed into a mixture of saltwater and ice. Meanwhile, in the R chamber, the
previously formed ice will melt. The process is halted, and the saltwater is discharged by opening the
valve at the bottom of the L chamber, while the R chamber is filled with saltwater. By reversing the
heat pump, the ice inside the L ice-water chamber melts due to the supplied heat, resulting in fresh
water. Meanwhile, in the R chamber, ice continues to form, and the cycle is repeated.

5.4. Desalination freezing through thermoelectric cooling

5.4.1. Process

Thermoelectric technology, which enables the conversion of poor - quality waste heat into usable
refrigeration energy, has the potential to be a solution for reducing the costs associated with freezing
desalination (FD). Thermoelectric machinations utilize sound waves to operate and function based on
28
the fundamentals of thermoacoustics, which involve the interaction of sound, heat, and mechanics.
Thermoacoustic engines (TAEs) operate on the Stirling cycle and convert heat (thermal energy) into
acoustic energy. Sound waves can also be used to generate power (in engines) that can be coupled
with electricity generators or to provide cooling in Thermoacoustic refrigeration (TAR).
Thermoelectric machinations composed of heat source, stack and a resonator. Thermoacoustic
technology harnesses the power of sound waves to achieve various applications, such as amplifying
acoustic waves using resonators and converting thermal energy into sound energy using porous stacks.
Thermoelectric devices, on the other hand, offer potential solutions for waste heat recovery,
refrigeration, and power generation. They are considered as promising alternatives to conventional
power generation methods due to their ability to provide higher efficiency and lower emissions. In
contrast to thermoacoustic engines, thermoacoustic refrigeration utilizes the temperature oscillations
experienced by a gas when subjected to cyclic pressure changes. These oscillations can be utilized to
transfer heat from one location to another, similar to how traditional refrigeration systems use
refrigerants for heat transfer purposes.[87]

Figure 23. A schematic representation illustrating the integration of TAE, TAR and FD systems.

5.4.2. Results and Conclusion

As stated by the United Nations, the recommended water consumption per person per day falls within
the range of 50 to 100 liters. This totals to 5-10 m³/day (5,000-10,000 liters/day) for 100 people.
Amount of power consumed for a RO company to manufacture 1,000 liters of fresh water is estimated
to be up to 8000 Wh based on the study of El Kadi et al. 1310 kWh is the total energy demand per day,
Taking into account the energy requirements of 100 individuals (1230 kWh) and the energy demand
needed to operate the RO company (80 kWh). The energy requirement for operating the RO company
(80,000 Wh) accounts for approximately 6.1% of the overall daily energy demand, which amounts to
1310 kWh, which is equivalent to 500.7 liters of diesel fuel needed.[87]
29
Table 2: The amount of diesel fuel needed to manufacture 10 m3 of clean water using RO technology.

The electrical energy usage of a mini RO plant. 8,000 Wh / 1 m3

The cumulative daily electrical energy
80,000 Wh / 10 m3
consumption for the operation of a RO system.
The overall energy demand on a daily basis. 80,000 + 1,230,000 = 1,310,000 Wh
The proportion of energy needed for the operation
6.1%
of the RO plant, expressed as a percentage.
The amount of diesel fuel needed to power an RO
500.7 L
plant.
The expenditure associated with the electricity
$680.95 for 10,000 liters of water
consumption of the RO desalination system.

Figure 24: The integration of a Freeze Desalination system with TAE/R and Diesel Engine.

6. The humidification-dehumidification (HDH)

6.1. Introduction

Humidification – dehumidification is a method used to increase or decrease humidity in the air. They
are often used in cooling, drying, and air treatment processes in many different fields and applications.
[88] The HDH technique is similar to the natural hydrological technique of the water cycle, i.e. the
rain cycle, where sunlight with high temperature heats the sea water and then evaporates the pure
water droplets from the water. The upper surface of the ocean forms clouds. Finally, the clouds that
form gradually condense and then obtain pure water in the form of rain.[32] From there we get non-
saline water from the salt water source, sea water. Because according to the World Health
Organization (WHO), the allowable salinity of drinking water that humans can tolerate is from 500 to
1000 ppm. In fact, the largest source of water on earth is the ocean. Research shows that sea water has
a salinity of 35,000 to 45,000 ppm.[33] [89]

30
 Figure 25: Rain cycle[90]
In recent years, HDH has been constantly explored and researched by researchers with a large number
of studies with the desire to overcome the shortage of fresh water. HDH has been invested in research
thanks to its great benefits. such as: operating temperature is not too high or too low, the process
system is simple, easy to build, investment and operating costs are quite low, safe operation and easy
to adjust. [35]

6.2. The humidification-dehumidification process

The performance of the HDH technical process depends on converting seawater from water to vapor,
followed by condensation in a dehumidifier at low temperatures. Productivity can be increased by
increasing the evaporation process, to do this we can increase the temperature of water, air or both.[35]
During the humidification process, some moisture is lost when the air current meets the sea water
current. During dehumidification, moist air is brought into contact with a low temperature surface
causing water to condense.[91]
There are two types of cycles of the HDH method: With the open cycle, the amount of freshwater
obtained is not high in productivity, ranging from 5% to 20% of the total circulating seawater. With
this cycle, the economic efficiency is not high when the productivity is low but it consumes a lot of
energy. In a closed cycle, the amount of fresh water is obtained with higher productivity, ranging from
50% to 80% of the total circulating seawater. With this cycle, more freshwater production is
maintained with significantly low energy consumption.[32]

31
 Figure 26: A schematic of the HDD process.[90]
The simplest form of the HDH process consists of three subsystems: air heater and/or water heater,
which can use a variety of heat sources such as solar, thermoelectric, geothermal or a combination of
these sources; humidifier or evaporator and dehumidifier or condenser.[32]
The simplest process can be understood as follows: First, we need to increase the humidity. At this
step, the air is exposed to the water source to increase the humidity. Water is absorbed into the air
through the process of vaporization, which increases the amount of water vapor in the air, which
increases humidity and provides air with higher humidity. Next, comes the cooling and condensation
step, after the air has been humidified, it is cooled to condense water vapor, the air is cooled through a
refrigeration system or heat exchanger, when not When the moist air is cooled, the water vapor in the
air will condense into liquid water. This process reduces the humidity of the air and separates
condensed liquid water from the air. In the next step, the condensed liquid water has been separated
from the air. The separation method can use devices such as filtration systems, using principles such as
the difference in density of water and air. gas. Liquid water is synthesized, once the air has been
cooled and the humidity reduced is sent to the next step.[92]

6.3. Capacity calculation

6.3.1. Recovery Rating (RR)

32
Performance is most simply assessed by the recovery rate, determined by the formula:[36]

 mFw: the amount of fresh water obtained.

 msw: the initial amount of seawater.
Technical developments contribute to increasingly improving recovery rates. In the 1980s, the
recovery rate of the process was quite low, hovering around 25% for water with a salinity of
35,000ppm, by the 1990s, this figure had increased to around 35%, and more recently, the improved
up to 45%.[37]

6.3.2. Energy reuse factor (F)

When the system operates, a large amount of energy needs to be consumed, leading to a burden on the
energy supply. Therefore, people have researched to recover heat and reuse heat to reduce some of the
energy consumed. The coefficient is calculated with the formula:[37]

The energy reuse coefficient is an important indicator of the system's heat recovery ability, which can
increase or decrease its economic value.

6.3.3. Gained output ratio (GOR)

The output rate achieved is a coefficient with to evaluate the performance of the system, determined
by the ratio between the latent heat of clean water evaporation and the total input energy, the formula
is:[93]

 λ is the latent heat of vaporization coefficient

 Qin is the total input energy absorbed by the solar collector.

6.4. Classify The humidification-dehumidification

HDH is a system that does not require mechanical energy, only using water and air circulation using
pumps and fans. However, this system consumes a significant amount of energy to remove large
amounts of salt from highly saline seawater. To meet this large amount of energy, people use fossil
fuels such as coal and oil to operate the process. To meet the large amount of water used, each year it
is necessary to consume about 10,000 tons of oil to produce 1,000 m3 of fresh water/day.[35] This
means that every year, the amount of gas emitted into the environment is an alarming number. From
those challenges, solar energy is the point that researchers aim for.
HDH systems can be classified depended on the following factors: Operating principles; energy

33
sources; application;...

Figure 27: Classifications of the HDH desalination systems.[35]

 CAOW-WH: Closed air, open water, and water heated system
 CAOW-AH: Closed air, open water, and air heated system
 OACW-WH: Open air, closed water, and water heated system
 OACW-AH: Open air, closed water, and air heated system
 OAOW-WH: Open air, open water, and water heated system
 OAOW-AH: Open air, open water, and air heated system
 CACW-WH: Closed air, closed water, and water heated system
 CACW-AH: Closed air, closed water, and air heated system
The HDH system is utilized in cooling systems for buildings and air conditioning in factories.
Additionally, it can also be used to generate clean energy.

7. Solar stills

Solar stills are devices that utilize solar energy to distill water from various surface water sources such
as the sea, lakes, rivers, and more.[94]

34
 Figure 28: A simple solar stills.[91]
Thermal energy can be obtained by using photovoltaic panels. The main component in the setup of a
solar-powered desalination system is a specialized heat exchanger device, capable of absorbing solar
energy and converting it into thermal energy to supply the working fluid. Fixed solar energy collectors
include Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC), Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPC), and Flat Plate
Collectors (FPC).[35], [39] Tracking solar collectors consist of Parabolic Dish Reflectors (PDR),
Linear Fresnel Reflectors (LFR), Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTC), and Heliostat Field
Concentrators (HFC).[35], [40]
Solar power can also provide energy in the form of electricity through the use of solar panels,
commonly known as photovoltaic (PV) panels. However, there are still certain limitations associated
with solar electricity.

Figure 29: Schematic of the solar stills system.[95]

Figure 29 illustrates the schematic diagram of a solar still, which consists of a triangular-shaped basin.
Inside the basin, there is a dark-colored absorber plate made of zinc-coated galvanized steel. The
absorber plate is thermally insulated on the underside to minimize heat loss. Temperature sensors are
installed at the bottom to monitor the temperature. On top of the system, there is a transparent glass
cover with a specific inclination angle, allowing it to capture the incoming sunlight and enabling the

35
condensation of water vapor. The edges of the system are sealed to create a closed system, ensuring its
integrity and resistance to environmental impacts during operation. The entire system is mounted on a
wooden support structure, which includes a space for adding water.[40]
The solar still initiates its operation by collecting water from surface water sources, which is directed
into a separate storage tank and can be connected to the water intake of the system. Subsequently, the
solar still utilizes solar energy from the thermal absorber plates to create a high-temperature
environment. The water in the tank is heated by solar energy, gradually transforming into water vapor.
The vapor continues to contact a heat-conducting surface to cool down and condense into liquid water.
The condensed water produced from the distillation process is collected in a separate tank or reservoir,
and this water is pure as it has been separated from impurities and initial contaminants.[96]
Solar stills can be used in regions with limited water resources or in emergency situations where clean
water is not readily available. However, the performance of solar stills is typically low and dependent
on sunlight conditions. Factors such as solar radiation intensity, temperature, and humidity levels can
affect the efficiency of a solar still. Ongoing research and development efforts aim to improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of solar stills, making them more reliable, practical for water purification
purposes.[79]

Figure 30: Distillate flow rate verses time.[95]

Figure 30 illustrates the performance of solar-powered distillation in relation to solar radiation
intensity. The process achieves its highest efficiency when exposed to high levels of solar radiation.
Notably, at 12:00 PM, the water temperature within the distillation unit reaches its peak, resulting in
an impressive efficiency rating exceeding 99%.[40]
However, it is important to recognize that solar distillation is influenced by various factors beyond
solar radiation intensity. These factors include wind speed, ambient pressure, liquid pressure, and the
characteristics of the materials employed, such as the glass cover. Each of these variables can
significantly impact the overall performance and effectiveness of the distillation process.[97]
For instance, wind speed affects heat transfer and can enhance or impede evaporation, subsequently
influencing the condensation and collection of distilled water. Similarly, ambient pressure can impact

36
the boiling point of water, thus influencing the distillation process. Liquid pressure within the system
also plays a role in regulating the flow of water and the separation of impurities.[98]
Furthermore, the properties of the materials utilized, particularly the transparency and thermal
conductivity of the glass cover, can impact the absorption of solar energy and the condensation of
water vapor.[99]
To optimize the efficiency of solar distillation systems, ongoing research endeavors focus on
comprehensively understanding the intricate interactions between these factors. By fine-tuning and
optimizing parameters such as wind speed, ambient pressure, liquid pressure, and material properties,
scientists and engineers aim to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of solar distillation, thereby
enhancing its potential as a sustainable and viable method for water purification.[100]

37
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