Mechanical Properties

Mr. Abhishek Gupta

Assistant Professor, AKGEC
Ghaziabad
 Mechanical Properties

Tensile test – plastic deformation mechanisms – slip and twinning – role of dislocations in
slip –strengthening methods – strain hardening – refinement of the grain size – solid
solution strengthening –precipitation hardening – creep resistance – creep curves –
mechanisms of creep – creep-resistant materials –fracture – the Griffith criterion – critical
stress intensity factor and its determination – fatigue failure – fatigue tests – methods of
increasing fatigue life – hardness – Rockwell and Brinell hardness – Knoop and Vickers
microhardness.

Dr. Tarun Bhardwaj

CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND
STRAIN
Types of Loading
Types of Loading
From the perspective of loading, stress is the INDUCED force or system of
forces that tends to deform a body.

In terms of materials science and mechanical engineering, stress is defined

as the force on a material divided by the material's cross-sectional area (A in
the diagram above)

Strain is the response of a system to an applied stress. When a material is

loaded with a force, it produces a stress, which then causes a material to
deform. Engineering strain is defined as the amount of deformation in the
direction of the applied force divided by the initial length of the material
A standard tensile test specimen with circular cross
section.
A standard tensile test on UTM
Stress Strain Curve
 Various Stresses
The stress level at which plastic deformation begins is known as yielding stress.

The proportional limit is defined as the highest stress at which the stress-strain curve is
a straight line. Below the proportional limit, there is no permanent deformation in a
structure, that is, the object returns to its original position after the removal of applied
force

The tensile strength TS (MPa or psi) is the stress at the maximum on the engineering
stress–strain curve This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by
a structure in tension; if this stress is applied and maintained, fracture will result.
 Mechanical Properties
Ductility is an important mechanical property. It is a measure of the degree of plastic
deformation that has been sustained at fracture. A metal that experiences very little or
no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle.
 Mechanical Properties
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically
and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.

Toughness is a property that is indicative of a material’s resistance to fracture when a

crack (or other stress-concentrating defect) is present, Because it is nearly impossible (as
well as costly) to manufacture materials with zero defects.

Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a

small dent or a scratch) or a material's ability to withstand friction, essentially abrasion.
 Elastic Deformation
A temporary shape change that is
self-reversing after the force is removed, so
that the object returns to its original shape, is
called elastic deformation. In other
words, elastic deformation is a change in
shape of a material at low stress that is
recoverable after the stress is removed.

No change in shape upon load removal.

 Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation is the permanent distortion
that occurs when a material is subjected to
tensile, compressive, bending, or torsion
stresses that exceed its yield strength and cause
it to elongate, compress, buckle, bend, or twist.

Change in shape upon load removal.

Two prominent plastic deformation mechanism

1. SLIP 2.TWINNING
Plastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation
 Plastic Deformation
Mechanical twinning occurs in
metals that have BCC and HCP
crystal structures, at low
temperatures, and at high rates of
loading (shock loading)
 Strengthening Mechanisms
Strengthening mechanisms is the
relation between dislocation motion
and mechanical behavior of metals.
 Strengthening Mechanisms
Strengthening mechanisms is the
relation between dislocation motion
and mechanical behavior of metals.

The ability of a metal to plastically

deform depends on the ability of
dislocations to move.
 Strengthening Mechanisms
Strengthening mechanisms is the
relation between dislocation motion
and mechanical behavior of metals.

The ability of a metal to plastically

deform depends on the ability of
dislocations to move.

Restricting or hindering dislocation

motion renders a material harder and
stronger.
STRENGTHENING BY GRAIN SIZE
REFINEMENT
STRENGTHENING BY STRAIN
HARDENING
STRENGTHENING BY SOLID SOLUTION
STRENGTHENING BY SOLID SOLUTION
STRENGTHENING BY Precipitation
Hardening
STRENGTHENING BY Precipitation
Hardening
CREEP BY CROSS SLIP AND CLIMB
CREEP BY DIFFUSION
CREEP BY GRAIN BOUNDARY
SLIDING
CREEP
 CREEP

It is observed in all materials types; for

metals it becomes important only for
temperatures greater than about
0.4Tm (Tm absolute melting
temperature). Amorphous polymers,
which include plastics and rubbers, are
especially sensitive to creep
deformation
CREEP
 CREEP
Solute elements added, e.g., Ta, W, Mo,
Fe, Cr, and Co, contribute solid-solution
hardening, and are often reacted with
carbon to form carbide particles that
deposit at grain boundaries, and thus
inhibit grain boundary sliding
 HARDNESS
Hardness tests are performed more frequently than
any other mechanical test for several reasons:

1. They are simple and inexpensive—ordinarily no

special specimen need be prepared, and the testing
apparatus is relatively inexpensive.
2. The test is nondestructive—the specimen is neither
fractured nor excessively deformed; a small
indentation is the only deformation.
3. Other mechanical properties often may be
estimated from hardness data, such as tensile
strength
 Rockwell Hardness Tests

A hardness number is determined by the difference

in depth of penetration resulting from the
application of an initial minor load followed by a
larger major load
 Rockwell Hardness Tests
Indenters include spherical
and hardened steel balls
having diameters of and
(1.588, 3.175, 6.350, and
12.70 mm), and a conical
diamond (Brale) indenter,
which is used for the hardest
materials.

Suitable for non-ferrous and

light alloys
 Brinell Hardness Tests
In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard,
spherical indenter is forced into the surface of the
metal to be tested. The diameter of the hardened
steel (or tungsten carbide) indenter is 10.00 mm
(0.394 in.). Standard loads range between 500 and
3000 kg in 500-kg increments; during a test, the load
is maintained constant for a specified time (between
10 and 30 s).
 Knoop and Vickers
Microindentation Hardness Tests
Two other hardness-testing techniques are Knoop
(pronounced and Vickers (sometimes also called
diamond pyramid). For each test a very small diamond
indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced into the
surface of the specimen. Applied loads are much smaller
than for Rockwell and Brinell, ranging between 1 and
1000 g. The resulting impression is observed under a
microscope and measured; this measurement is then
converted into a hardness number. Careful specimen
surface preparation (grinding and polishing) may be
necessary to ensure a well-defined indentation that may
be accurately measured.
All Hardness Tests
Atomic Bonds and Surface Energy
 Griffith’s Criterion
The Griffiths equation describes the relationship
between applied nominal stress and crack length
at fracture, i.e. when it becomes energetically
favorable for a crack to grow. Griffith was
concerned with the energetics of fracture, and
considered the energy changes associated with
incremental crack extension.

A subscript “f” has been added to σ to signify failure. The

equation shows that the failure stress increases with the
square root of bond energy, but decreases with the square
root of crack length. Finally, the quantity is combined into
the Griffith Critical Energy Release Rate, Gc.
 Fatigue
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in
structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating
stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine
components). Under these circumstances it is
possible for failure to occur at a stress level
considerably lower than the tensile or yield
strength for a static load. The term fatigue is
used because this type of failure normally occurs
after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain
cycling.
Reversed stress cycle & Repeated stress cycle
 Fatigue
The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three
distinct steps: (1) crack initiation, wherein a small crack
forms at some point of high stress concentration; (2) crack
propagation, during which this crack advances
incrementally with each stress cycle; and (3) final failure,
which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has
reached a critical size. Cracks associated with fatigue
failure almost always initiate (or nucleate) on the surface
of a component at some point of stress concentration.
Crack nucleation sites include surface scratches, sharp
fillets, keyways, threads, dents. In addition, cyclic loading
can produce microscopic surface discontinuities resulting
from dislocation slip steps that may also act as stress
raisers, and therefore as crack initiation sites.
Fatigue
Rotating Beam Fatigue Test
Rotating Beam Fatigue Test
Rotating Beam Fatigue Test
 S-N Curve
The S-N curve describes the relation between cyclic stress
amplitude and number of cycles to failure. The figure below
shows a typical S-N curve. On the horizontal axis the number
of cycles to failure is given on logarithmic scale. On the
vertical axis (either linear or logarithmic) the stress amplitude
(sometimes the maximum stress) of the cycle is given.
S-N curves are derived from fatigue tests.
S-N Curve
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

For many common loading situations, the

maximum stress within a component or
structure occurs at its surface.
Consequently, most cracks leading to
fatigue failure originate at surface positions,
specifically at stress amplification sites.
Therefore, it has been observed that fatigue
life is especially sensitive to the condition
and configuration of the component surface
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

Design Factors
Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress
raiser and fatigue crack initiation site; these design features
include grooves, holes, keyways, threads, and so on. The
sharper the discontinuity (i.e., the smaller the radius of
curvature), the more severe the stress concentration. The
probability of fatigue failure may be reduced by avoiding
(when possible) these structural irregularities, or by making
design modifications whereby sudden contour changes
leading to sharp corners are eliminated
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE
Surface Treatments
Case hardening is a technique by which both surface
hardness and fatigue life are enhanced for steel alloys. This is
accomplished by a carburizing or nitriding process whereby a
component is exposed to a carbonaceous or nitrogenous
atmosphere at an elevated temperature. A carbon- or
nitrogen-rich outer surface layer (or “case”) is introduced by
atomic diffusion from the gaseous phase

It has been observed that improving the surface finish by

polishing will enhance fatigue life significantly