ANIM1024 Animal Husbandry
Backyard poultry - Introduction
Bob Doneley BVSc FANZCVSC (Avian Medicine) CMAVA
UQ Vets, Gatton Queensland 4352
Introduction
Australians consume more chicken meat than from any other species, approximately
38kg/year each, and 130 eggs, either direct or indirect (compared to 22kg beef & veal, 20kg
pork products, 10kg lamb & mutton, and ~15kg aquaculture [70% of which is imported].
Australia topped the world for meat consumption at >90kg/pp in 2014). These come from
500m broiler chickens reared per year and about 12m commercial layer hens. In addition,
we consume about 1kg turkey meat (5m turkeys processed /year) and 0.8kg duck meat
(~8m ducks); plus small volume of quail, pheasants, partridge, geese, squab pigeons etc.;
there is some wild bird harvesting in some states.
95% of the modern layer industry of Australia uses hybrid brown egg layers and 35% of eggs
are now produced as ‘free-range’, 10% barn lay, and 2% as ‘organic’. There is significant
discussion as to what constitutes ‘free-range’ and ‘organic’. The permission of the broader
community for an individual or industry to operate a particular enterprise, i.e. ‘social
licence’, is becoming more important in public discussions about agricultural and farming
practices.
The keeping of backyard poultry, once an almost universal practice in Australia, declined in
the 1970s and 80s, but is now enjoying a resurgence in popularity. People are keeping
poultry for eggs, meat, as pets and as show birds. The breeding of once endangered or rare
species is another area experiencing great interest. There is now an estimated 2million non-
commercial backyard and fancy breed domestic fowl in Australia
As this popularity grows, so does the demand for veterinary services. Clients are often
willing to spend as much on a chicken as they would spend on other household pets, but
they become frustrated when veterinarians treat their birds as ‘lesser beings’.
Taxonomy
Backyard poultry includes:
Domestic Fowl: The domestic chicken, Gallus domesticus belongs to the genus
Gallus of the sub-family Phasininae. The wild ancestors of the domestic chicken
probably originated in Southeast Asia. Four species of wild Jungle fowl are still found
in this area:
o Gallus gallus:
the wild
red jungle fowl
(northern India,
Burma, Southern
Vietnam, the
Malay
Archipelago and
the neighbouring
islands);
o G. sonnerati: the
gray jungle fowl
(west, central and southern India);
o G. lafayetti: the Ceylon jungle fowl (Sri Lanka); and
o G. varius: the green jungle fowl (Malay islands)
The Red Jungle Fowl, Gallus gallus, has the widest distribution of the wild species
and may be the chief ancestor of the domestic fowl.
There are approximately 50 breeds of domestic poultry recognised in Australia. A
guide to these breeds can be found at
http://www.backyardpoultry.com/wiki/index.php/Chicken_Breeds_Chart
Geese: Geese may have been the first
poultry domesticated. The Gray Lag
Goose of Europe (Anser anser) is
considered the progenitor of all the
domesticated European breeds, while
the wild China goose (Anser cygnoides)
is considered the ancestor of the Asiatic
breeds (e.g., the Chinas and the
Africans).
Duck: With the exception of the Muscovy
(Cairina moschata), all domestic breeds of ducks
are lineal descendants of the wild common
mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). The mallard is the only species of wild duck in which
the males exhibit the so-called sex feathers at the base of the tail. These feathers
tend to disappear, or become vestigial, when the mallard is crossed with other wild
breeds. All drakes of domesticated true ducks have these sex feathers, so that the
conclusion they are descended from the mallard is inescapable.
The Muscovy is a native to Southern
Middle America, Central America and
Northern South America. During its
early days of domestication the Muscovy
was known variously as the Guinea Duck,
Barbary Duck, Cairon Duck, Indian duck,
turkey duck, and, recently, the Muscovy.
The latter name has been corrupted into
Musk duck, a name which carries a
derogatory implication for a table duck.
The wild Muscovy existed from Mexico to Argentina, where it was known as the Pato
(Spanish for duck). A member of the Order Anseres, Family Anatidae, Subfamily
Anatinae, Tribe Cairinae ("perching ducks"). There are two other members in this
Tribe, the African species hartlaubi and the South and South-East Asia species
scutulata. Hybrids between this species and the common domestic duck Anas
platyrhynchos are sterile.
Guinea Fowl: Guinea
Fowl are African birds. There are 38
natural species and subspecies, divided
between four genera (Agelastes,
Guttera, Numida, and Acryllum) and
seven species. Domesticated guinea
fowl (Numidia meleagris, family
Numididae) come originally from open
plains of Central Africa. The family has
several sub-species, with mutated colours of pearl, white, lavender, buff blue and
royal purple
Turkey: The modern domesticated form descends
from the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), one of the
two species of turkey (genus Meleagris). It was
domesticated by the indigenous peoples of
Mesoamerica at least 2,000 years ago, with the
evidence pointing to what are today the central
regions of Mexico.
You should be aware that other species are also kept: pheasants, quail, partridge, etc, but
these are less commonly seen.
Terminology
Chick A young chicken
Pullet A young hen, usually under 6 months old. Sometimes used to
describe a hen that has yet to lay eggs
Cockerel A young rooster
Hen A female chicken that has laid eggs
Rooster/cock A male chicken over 6 months of age
Layer A hen, aged over 20 weeks, that is laying eggs
Point of Lay A pullet that is old enough to lay, but has not yet done so. Usually
aged 16-21 weeks
Broiler A meat chicken that has reached a slaughter weight, usually at 30-60
days
Bantam A miniature version of a recognised breed. A true bantam has no
counterpart in poultry breeds
Broody/Clucky A hen that is ready to lay, or is sitting on eggs
Candling Examining an egg, with a bright focal light in a dark room, to assess
fertility
Poult A young turkey, under 6 months of age
Frizzle 1. Feathers that curl, rather than lying flat
2. A chicken breed
Hackles The feathers on the neck of rooster
Comb The red appendage on the top of a chicken’s head
Wattles The fleshy appendages hanging either side of the lower beak of
poultry.
Soft feathers Feathering on soft feather fowls is moderately broad and long with
dense and abundant fluff that masks the body shape
Hard feathers Feathering on hard feather fowls is moderately narrow, hard, firm
and resilient with a minimum of fluff, revealing the body shape
Moulting
https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/livestock/
poultry/diseases-health-management/moulting-feather-loss/natural-moulting
Husbandry
Remember the 5 Freedoms:
1. Freedom from thirst & hunger
2. Freedom from discomfort
3. Freedom from pain, injury & disease
4. Freedom to express normal behaviour
5. Freedom from fear & distress
It is the poultry owner’s responsibility to ensure that their birds are been managed in such a
way that these Freedoms are been provided.
The size of backyard housing for chickens depends on the method in which they are kept. If
chickens are allowed to roam large garden spaces or open land and are only kept in the
housing at night for protection, during egg-laying and brooding, and during poor weather,
then smaller hen houses are suitable. However, if chickens are kept within the hen houses
for most of the time, the housing must be significantly larger to allow for nesting, wing
flapping, running, scratching and other natural chicken behaviour. Each chicken needs space
to flap their wings, move about and build a nest. Current Code of Practice recommendations
are for a minimum floor/run area of 3 m 2 for housing up to six bantams or three large birds.
Additional birds will require an increase in enclosure size of 0.4 m 2 for every large bird and
0.3 m2 for every small bird.
Poultry sheds can be permanent, either on
deep litter or in cages, or portable/moveable
enclosures. Either type can have a run
attached, or the birds can be allowed free
range during the day (and locked up at
night).
Deep-litter systems are easy to manage and give the birds comfortable, hygienic conditions.
The birds should be housed at a stocking rate of no more than 30 kg/m 2 (less in hot
weather).
The deep-litter house is often on a concrete floor with a deep layer (10-15cms) of litter
(sawdust, shavings or hay) that is changed regularly.
The portable chicken house is often an A-frame coop and enclosure with wheels at one end
that can be moved around the garden or lawn every few days. This minimises damage to the
grass, while also minimising the buildup of pathogens such as intestinal parasite ova.
Nest boxes should be sheltered within the chicken coops for the comfort of egg-laying hens.
They should be mounted on the cool side of the coop preferably 600 to 900 mm off the
ground. Allow one 300 mm x 300 mm nest box for every 2-3 hens. The nest material can be
shavings, straw or shell grit, to a depth of 75 mm, and should be kept clean and dry. Many
poultry keepers create a door on the exterior which can facilitate easy access to eggs.
Roosting perches made of 75 mm x 50 mm dressed timber placed 500 mm from the floor
are usually appreciated by chickens. At least 150 mm of roost space per bird should be
provided. It should not sit above drinkers and feeders or open top nests because of faecal
contamination below the perch.
The type of behaviour exhibited by chickens varies according to type of environment, the
age and sex of the birds, and their reproductive status. Some studies suggest that their
preferred habitat (where they display the greatest variety of behaviours) is dirt-based rather
than grass, with low acacia scrub rather than out in the open or amongst large trees (this
may be predator avoidance?). Much is yet to be learnt about what habitat the chickens
prefer, rather than what habitat we would prefer them to experience.
Chickens can be allowed to graze, either in a run or free range in the yard. If the run is not
rotated, the chickens soon kill the vegetation and turn it into a muddy, barren, smelly area.
Free range grazing is less hard on the environment, but opens the chickens up to the risk of
predation. Recent work from Victoria (Rod Reece, personal communication) showed that
opening up the side of shed to allow chickens out produced some surprising results:
15% never go out
Of those that go out, most only do so for 10-20 minutes per day only.
Most go out no further than 9m from shed
When assessing the type of husbandry used by your clients, consideration should be given
to steps taken to minimise rats and mice (attracted by the presence of food), whether runs
have been bird-proofed (to protect against attacks by hawks and to prevent the spread of
disease) and what protection is offered against predators (foxes, dogs, cats and goannas).
Building the coop on a concrete slab will prevent foxes, rats and mice from tunnelling into
the coop. A wire apron, approximately 30-50cm wide, can be placed along the sides of the
run to achieve a similar effect. Similarly, solid walls will keep predators from breaking in
through the side of the coop. Lockable doors and a foldable ramp at the cop entrance can
provide extra security.
Nutrition
Domestic fowl are omnivores; they cannot rely on a total grain diet, and their digestive
system is not developed for handling leafy material such as grasses. Whole grain wheat is
deficient for poultry in protein, calcium and vitamins, especially vitamin A, and the
phosphorus content can vary widely.
Therefore the basis of a poultry diet should be a good quality commercial feed. Modern
commercial poultry feeds in Australia are pelleted (compressed into thin cylinders and cut
to appropriate lengths and shapes). They are usually wheat/sorghum-based, with a
significant component of ruminant derived meat and bone meal (unless for vegetarian egg
production) and some plant derived protein rich materials (soy-bean meal, canola meal
etc.), supplemented with vitamins and minerals. (Note: plant derived protein tends to be
deficient in essential amino acids for optimal animal growth and production, and therefore
require supplementation, particularly with methionine and lysine).
These diets are usually divided into:
Starter diet (hatch - 6 weeks): 22% protein, 1% calcium
Grower diet (6 -18 weeks i.e. point of lay): 14-16% protein; 1% calcium,
increasing to 2.75% at point of lay
Layer diet (18 weeks+): 15-18% protein; 4.0%-4.75% calcium. (Note that this
calcium level is too high for chicks, and will cause severe renal disease)
Types of feeds
There are different types of feed sold for poultry:
i. Mash: a nutritionally complete poultry in a ground form. It is often used as a starter
ration
ii. Pellet: a mash that has been pelletised; that is, compressed and molded into pellets
in a pellet mill. Unlike mash, where the ingredients can separate in shipment and the
poultry can pick and choose among the ingredients, the ingredients in a single pellet
stay together, and the poultry eat the pellets whole. Pellets are often too large for
newly hatched poultry
iii. Crumble: pellets that have been sent through rollers to break them into granules.
This is often used for chick feed
iv. Scratch: one or more varieties of whole, cracked, or rolled grains. Unlike other feeds,
which are fed in troughs, hoppers, or tube feeders, scratch grains are often scattered
on the ground. Hence, a large particle size is desired. Because they consist only of
grains, scratch grains are not a complete ration, and are used to supplement the
balanced ration
v. Medicated feeds: Growth promoting hormones have not been used in poultry feeds
since 1963. Growth-promoting antibiotics (often referred to as ‘growth hormones)
were phased out in Australia in 2005 and in Europe the following year (although the
USA still uses them). Many commercial growth diets are medicated with
coccidiostats such as ionophores (e.g. monensin). Care must be taken to ensure that
medicated chicken feeds are not fed to species other than chickens, as these drugs
can be toxic to turkeys and peafowl.
Feed for backyard and fancy breed poultry should be predominantly (~90%) a commercial-
prepared balanced pelleted diet, which can then be supplemented (~10% of daily intake)
with kitchen vegetable scraps, whole scratch grain, garden foraging etc.
Scraps
The commercial diet can be supplemented with vegetable kitchen scraps and garden
plants. It must be noted that in Queensland, at least, it is illegal to feed animal matter or
other waste contaminated by animal matter. However, commercially prepared meals of
animal origin (i.e. blood meal, meat and bone meal, meat meal, bone meal, fish meal and
poultry meal) can be fed to poultry. These scraps should not exceed 10% of daily feed
consumption, or there is a risk of creating a nutritional imbalance.
Grit
Most chickens are fed grit. This can be:
Soluble grit, such as oyster shell grit, is often used as a source of dietary calcium,
especially when feeding a lot of scratch or kitchen scraps.
Insoluble grit, small rocks such as pieces of granite, aids in digestion by grinding
food as it passes through the gizzard. Grit is not needed if commercial feed is
used, or if the chickens have free range grazing.
Be wary of providing a bowl of grit. Chickens with pica, often due to a homemade diet or
scratch only, may gorge on the grit and end up with a gastrointestinal impaction. Rather
than providing a separate bowl, mix it in with the normal diet, or spread it around on the
ground for the birds to forage.
Do NOT feed eggshells back to hens: it MAY encourage egg
eating!
Water and feed consumption
Food and water should be provided in easily cleaned containers, with sufficient space
(approximately 10cm/bird) so that all of the chickens can eat or drink at the same time. On
average, adult chickens will drink 400mls water per day. Hens in lay may drink up to 25%
more than those not in lay. Water and food consumption rates are interdependent, so
reduced water intake can also lead to reduced food intake. There are other factors that
affect water intake, with temperature being the most obvious one. For example, chickens
drink between 30-50% more water when the environmental temperature is above 32 oC
compared with when it is 21oC.
Layers will eat between 100 – 120g feed/day, dependent on the breed, size, reproductive
status and climate. Feed intake is readily affected by ambient temperature, with feed intake
increasing at lower ambient temperatures and decreasing at higher ambient temperatures.
Accessibility to feed is sometimes overlooked as a limiting factor and can be caused through
inappropriate or poorly adjusted feeding equipment or inadequate feeding space due to
overstocking of facilities. The height of the feeders should be adjusted according to the flock
age to provide easy access to the feed for all the birds.
Backyard chickens and the law
There are legal restrictions on the keeping of backyard poultry. There are no federal or state
government regulations on the number of household layers, but local council regulations
may restrict:
The number and types of birds that can be kept e.g. many councils prohibit the
keeping of roosters in residential areas, others also ban guinea fowl and peafowl
The size and location of a backyard poultry shed
Poultry are protected at a state level by various animal welfare acts and Codes of Practice.
Many of these codes are based on the CSIRO’s Model Code of Practice for the Welfare of
Animals: Domestic Poultry (4th Edition). (This can be downloaded from
http://www.publish.csiro.au/Books/download.cfm?ID=3451). These codes of practice are
not mandatory but they are used in various ways under the respective state and territory
animal welfare legislation. They are used to outline acceptable livestock welfare conditions
and outcomes.
