Experimental method-

An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. An independent

variable (the cause) is manipulated in an experiment, and the dependent variable (the effect) is
measured; any extraneous variables are controlled. The experimental method involves the
manipulation of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships. The key features are controlled
methods and the random allocation of participants into controlled and experimental groups. An
experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. An independent variable
(the cause) is manipulated in an experiment, and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured; any
extraneous variables are controlled.
Independent variable (IV)
The variable that experimenter manipulates (i.e., changes) is assumed to have a direct effect on the
dependent variable.
Dependent variable (DV)
Variable that experimenter wants to measures. This is the outcome (i.e., the result) of a study. The
independent variable is the one the experimenter manipulates (the thing that changes between the
conditions the participants are placed into). It is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent
variable. The dependent variable is the thing being measured, or the results of the experiment.
Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect
the results of the experiment. It can be a natural characteristic of the participant, such as
intelligence levels, gender, or age for example, or it could be a situational feature of the environment
such as lighting or noise.

What Are the Advantages of Experimental Research?

1. It provides researchers with a high level of control.

2. There is no limit to the subject matter or industry involved.

3. Experimental research provides conclusions that are specific.

4. The results of experimental research can be duplicated.

5. Natural settings can be replicated with faster speeds.

6. Experimental research allows cause and effect to be determined.

What Are the Disadvantages of Experimental Research?

1. Results are highly subjective due to the possibility of human error.

2. Experimental research can create situations that are not realistic.

3. It is a time-consuming process.

4. There may be ethical or practical problems with variable control.

5. Experimental research does not provide an actual explanation.

6. Extraneous variables cannot always be controlled.

Observation Method-
Observation (watching what people do) would seem to be an obvious method of carrying out
research in psychology.observations can also be either overt/disclosed (the participants know
they are being studied) or covert/undisclosed (the researcher keeps their real identity a secret
from the research subjects, acting as a genuine member of the group)
In general, observations are relatively cheap to carry out, and the researcher needs few resources.
However, they can often be very time-consuming and longitudinal.

Controlled Observation
Controlled observation is a research method for studying behavior in a carefully controlled and
structured environment.
The researcher sets specific conditions, variables, and procedures to systematically observe and
measure behavior, allowing for greater control and comparison of different conditions or
groups.The researcher decides where the observation will occur, at what time, with which
participants, and in what circumstances, and uses a standardized procedure. Participants
are randomly allocated to each independent variable group.ontrolled observations are usually
overt as the researcher explains the research aim to the group so the participants know they are
being observed.Controlled observations are also usually non-participant as the researcher avoids
any direct contact with the group, keeping a distance (e.g., observing behind a two-way mirror).

Strengths
1. Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same
observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability.
2. The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is
quantitative (i.e., numerical) – making this a less time-consuming method compared to
naturalistic observations.
3. Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can
take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained, resulting
in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large
population.

Limitations
1. Controlled observations can lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect /demand characteristics.
When participants know they are being watched, they may act differently.

Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation is a research method in which the researcher studies behavior in its
natural setting without intervention or manipulation.
It involves observing and recording behavior as it naturally occurs, providing insights into real-
life behaviors and interactions in their natural context.
Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social
scientists.
 This technique involves observing and studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in
natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.
In unstructured observations, the researcher records all relevant behavior without a system. There
may be too much to record, and the behaviors recorded may not necessarily be the most
important, so the approach is usually used as a pilot study to see what type of behaviors would be
recorded.
Compared with controlled observations, it is like the difference between studying wild animals in
a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat.
Strengths
1. By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting, studies have greater
ecological validity.
2. Like case studies, naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives
the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation, it often suggests avenues of inquiry
not thought of before.
Limitations
1. These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative
sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class, or ethnicity). This may result in the
findings lacking the ability to generalize to wider society.
2. Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it
difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way.
3. A further disadvantage is that the researcher needs to be trained to be able to recognize aspects
of a situation that are psychologically significant and worth further attention.
4. With observations, we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous
variables), meaning cause-and-effect relationships cannot be established.

Participant observation is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here, the researcher
joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives.If
it were research on animals, we would now not only be studying them in their natural habitat but
be living alongside them as well!Leon Festinger used this approach in a famous study into a
religious cult that believed that the end of the world was about to occur. He joined the cult and
studied how they reacted when the prophecy did not come true. Participant observations can be
either cover or overt. Covert is where the study is carried out “undercover.” The researcher’s real
identity and purpose are kept concealed from the group being studied. The researcher takes a
false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the group.

Limitations
1. It can be difficult to get time/privacy for recording. For example, researchers can’t take notes
openly with covert observations as this would blow their cover. This means they must wait
until they are alone and rely on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and
are unlikely to remember direct quotations.
2. If the researcher becomes too involved, they may lose objectivity and become biased. There is
always the danger that we will “see” what we expect (or want) to see. This problem is because
they could selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe. Thus
reducing the validity of their data.

Longitudinal Method-
 A longitudinal study is a type of observational and correlation study that involves monitoring a
population over an extended period of time. It allows researchers to track changes and
developments in the subjects over time. In longitudinal studies, researchers do not manipulate
any variables or interfere with the environment. Instead, they simply conduct observations on the
same group of subjects over a period of time.
These research studies can last as short as a week or as long as multiple years or even decades.
They are beneficial for recognizing any changes, developments, or patterns in the characteristics
of a target population. Longitudinal studies are often used in clinical and developmental
psychology to study shifts in behaviors, thoughts, emotions, and trends throughout a lifetime. For
example, a longitudinal study could be used to examine the progress and well-being of children
at critical age periods from birth to adulthood.
Types-
Panel Study
 A panel study is a type of longitudinal study that involves sampling a cross-section of
individuals at specific intervals for an extended period.
 These studies measure people’s behaviors over time, specifically their opinions, feelings,
emotions, and thoughts. Panel studies are a type of prospective study.
Cohort Study
 A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study that samples a group of people with a common
characteristic.
 Researchers observe a population based on the shared experience of a specific event, such as
birth, geographic location, or historical experience. These studies are typically used among
medical researchers.
Retrospective Study
 In a retrospective study, researchers either collect data on events that have already occurred or
use existing data that already exists in databases, medical records, or interviews to gain
insights about a population.
Advantages
Allows researchers to look at changes over time
Because longitudinal studies observe variables over extended periods of time, researchers can
use their data to study developmental shifts and understand how certain things change as we age.
High validation
Since objectives and rules for long-term studies are established before data collection, these
studies are authentic and have high levels of validity.
Eliminates recall bias
Recall bias occurs when participants do not remember past events accurately or omit details from
previous experiences.
Flexibility
The variables in longitudinal studies can change throughout the study. Even if the study was
created to study a specific pattern or characteristic, the data collection could show new data
points or relationships that are unique and worth investigating further.
Limitations
Costly and time-consuming
Longitudinal studies can take months or years to complete, rendering them expensive and time-
consuming. Because of this, researchers tend to have difficulty recruiting participants, leading to
smaller sample sizes.
Large sample size needed
Longitudinal studies tend to be challenging to conduct because large samples are needed for any
relationships or patterns to be meaningful. Researchers are unable to generate results if there is
not enough data.
Participants tend to drop out
Not only is it a struggle to recruit participants, but subjects also tend to leave or drop out of the
study due to various reasons such as illness, relocation, or a lack of motivation to complete the
full study. This tendency is known as selective attrition and can threaten the validity of an
experiment. For this reason, researchers using this approach typically recruit many participants,
expecting a substantial number to drop out before the end.
Report bias is possible
Longitudinal studies will sometimes rely on surveys and questionnaires, which could result in
inaccurate reporting as there is no way to verify the information presented.

Cross-sectional method-
Cross-sectional study design is a type of observational study, or descriptive research, which
involves analyzing information about a population at a specific point in time.
This design measures the prevalence of an outcome of interest in a defined population. It
provides a snapshot of the characteristics of the population at a single point in time. In this type
of study, researchers examine a group of participants and depict what already exists in the
population without manipulating any variables or interfering with the environment.
Cross-sectional studies aim to describe a variable, not measure it. They can be beneficial for
describing a population or “taking a snapshot” of a group of individuals at a single moment in
time.
In epidemiology and public health research, cross-sectional studies are used to assess exposure
(cause) and disease (effect) and compare the rates of diseases and symptoms of an exposed group
with an unexposed group.
Advantages
Simple and Inexpensive
These studies are quick, cheap, and easy to conduct as they do not require any follow-up with
subjects and can be done through self-report surveys.
Minimal room for error
Because all of the variables are analyzed at once, and data does not need to be collected multiple
times, there will likely be fewer mistakes as a higher level of control is obtained.
Multiple variables and outcomes can be researched and compared at once
Researchers are able to look at numerous characteristics (ie, age, gender, ethnicity, and education
level) in one study.
The data can be a starting point for future research
The information obtained from cross-sectional studies enables researchers to conduct further data
analyses to explore any causal relationships in more depth.
Limitations
Does not help determine cause and effect
Cross-sectional studies can be influenced by an antecedent consequent bias which occurs when it
cannot be determined whether exposure preceded disease. (Alexander et al.)
Report bias is probable-
Cross-sectional studies rely on surveys and questionnaires, which might not result in accurate
reporting as there is no way to verify the information presented.
The timing of the snapshot is not always representative-
Cross-sectional studies do not provide information from before or after the report was recorded
and only offer a single snapshot of a point in time.
It cannot be used to analyze behavior over a period of time
Cross-sectional studies are designed to look at a variable at a particular moment, while
longitudinal studies are more beneficial for analyzing relationships over extended periods.

Cross-Sectional Vs. Longitudinal

Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies are two different observational study designs
where researchers analyze a target population without manipulating or altering the natural
environment in which the participants exist.
However, cross-sectional studies differ from longitudinal studies in that cross-sectional studies
look at a characteristic of a population at a specific point in time, while longitudinal studies
involve studying a population over an extended period.
Longitudinal studies require more time and resources and can be less valid as participants might
quit the study before the data has been fully collected.
Unlike cross-sectional studies, researchers can use longitudinal data to detect changes in a
population and, over time, establish patterns among subjects.
Cross-sectional studies can be done much quicker than longitudinal studies and are a good
starting point to establish any associations between variables, while longitudinal studies are more
timely but are necessary for studying cause and effect.