Topics for discussion

1) Role-playing as a learning device in TEFL

2) Fun and games in ETL

3) The use of pictures as EEL classes

4) Using diagrams effectively

5) Teaching meaning through context

6) Methods of teaching a particular structure

7) The role of grammatical explanation

8) Linguistic vs. communicative competences

9) The teacher's attitudes towards errors and mistakes

10) The qualities of a good foreign teacher

11) The importance of oral expression in foreign language classes

Aims and objectives:

L1: mother tongue, primary language

L2: non-native language, secondary language

The native language is the language of early childhood.

Acquisition

A definition by CJ Brumfit and JT Robert of "language and language teaching"," (1983)

Mother tongue is usually, though not always, the first language to which people are exposed
by parents and relatives and to which they learn to speak first; in any case, it is the language
acquired in childhood with which an individual "identifies" and with which he feels he has
the best and most natural communication.

Second Languages: is the language that is not the mother tongue of its speakers, but which is
the language of the country in which they live and which they use regularly in day-to-day
business within their country.

Can be a confusing term because some (esp. USA) use it in the sense of a foreign language.
Foreign Language: term usually applied only to languages spoken outside the borders of the
country in which one lives, or more crucially, to languages learned only for communication
with those living outside one's own community and not used for every-day communication
within one's own community.

Second Language Situation: Two ethnic groups with two different languages (Canada and
Morocco)

Third Language Situation: Situation of Emigrants: Learn the language of the foreign country
to integrate (USA, England, France)

In contrasting a second language and a foreign language, there is a necessary distinction to be

made between a non-native language learned and used within one country to which the term
"second language" has been applied and a non-native language learned and used with
reference to a speech community outside national boundaries to which the term "foreign
language" is given.

CB Paulston (1974-12.13): The second language is needed for the political and economic
life of a nation's full participation.

French: environmental support

English should compensate for the lack of such support.

Situation 1: English as a First Language

Situation 2: English is taught as a second language in English-speaking countries.

1. To immigrants or refugees: the purpose here is integrative.

English is learned for integrative or survival purposes.

2. The second ethnic group: e.g., Canadian French speakers

Learning English as a second language for integrative purposes

Situation 3: English taught to foreign students in English speaking

Countries: taken for academic or instrumental The major objective is to achieve perfect
writing or reading to compete with a native speaker in an academic context.
Situation 4: English is taught as a second language in a non-English-speaking country, e.g.,
India. English has been given a standard in this country. It is not taught as an end alone but
also as an instrument for education.

Situation 5: English is taught as a foreign language in a non-English-speaking country.

Aims and objectives of ELT in Morocco:

Curriculum:

Roberston: "Curriculum includes the goals, objectives, resources, contents, processes, and
means of evaluation of all learning experiences planned for all pupils in and out of the
community through classroom instruction and related programs."

A syllabus is "a statement of the plan for any part of the curriculum."

The aims of the curriculum are stated in more general terms than the goals of a syllabus.

Aim: The general purpose of a school system

Goals are subject-specific. They are stated in more specific terms.

Objective: "describes the intended result of an instruction rather than the process itself"
(Mager, 1979). In terms of student behavior, it is stated that this is the terminal behavior the
student is supposed to acquire.

According 1

1. Who are my students? What’s their background? their career interest? their free-time
activities? then their interests, preoccupations, or experiences with people from other
cultures.
2. What are the attitudes toward learning other languages? Where are they learning that
language? What are the attitudes toward people speaking the language they are
learning?
3. What do they like in this language? Are they only fulfilling a requirement, or are they
expecting to get something from the study of the language? Are they more interested
in communicating only with speakers of the language, reading magazines,
newspapers, or other specialized material, or do they want to sing that language or
understand films?

How do they prefer to learn the language: through explanation or through practice, by
themselves or with other students? Would they like to learn intensively or for a long period of
time? Would they like to be exposed to structures?

1. materials and regular corrections to go to immediate communication with little

explanation or correction.

Two different personalities with two different attitudes express themselves in a new medium.
Fluency in reading with direct comprehension derives from the ability to think in the
language; this fluency is facilitated by active control of the communication skills of listening
and speaking.

The most appropriate method is the one that leads most effectively to the achievement of all
these objectives, which are more or less interdependent.

Historical Survey of ELT in Morocco:

Period before independence: Arabic is taught as a first foreign language. The second was
English.

Teaching English follows a method called the grammar translation method.

Learning grammar texts for translation (how to take English into French)

After independence, a new radical change in methods was the direct method, followed a little
later by the audio-lingual method. The book is Passport or English; the objective is to develop
oral-oral skills. We shift from writing to speaking. You had to have small classes, a large
language, and competent teachers in the target language and in the method used.

The change method (parole) is financial.

The seventies: with oral-oral skills The look moved under the Brighton series = success in the
English Plenty of drawings = useful drawings = provides a lot of exercises: The main
problem was that dialogues were not

taken from daily life, not authentic, and focused on practice rather than real communication.
"New concept, first", "first things first, practice, progress

Present-day situation

People are still eclectic; they select positive principles from different methods and try to
apply them. The audio-lingual method is skillfully used.

national barriers by giving them synthetic insight into the ways of life and ways of thinking
of the people who speak the language they are learning.

Provide students with the skills that will enable them to communicate orally to some degree
in writing in a personal career context with speakers of another language and with people of
other nationalities who have also learned this language.

Kinetically: use of postures

1=> was emphasized at the time when modern language teachers were trying to justify their
use of study as equal to the study of the classical language, so they adopted a kind of classical
teaching. The fragility of pieces is the same for the education of classical theory. Develop
them for language teachers, including their subject in the educational system, by asserting
their value for training in memory and in the application of logical processes. 1) the learning
of the rules 2) Logical application of these rules in the translation of sentences carefully
constructed to force the students to think about the details of the structure and vocabulary of
the new language Memorizing Paradise (Grammar, Vocabulary Lists)

Higher education was an exclusion for certain elites.

3-4-5-6-7 => Relevant for today's students at the secondary level, the need is to
communicate reality with people who speak other languages so that they can read the
information that falls out in the target language. All these objectives are intertwined.

She says that understanding the nature and use of the basics is a methodology that
develops effective communication skills.

Effective communication is completed by a lack of understanding of the culture of the

speaker of the target language and personal diffidence.

Aims

(curriculum) Manners

Enable students to communicate with the outside world.

English Islamic studies

+ Goals

Syllabus designers

Enable students to understand native speakers.

+ objectives

Textbook writers, teachers

Discriminate sounds Recognize intonation patterns.

Connected speech Multinational meaning.

Wilga H. Rivess, 1982, p. 8 She classifies seven objectives according to their aim.
Objectives differ from one country to another, from period to period, and from
situation to situation. Countries do not adopt the same educational system. But there
are objectives that appear implicitly or explicitly, such as the objectives of learning a
foreign language.

1: to develop the student’s intellectual power through the study of another language
(use their mind when learning another language).

2: To increase the student’s personal culture through the study of Greek literature and
philosophy, to which the new language is the key.
 3: To increase the student’s understanding of how language functions and to bring
them to the study of another language with a greater awareness of the functioning of
their own language.
4: To teach students to read another language with comprehension so that they may
keep abreast of modern writing research and information.

5: To give students the experience of expressing themselves with another framework

linguistically, kinematically, and culturally.

6: To bring students to a greater understanding of people across

Methods of teaching:

Natural sciences and social sciences:

Natural sciences:

The subject matter of W.S. is nature or the material world; the latter exists independently of
the human mind. It also exists regardless of the interpretation of the human mind, which can
give findings from natural or exact sciences that are depersonalized and have nothing to do
with our immediate lives.

H2o= water This formula is contingent on measurability. It doesn't depend on personal

interpretation but is dependent on

measurability.

The purpose of the exact sciences is to devise a workable representation of the material world
and define it in scientific jargon.

In exact science, today‘s finding is tomorrow's finding; it means that exact science is linear
from one science finding to another. There is progression and no dogma.

Social Sciences:

In the social sciences, the subject matter is the human being. We have man as a microscience
and society as a macroscience.

In the natural sciences, laws are testable in subject science and are verifiable for many
reasons:

 Human behavior is not finite.

 Social conduct is not static; it is dynamic.
The purpose is to devise workable presentations of how we see the world and how the world
is.

There is no linear progression in the social sciences; there is polarization. We have two
opposite poles, two ways of striving for things: empiricism and rationalism.

Empiricism refers to the view that all knowledge comes from experience, which means that
human beings come to the world knowing nothing with a tabula rasa, and the result of what
we know comes from experience. Rationalism emphasizes the role that the mind plays in the
acquisition of knowledge. Rationalists believe that there are certain a priori concepts in terms
of which the mind interprets the data of experience.

1. Linguistics and the method of teaching are social-scientific.

2. Linguistics is teaching as well as learning. Human beings are involved, so we are
concerned here with social science. The question to be raised is: how do people learn?
This question is answered by two different philosophers: empiricists and rationalists.

The history of methods has always been subject to what is referred to as "pendulum
swinging. There are methods that are based on empiricism and others that are based on
rationalism.

There are three key concepts to be talked about: Approach-Method-Technique

Method-Approach-Technique: the definition is given by Edward M. Anthony, "Approach,

Method, and Technique," in H. Allen and B. Campbell, eds., Teaching English as a Second
Language (New York: Graw Hill, 1972).

The main approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught.
How the learning takes place. It states a part of the philosophy that one believes but can’t
prove is correct or incorrect. In general, an approach doesn’t tell you how to teach; it only
tells you how language is and how people learn. You deny a method from this, so you can
judge an approach only by the effectiveness of the method.

Method: a method refers to the procedures of language teaching; it’s an overall plan for the
olde orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts and all of which
is based on the selected approach."

The lesson plan, the syllabus, the textbooks used—all these form a part of the method you
adopt in your teaching and should be in harmony with the basic principles of the approach
you are affiliated with.

Technique. Anything you do in the classroom. It's what actually takes place in the classroom.
It is usually referred to as a thick or as a strategy used to achieve a certain objective through
visual aids and the use of the blackboard or film strips. So, it is defined by the meaning of
procedures.

The selection and sequencing of these techniques or strategies are based on two methods. The
method is implemented through techniques.

Approach = Axiomatic
Method: procedural

Technique: implementational

The technique is, to some extent, dependent on the method.

Changes in learning and teaching methods reflect changes in the learner’s goals and needs.
They also reflect changes in the themes of the nation's language and language learning. Five
hundred years ago, Latin was the first language of communication. In the 16th century,
English and French seemed to gain prestige. Latin science is the only field of study. It lost
ground for the benefit of others. They base the teaching of Latin on the analysis of its
grammar and rhetoric, and this science is the method for any foreign language teaching. In
British schools, children have been taught Latin through grammar memorization of grammar
rules, practice and teaching simple sentences, and conjugation. This is an introduction to high
studies of Latin (this was during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries).

Comenius and John Locke wanted to change this situation, but their proposals were not
accepted on the grounds that they would develop the child's intellectual powers.

The change in status of Latin from the language of communication to a mere subject matter
included in the school curriculum brought with it a new justification for its teaching as a
classical language. Latin was said to develop intellectual abilities, and the study of its
grammar, which was started in the 18th century, followed the same procedures.

In the 1914 century and all over Europe, the same procedures were followed for modern
language teaching.

Plotz is a German scholar; he follows certain procedures in LT.

The textbooks used consisted of:

1. Statement of abstract grammatical rules

2: List of vocabulary

3 sentences for translation

They also used excerpts from great writers. Oral practice was limited to reading aloud. The
students were able to construct sentences to illustrate the grammatical rules of language, and
these sentences show no relation to language's real context.

The textbooks were made by Plotz and Seidenstucker.

Grammar translation method

The goal of FL study is to learn the language in order to read its literature and benefit from
the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from FL study. It approaches
the language first through the analysis of its grammar rules, followed by the application of
these rules to the translation of S and T texts into that of T.L.
So the study is limited to rules memorization, understanding, and manipulating the syntax
and morphology of the T.L.

Reading and writing are the major forms, with little attention given to listening and speaking.

Vocabulary selection is based on the texts used for reading words that are taught through
bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization.

4: The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. The lesson is developed to
translate out of the T.L. The focus on the S is a distinct feature of the method itself.

5: Accuracy and Fluency: Accuracy is emphasized because learners are accepted to attain
high standards in translation, and this is because of the priority given to high standards in
accuracy.

6: Grammar is taught deductively, that is, the rules are first presented, and the Tr exercises
follow.

7: The student's native language is the medium of instruction first used to explain the rules.

The material used: textbooks, dictionaries, B/B (simple material)

Application of methods in the classroom:

Lesson 1: first language

If you conjugate the English verb "to eat", you sing

I eat

You eat

She/he eats

We eat

They eat

In English, you must use the pronouns to determine the person since it is not possible to
distinguish the ending otherwise except for the third person.

Target language

In Italian, the pronouns can be omitted in all mixed forms: since the ending.

You don't only analyze but also memorize, so it develops memory.

Disadvantages tags
Lack of development of the oral skills

Many years of studying grammar alone

Thinking is in the native language.

contact with the target language.

In some cases, the result of the method is a perfect translation without real emphasis on the
literary value of the text.

It is not successful with less intellectual students or orally oriented learners.

Audio-Lingual method:

1-Background:

The army has a specialized training program. ASTP 1962.

One person must know many foreign languages at the same time; 1945 = 55 American
universities for this purpose.

Objectives of the program

1. Help people attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages; this means
that no approach to LT becomes necessary; this situation requires a specialized program for
the study of Indian languages. The objective was not teaching but describing the language.
This program was designed for linguistic research. Linguistics and anthropologists were
involved in the program; the method he used was called the "one's informant method. A TL
informant who is a native speaker will serve as a source for phrases and vocabulary, within
which he will provide for imitation, and the linguistic will supervise a learning experience.
The linguistic will have been trained in the explicit structure of the language.

All their parts are guided conversations with the informant. " Gradually, they become able to
speak the language and understand basic grammar.

Aural Approach

Oral-aural approach or structural approach

This approach advocated aural training followed by prominent pronunciation, listening,

speaking, reading, and writing. Language was identified through the speech approach to
structure; this approach was widespread throughout.

50's psychology theory called behaviorism, with status influencing language learning and
teaching.
The combination of structuralism theory, including contrastive analysis, oral-aural
procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to audio-lingual methods.

The term "audiolingual" was coined by Professor Nelson Brooks (1964).

2. Theoretical foundations of the A.L.M.

1. It is the result of experimental psychologists claiming their disciplines as hand science.

They base their studies on observation; they are empiricists. This was a new discipline.

2. 2. It is the result of structuralist analysis, which was developed in the USA.

Behaviorism: A Theory of Learning Psychology Underlying the Audiolingual Method

Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) Human behavior as a continuation of animal

behavior

There may be continuity between the human mind and the animal mind. This was based on a
date experiment.

Classical behaviourism:

At the turn of the century, a Russian psychologist named Ivan Pavlov came up with a new
dimension called classical conditioning.

For Pavlov, all behavior could be accounted for in terms of stimuli.

by a carefully designed program of step-by-step reinforcement (the importance of

reinforcement is given). It plays a great part in the behavioral program of learning.

Verbal Behavior (1957) describes language as a system of verbal operants. This view of
language and language learning dominated foreign language teaching methodology for
several decades, due in large part to a reliance in the language classroom on the control of
verbal operants under carefully designed schedules of reinforcement.

Stimulus -> organism -> response behavior:

Reinforcement (behavior likely to occur again and become a habit)

No reinforcement or negative reinforcement (behavior not likely to occur again)

Theory of Language: Structuralism

It was a reaction against the traditional approaches to languages, which viewed language as a
link to philosophy and grammar as a link to logic. Modern languages were considered
corruptions of classical languages.
In the traditional approach, the grammarians said how language should be. This approach is
prescriptive. Modern language grammar is an objective, scientific description of the
individual language. This reach against traditional grammar was prompted by the movement

of empiricism and Darwin’s origin of species This movement was also increased by known
interest. European languages Franz Boas (1858–1942) was an American anthropologist.
Language is an aspect of culture that should be studied, understood, and described. He
studied a lot of American Indian languages.

which aroused reactions from stimuli and responses. Responses are behaviors aroused by
stimuli.

The unconditional reflex is a natural behavior response that does not have to be learned, like
a dog salivating at food. The scientific response could be conditioned; the simple sight of the
foot could cause salvation; this is called a conditional reflex. It is learned by association. The
dog acquired conditional responses. As we can condition stimuli, we can condition the
response. (Tuning of the forte)

As a conclusion, the learning process consists of the formation of associations between

stimuli and reflective responses.

Another concept that emerged from Pavlov's school is reinforcement. If we turn the forte
without giving food, we are increasing the association between stimuli and conditioned
responses.

If a certain behavior is to be maintained, it has to be reinforced by appropriate satisfaction.

Darwin on Pavlov’s work

He contended that human behavior should be studied objectively, rejecting mentalistic

notions of innateness and intent. John B. Watson (1913): '' We can study human behavior
only on the basis of what we see. The child comes to the world as a tabula rasa with no nation
about language or world; he is shaped by the environment and slowly conditioned through
various schedules of reinforcement. Watson states, "By the process of conditioning, we build
an array of stimulus-response connections. and more complex behaviors are learned by
building up a series of chains of responses.

Neo-behaviorism: BF Skinner

In 1938, Skinner published "Behavior of Organisms." He was one of the leading figures in
behaviorism. He adopted the attitude of Pavlov, but he added something.

For him, classical conditioning plays a little part in human learning.

He called P. C. C. Respondent conditioning was concerned with respondent behavior; it was

artificial. Its respondent was elicited by preceding stimuli. Skinner calls his own conditioning
operant conditioning. Operant is the behavior with which one operates in his environment,
and the importance of stimuli is emphasized. In the stimulus model, we need not be
concerned with the initial stimulus but with the consequences of the behavior that follows.
These consequences follow a given response. Those consequences are called reinforcements.
The result of a certain behavior can either condition its maintenance or disappear. This
reinforces behavior and increases the probability of its occurrence, and it constitutes a
powerful force in the control of huma behavior.

Operant conditioning is behavior that is emitted naturally and is governed by the

consequences it has

Skinner: "Punishment works to the disadvantage of both the punished organism and the
punishing agency.

We are conditioned by the consequences of our behavior.

The mind is just an extension of the soul; what comes to it is the conduct of the body. Since
we don’t see the mind, we don’t talk to it.

The removal of a privilege is punishment.

Skinner's theory of learning had an influence on the understanding of human learning and on
education. He published a book called "The Technology of Teaching" in 1968. How is this a
reference for program instruction? Any subject matter that you teach can be taught effectively
and successfully.

Handbook of American Indian Languages (1911) He was promoted in the structuralism

movement in the U.S. Boas is the promotion of the idea that all languages are equally
complex and all cultures are equally interesting.

Leonard Bloomfield (1887–1949) was a representative of the American structural school.

The published language (1933) The new ideas you come up with

1. Linguistics is a science.

2-Linguistic is a branch of psychology that is positive psychology and Indian behaviorism.

This theory of language is heavily behavioristic. Behavior, according to linguists, manifests

itself in slogans such as,

Accept everything the nation's speaker says in his language and nothing he says about it.

This implies that the description of a certain language should be based on spontaneous
speech. For Bloomfield, the speaker's act is only an instance of behavior, and speech can be
explained by the environment surrounding it. He calls his thesis mechanism and opposes it to
neutralism, according to which speech should be explained in terms of thoughts, feelings, etc.
How they gather data.

1: They transcribe utterances phonetically; from this transcription, they move to the
phonemic system, morphology, and syntactic system.
Language is then a structurally related element. It was assured that language learning is the
mastery of these elements and the rules that combine them.

1: primacy of speech

"Language is "primarily what is spoken and only secondarily what is written. The scientific
view of language appeared to offer the foundations of a scientific approach to language
teaching.

Willian Moulton, American Linguist

The linguistic principles on which language teaching methodology should be based These
principles are five:

1. Language is speech, not writing.

2. Language is a set of habits.

3. teach the language, not about the language.
4. A language is what native speakers say, or what someone ought to say.
5. Languages are different. Each language has a unique system.

In 1942, Bloomfield published an outline guide for the practical study of foreign languages.

On P12: "The command of a language is not a matter of knowledge; the speakers are quite
unable to describe the habits that make up their language. The command of language is a
matter of practice".

On the same page, he claims that "language learning is more important than anything else and
is of no use."

Implications of teaching: Out of the principles and influences emerged certain learning
principles, which became the psychological foundations of the audio-linguistic methods and
shaped methodological practices.

1. Language learning is viewed as a process of mechanical habit formation.

"Good habits are formed by giving correct responses, memorizing dialogue, and practicing
pattern drills. The chances of making mistakes are reduced.

b) Language is a verbal behavior in the automatic production and comprehension of

utterances, as teachers have not induced the student to use the language automatically.

2. The new approach should begin with and focus on aural oral practice.

This practice is needed to provide the foundation for the development of language skills.

3: The rules of the native language shouldn’t be used in the target language.
 4. The learner should learn by analogy and recognition of identical elements in receiving
patterns, not by analysis of grammar. The target language should be practiced, not
studied. Drills can enable learners to make correct analogies. So, the approach to
program learning is inductive.

5: Errors are due to interference. So, the teaching should focus on the conflicting structures,
not the similar ones.

6: The meanings of words in a language can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural
context and not in isolation; this means that language teaching involves the teaching of
aspects of the cultural system of the people who speak the target language.

Behaviourism

Stimulus Response Reinforcement

Unconscious manipulation of the language is learned mechanically or automatically.

Pattern practice consists of drills.

Structuralism

primacy of speech

Language is a set of habits.

Teach the language, not the language.

Languages are different.

Language is an aspect of culture.

Language is about what native speakers say.

not what someone thinks they ought to say

Objectives of the method

1. Listening comprehension made students able to perceive

accurately the phonological features of how sounds are produced.

Introduction, stress, and rhythm enable students to comprehend.

2. Accurate pronunciation is what they aim for.

3. Fluency in the use of grammatical structures
All these forms develop oral skills or proficiency recognition.

5. Recognition of speech symbols as a graphic sign on the printed page (ability to read
what has already been practiced orally)

knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use with grammatical patterns

6. The ability to reproduce these symbols in writing is dependent on prior oral

proficiency.

7. The long-term objective is to enable the student to use the language in a negative way.
The use of the language as a linguistic system and acculturation
8. Objectives
9. The syllabus is linguistically based on a structurally based syllabus.
10. How is the sequence going with the items from the origins?
11. The syllabus is graded into levels, going from the easiest to the most difficult. This
goes along with suggestions for situations to contextualize the terms. So, we will
follow this order:
Listening-speaking-reading-writing.
12. Language means verbal as well as non-verbal behavior, so we should familiarize
students with that.
13. Learning and teaching activities
14. The basic classroom activities are dialogue and drills used in an audio-lingual
environment. Dialogues are means of contextualizing structures, of illustrating
situations in which structures might be used, and also of illustrating some cultural
aspects of the target language. Dialogues are used for repetition, imitation, and
memorization. There is a focus on correct pronunciation and stress intonation.
15. After repetition and memorization, certain structures are selected for drilling and
pattern practice exercises.
16. The use of drills and practice patterns is a distinctive feature of the audio-lingual
method.
17. "Pattern is an arrangement of sounds or words that recurs systematically and is
meaningful." Dr. Harry Finocchiaro
18. "The basic design that underlies a sentence"
19. Pattern practice: "Drills and activities in which the patterns of a language are learned
to the point where students can repeat, alter, or respond to them habitually and
fluently".
20. The role of the learner in an A.L.M.
21. The learner is perceived as a passive organism that can be guided by training
techniques to produce the correct responses.
22. No interest is given to the internal processes of learning. We are interested in only
what the student produces and not in how he processes the language. They are trained
to respond to or give stimuli in an automatic way. Then they are not encouraged to
initiate, react, or

to be creative in using the language. If they allow students to be creative, they will make
mistakes, and mistakes are not allowed.

The role of the teacher

The teacher's role is central and active; the A.L.M. is the teacher-dominated

He models the target language. He has to be fluent, and he also has to be the model.

2: He controls the direction and pacing of learning.

He monitors and corrects the learner’s performance.

He must maintain the students' attention to learning by using drills and selecting relevant
situations to practice structures. Language grammar is learned to result from active verbal
interaction between the teacher and the learner; this implies that the teacher should be very
fluent in the target language.

The teaching material is supposed to assist the teacher in developing mastery of the target
language in the learner. They are teacher-oriented. They include:

The teacher's manual

Student's textbook.

Student's workbook.

Tape recorders

Film strips

Overhead projectors.

Flash cards are all types of visual aids.

Language Laboratories

A typical textbook will include:

1-dialogue does bring certain situations

2-Drills

3: Application activities are referred to as exploitation.

The size of the classroom

An audio-lingual class would not consist of more than 10 students because of the focus on
oral repetition. With large classes, the teachers will be obliged to work with a small number
of students.

Procedure: these general principles, as given by Brooks (1964–142),

 1. The modeling of all learning by the teacher
2. The subordination of the mother tongue to the target language

the early and continued training of the ear and the tongue without referring to the graphic
symbols.

3. The learning of structure through the practice of patterns of sound (note a form) and not by
explanation

4. The practical substitution of graphic symbols for sounds when sounds are thoroughly
known

5-Summarizing the main principles of structure for the student’s use (when providing some
explanation after structures are already familiar)

6. The shortening of the time span between a performance and the pronouncement of its
rightness or wrongness This enhances reinforcement in learning.

7. Minimizing the vocabulary until all common structures have been learned and then
teaching vocabulary only in context. Nelson Brooks (1964–142)

In a typical lesson,

1. Find the dialogue. The students learn to listen to a model dialogue that contains the key
structures that are the focus of the lesson, which they then repeat after the teacher, now
chorally, time after time. The teacher pays attention to their pronunciation and intonation, so
mistakes should be corrected immediately and directly. If the lessons are too long, you divide
them; the repetition is classical, in groups, or individual.

Then the dialogue is adapted to the student's situation by changing some phrases, some key
words, some names, and some phrases.

acting out of the dialogue.

None of the students know it by heart.

Teach key structures to the dialogue and use them as a basis for patterns in drills. These drills
should be viewed to avoid boredom.

The drills are repeated first chorally and then individually.

You may provide some grammatical explanation, which should be kept to a minimum.

The student may refer to these textbooks, and then follow-up activities of different kinds are
based on the dialogues.

As proficiency increases, students may write more freely, using variations of structural items
and short compositions.

Follow-up activities reinforce what has been taught.

Evaluation:

1. Positive aspects of A.L.M.

1. development of the student’s listening comprehension, which leads to the

development of auditory memory through the use of recorded active speech. That is
authentic speech used in daily communication; the cultural aspects of the target
language are included.

2. 2. Development of the students' speaking skills: at the very beginning, students learn
segments of language that can be used for communication.

3-Structural patterns are systematically introduced, practiced, and drilled so that they
end up in any item without omission.

Everything is carefully planned in a given lesson.

4: The learning materials are more scientifically and systematically used, and the way
textbooks are organized and used in accordance with the principles of the A.L.M.,
there is no conflict between the methods applied.

5-Focus on the use of the target language, not the analysis of the target language.

6-Students in A.L. classes experience a sense of achievement in being able to use

what they have learned.

7: The techniques advocated allow for the active participation of all students. People
can repeat without embarrassment in choral repetition.

2. Negative points:

1. Reading and writing are neglected; they are kept later and used only as application
activities.

2: The time between spoken and written forms is long enough to make students
uneasy, and some of them feel frustrated.

This method may be especially useful for gifted students.

It's because the learner doesn't do any learning.

4: Automatic control of the language by minimizing memorization by M.M.M. There

is a limit to efficiency drills. They develop performance but not competence (Mim-
Mem-Method > M.M.M.).

5th A.L.M. makes considerable demands on the teacher; the first thing he has to do is
acquire near-native pronunciation in modeling utterances for the students, and then it
calls for considerable energy to keep practice moving.
 General principles

Harnett (1974): "We should encourage both the inductive and deductive ways of
teaching grammar.

In this context, the role is to teach the language, not about the language.

In Morocco, the language is done according to the principles of A.L.M., which means
that it is forbidden to provide grammatical explanation.

In the Moroccan context, no grammar rules are given; there is no formal grammar.

Then it will present real language in the form of sentence patterns, which will be practiced
and manipulated until they are established as verbal habits that it can use automatically.

This pattern practice will be done through writing, repetition, and various other exercises.

substitution exercise.

You taken the

They Have Just book
She Has read it
look it
We dropped it

After manipulation by the students, they will hopefully draw their own generalizations and
formulate the rule themselves. The learning is inductive. It means real language first and
possible formulation of the whole later.

Generally, grammar rules and exploitation are forbidden to individuals, or at least used with
care, if it is not the natural way a child learns his mother tongue. Second, the students are not
always able to understand the grammatical terminology. However, the T can be used with
simple terminology. Also, some explanation can be provided through visual grammar (the use
of diagrams).

Simple past
Was walking not

Past now Future

past progressive
In the teaching of structures, the teacher should make sure at every stage, and especially at
the presentation stage.

The students practice the correct habit so that they are using the language correctly and
accurately. If unacceptable utterances are tolerated, they are forced, and it is difficult to
correct them later. This means that although T is working on a structure, he should also pay
attention to pronunciation and intonation.

The teaching of a structure is done in three successive stages.

Tag one: presentation: here the T demonstrates the meaning and use of structures.

Stage two: drilling: the students manipulate the structure they are provided with, to which
they respond.

Tag three: the exploitation: here the students are allowed to use students more freely.

Presentation: You have different ways of presenting a new structure. The technique may
depend on the structure you are teaching.

Also, it may depend on the type of students, the size and level of the class, and the teaching
material you can prepare.

The possible technique for the presentation of structure is:

1: Using the students

2: Performing reactions: use the students for what you say while you are doing the action.

3-use reetia for

4 sets of flashcards.

5: Use of hand-made visual aids

6-Use of context that is very common with the if form: you create a context through a
statement, a sense of statements or ones, 2 end, if conditional 3.

Last year, Ali didn't work hard, so he didn't pass his exam. If Ali had worked hard, he would
have passed his exam.

Did he work hard?

Did he pass the exam? It is between us to ask these questions before

did he mind hand Giving the model sentence

Drilling: there are two phases. Language learning:

1-Habituation

2-Communication

Habituation is achieved through intensive practice. This intensive practice enables the
students to understand the

new item with ease and to speak the language with increasingly greater control of
pronunciation, word form, and word order.

The habituation stage should be followed by the communication stage; that is, students must
learn how the sentence and utterance fit into an actual communication situation.

What is a drill?

A drill is an oral exercise designed to teach the students the systematic practice of a
participant's structure in naturally phrased and easily remembered foreign language
utterances. The aim of the exercise is to enable the students to internalize the structure and to
develop fluency in the use of that structure.

Type I drills:

1-Repetition drills:

These are drills in which the student repeats exactly what the teacher says. This type of drill
provides the class with the position to put proper stress on pronunciation and rhythm when
asking questions.

2-Substitution drills:

A single slot in the structure is opened up, and ones are provided for that slot. The changes
must remain constant, and the cues can be verbal or visual.

Example: verbal cue in the present perfect

e.g., T: I have already read it.

T: seen

I have already seen it.

S: Visual use with present continuous

ex: T: Ali is playing.

b-Double slot substitution: two slots in the sentence are opened, and cues are provided for
those slots.
Example: She goes to the market every day.

walks

every afternoon

c-Multiple substitution drill or triple-sslot substitution:

Three or more slots in the sentences are opened, and cues are provided for those slots.

Example: the comparative adjectives Ali is taller than my brother.

T:..........older…………………
S:..............................................
T: My friend ……………………
S: Ali is taller than my friend
T: Brahim………………………..
S: Brahim is taller than my friend

3-Mutation drills: In these drills, students have been informed either by repetition or explicit
instruction, which they are required to produce. He doesn’t simply substitute one item for
another; he also makes a change in the form of the cue word.

example: present perfect:

T: I have already read it.

 See

S: I have already seen it.

4-Transformation drills: These drills require changes in word order and involve the addition
of

or deletion of a grammatical constituent. These drills can practice changes from the
affirmative to the negative, from active to passive, from statements to questions, and from
direct to indirect speech.

5-Replacement drills (Paulston calls them reduction drills):

The students replace one element with another. Generally, the number of students will be
reduced. Repetition drills are especially useful for practicing the replacement of nouns and
pronouns.
Example: possessive pronoun

T:This is my book.

S:This is mine.

The car is small The man is tall.

It is small He is tall.

All the people are crazy.

They are all crazy

Everyone is crazy

6 Expansion Drills: These frills practice building longer and more complex sentences. They
are effective for practicing the placement of structures, including adjectives and adverbs.

is required to do something big before responding to cues meaningfully; drills are more
difficult and may require more time.

10-Completion drills: The students are given one part of the sentence and are asked to
complete it. Completion drills are very valuable because they give the students the
opportunity to create meaningful expressions by completing each sentence.

Example: Conditional

T: If I were rich

S: I will buy a car

11-Collocation drills:

Example: "I'd like to

This is an interesting book.

S: "Good, I'd like to read it."

Ex: asking indirect questions

I like that book.

S: Do you know who the author is?

12-Synonymy drills:

Example: Relative clauses

T: a butcher
Anyone who sells meat

T; library

S: Place where books are borrowed

13-Hyponymy drills:

John Lyons: "Hyponymy is the relationship that holds between a more specific and a more
general lexica."

Flowers > roses, tulips, and daisies

Virtue > kindness, honesty, and faithfulness

Example: present perfect:

T: Is this your first visit to Rabat?

S: I have never been to Morocco before.

I haven't been to Morocco before.

Characteristics of good drilling

1-A drill should be concerned with one specific structure.

2. A drill should be consistent and follow the same patterns of language. Do not start with
substitution and go to transformation within the same drill.

The 3-A drill will consist of six to eight cue response items in order to give students time to
assimilate the patterns.

4: Each item in the series will be short so that the student will have no difficulty keeping it in
his or her mind as he tries to construct and respond according to the cue provided.

5: Each response to the cue will be a complete utterance that could conceivably occur in a
natural conversation.

6: The students should have a clear idea of what they are expected to do in the drills. This can
be achieved through clear examples followed by two or more examples.

7-Drills should be varied in type to avoid the boredom created by one type of activity. Three
or four types of drills for each new item

8: The item of drills should be varied in context.

9: The drilling must not always be mechanical.

Exploitation: This is the stage for free expression, and it is what all the rest of the lesson is
about. So far, the students have had guided practice in the structure that gives a particle
response to a particular stimulus. It is now time for free expression, even though the T may
have to provide some guidance. Here, the T will try to do as much as possible. The student’s
free expression will involve the description of their own experiences, their reactions to a
given situation, their expression of their opinion, etc.

Ways of exploitation

1: providing a rich context the T provides his students. with a fairly wide and rich context,
which lends itself to many different sentences containing the structures that have been
studied.

Example: "need to" + verb

A picture of what girls need before getting married

Aisha will get married. What do you think she needs to do?

S:

2: Asking life experience questions

Example: the superlative

T: What is the happiest moment in your life?

Who is the oldest in your family?

3. Problem-solving exercises

Example: Conditional

T: What would you do if your father asked you to marry someone you didn’t love?

1. What would you do if your father asked you to marry?

4-Role playing

Example: The simple past

At the beginning of the school year, you meet your friends, and they ask you to tell them
about summer holidays.

one asking a question and the other responding.

5-Student. interviews

give words, and students give complete sentences.

book if you won’t read it.

S: If the book...

3-Completion drills

T: I start the S, and you finish it.

Ex: He is so stupid.

Exploitation stage: give an example of their own, if not provide pictures or more gestures.

Question types for checking comprehension:

1. true/false exercises Asking students to decide which of the two values applies to a
particular statement.

2: Multiple choice questions: you give a question, and with a multiple choice answer,

3: Open-ended questions: this offers students more freedom than others. There are three types
of open-ended questions:

+ content questions: content of the passage, the answers to which are explicitly stated. the
passage they check students understanding of the facts. According to Paulston, we have WH
questions: where, when, and who. She talks about how and why. The information is taken
from the text but not directly quoted.

WH questions: questions about

How and why facts or content

 yes/no questions.
 Either/ or
 WH questions

Inference questions: the aims are only implied in the text, not explicitly stated. They check
the student's ability to infer meaning from the information that is given to them.

A student plays the role of a famous person.

6: Free Example: The student gives a free example using the structure taught.

7. Use of diagrams and charts.

Example: simple past/ago

The biography of a film star can be used as a subject for the student’s questions and answers.
First film Hollywood Get married Baby Divorce Oscar USA

1959 1960 1965 1970 1972 1975 1977

Model for the lesson

Target item: So that

Stage 1: You create the need: review nouns as familiar language and items necessary to make
the meaning of the new item clear.

The table is too heavy. Nobody can lift it.

The table is so that.

Individual and choral repetition

Manipulation: Use 3 drills: combine, restore, and completion drills.

Combine the student's T with yours.

Example: Teacher’s model

The film was so boring that I could not finish it.

The film was so boring that I could not finish it.

Cues: I was anxious; I would sleep.

Combine the two students!

So…. that

I was tired and couldn’t go out.

So... that...

2.restor drills