Topic 2

Matter
2.1 Nature of matter: physical and chemical changes
 2.1 Nature of matter
• Chemical changes:
• New substances are formed through chemical processes
• Takes place when energy is taken or given out
• Permanent
• Used to make new substances
• Physical changes:
• No new substances are formed
• Takes place when the properties of a substance are changed
• Reversible
• Involves change in state, shape or size of the substance
 Chemical changes
• Reaction: process of chemical change
• Reactants: starting materials in a reaction
• Products: materials formed during a reaction
• Charcoal burning
• Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
• Photosynthesis
• Water + carbon dioxide → oxygen + glucose
• Rust
• Iron + oxygen + water → hydrated iron oxide
 Physical changes

Melting Heat ice it forms water

Freezing Water cooled becomes ice

Boiling Water boils it turns into water vapour

Condensation Water vapour condenses back into water

 Exam
question
 Kinetic particle theory of matter KPMT
The kinetic particle theory of matter states that:
• All matter consists of particles
• There are spaces between these particles
• Particles move continuously
• Particle movement or speed depends on temperature
• The forces of attraction between the particles keep an object
together
 KPMT and Expansion

Heating matter:
• Causes particles to vibrate faster
• More collisions between particles causes particles
to take up more space
• Therefore, the substance expands
 KPMT and Compression

• Squeezing particles together:

• Particles are pushed closer
together
• Reduces the space the substance
occupies
 KPMT and diffusion
• Movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration
• Caused by movement of particles
• Gasses → particles move quickly and move in
all directions = diffusion fastest
• Liquids → particles move slower = diffusion is
slower
• Solids → particles vibrate in a set space =
diffusion doesn’t take place
 Changing the state of matter
• Melting
• Temperature rises in a solid
• Particles gain more energy
• Vibrate faster
• At melting point particles have enough energy to break away
from their neighbors
• Solid becomes a liquid
 Changing the state of matter
• Boiling
• Temperature rises in a liquid
• Particles gain more energy
• Vibrate faster
• Spaces between particles increase
• Liquid expands
• At boiling point particles overcome the forces holding them
together
• Liquid becomes a gas
 Changing state of matter
• Evaporation
• Particles on a liquid have more energy and break away from
the surface
• Liquid forms a gas
• Condensation and freezing
• Particles cool down
• Loose energy and vibrate more slowly
• Forces of attraction between particles become stronger
• Move closer together
 Changing state of matter

• Sublimation
• Substance changes from a gas to a solid or from a solid to a gas
without passing through a liquid form
• Carbon dioxide → changes from a frozen solid state to a gas
immediately when exposed to heat from outside air
• Naphthalene → solid moth balls release gas
• Ammonium chloride → solid forms a white smoke
• Iodine crystals → evaporate to form purple vapour.
Exam question
 Atoms

• The smallest particle of matter

 2.2.1 Elements

• Elements → substances that cannot be

separated into simpler substances by
chemical means
• Consists of one type of atom
• Pure
 Molecule

• Two or more atoms that

have been joined (or
bonded) together and that
can exist independently
 2.2.1 Mixtures

• Mixtures → consist of different

kinds of single atoms or compounds
• Not chemically combined
• Can be separated physically
 2.2.1 Compounds

• Compounds → atoms of different

elements are chemically bonded
• Made of more than one atom
• Separate only by a chemical process
• Sodium (Na) + Chlorine (Cl)
→NaCl table salt, sodium is a
white metal and chlorine is a gas.
Sodium chloride is a crystal
Compound Mixture
Single substance Two or more substances
Composition is always the same Composition may vary
Chemical change is involved when No chemical change takes place
a compound is formed when a mixture is formed
Properties of a compound are Properties of a mixture are the
very different from properties of same as those of the substances
the elements that are in the in the mixture
compound
Elements can be separated by Components of a mixture can be
chemical methods separated by physical methods
Periodic table
 Periodic
table
• Arrangement
of the elements
• Order in which
they appear is
determined by
their properties
 Chemical symbols

• Each element has a chemical

symbol made up of one or two
letters
• If the symbol contains only one
letter = CAPITAL LETTER
• If the symbol contains two
letters = first letter is CAPITAL
and second letter is lower case
 First 20 elements of the Periodic table
Element Symbol Element Symbol
Hydrogen H Sodium Na
Helium He Magnesium Mg
Lithium Li Aluminium Al
Beryllium Be Silicon Si
Boron B Phosphorus P
Carbon C Sulfur S
Nitrogen N Chlorine Cl
Oxygen O Argon Ar
Fluorine F Potassium K
Neon Ne Calcium Ca
 Also need to know
Element Symbol
Iron Fe
Copper Cu
Zinc Zn
Silver Ag
Tin Sn
Iodine I
Gold Au
Mercury Hg
Lead Pb
Uranium U
 Elements in our environment

• Important to Namibia’s economy

• Namibia mines copper, gold, tin and uranium, diamonds
• We breath oxygen and nitrogen
• All living organisms are carbon-based forms of life
Periodic table
 Groups and
periods

• Chemical properties of the

elements create trends in
the periodic table
• Group → Vertical columns
of elements in the periodic
table
• Period → Horizontal rows
of elements in the periodic
table
 Metals and non-
metals

• Elements can be
classified into
metals and non-
metals
• The zig-zag line
separates them
• Metals on the left
• Non-metals on the
right
 Spot test (15 marks)
• 1. Li 7. Cu 13. Cl
• 2.Magnesium 8. Mercury 14. Ne
• 3. K 9. Uranium 15. Calcium
• 4. Iron 10. B
• 5. Ag 11. Silicon
• 6. Gold 12. Phosphorus
 Periodic table

• Alkali metals →group 1

• Alkali earth metals → group 2
• Halogens → group 7
• Noble gasses → group 8
History of atoms
 Structure of the atom
• Smallest building block of matter
• The atomic model tells us that:
• An atom consists of a nucleus that contains
protons which are positively charged and
neutrons, which have no charge
• The negatively-charged electrons orbit the
nucleus
• Electrons are arranged in electron shells,
which are regions where groups of
electrons are found. The first electron shell
is closest to the nucleus
 Electron shells

• 1st shell = filled when it has 2 electrons

• 2nd shell = filled when it has 8 electrons
• The outermost electron shell and the
number of electrons in it play a role in
chemical bonding
 Charges of protons, neutrons and electrons

• Protons → +1
• Neutrons → 0
• Electrons → -1
• Every atom has the same number of protons and electrons
• Every atom has no overall charge
• Atoms from different elements have different numbers of these
charged particles
• Numbers are specific the element
 Masses of protons

• Protons and neutrons have roughly the same mass → 1 atomic mass unit to
both
• Electrons are almost 200o times smaller than a proton or a neutron → 0
atomic mass unit
Atomic mass numbers and mass numbers
Atomic Number
Total number of protons found in the nucleus
Same as the number of electrons found in the shells around the
nucleus
Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
Use atomic number to identify an element
Also known as the proton number

Mass Number
Total number of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of
an atom
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Make up most of the mass of an atom
Also known as the nucleon number
 How to draw the Bohr atomic structure

• Step 1: Draw a dot to represent the atoms nucleus

• Step 2: Look up the atom number and the mass number
of the element on the Periodic Table (to determine how
many protons, neutrons and electrons there must be)
• Step 3: Draw a circle around the dot. This is the first
electron shell
 How to draw the Bohr atomic structure
• Step 4: Write the number of protons and neutrons
outside the circle, with a thin line pointing to the nucleus
• Step 5: If the element has more than two electrons, draw
dots at the top and bottom of the first electron shell. (if
the element has only one or two electrons, then draw the
one or two dots to complete the Bohr structure)
• Step 6: Draw another circle around the last one. This is
the second electron shell
 How to draw the Bohr atomic structure

• Step 7: Draw one dot at a time, starting at the top, then

to the far right, then to the bottom and then to the far
left. Stop when you have the right number of electrons
• Step 8: If the element has more than 10 electrons, you
will have to draw a third circle (electron shell) and keep
adding dots until all the electrons are in place
Exam question
 Chemical formulas

• A way of writing the name of one molecule that tells us which

elements it consists of, and in what ration
• Example: Carbon dioxide contains carbon and oxygen
• In a container of carbon dioxide the number of carbon atoms is
not the same as the number of oxygen atoms
• Carbon and oxygen combine in the ratio 1:2
• For each carbon atom there are two oxygen atoms
• The chemical formula for carbon dioxide is written CO2
 Rules for writing chemical formulas
• 1) if the formula unit contains more than one atom of an
element, we show this by using small numbers, which are
written below the element → dihydrogen monoxide: 2
atoms of hydrogen + 1 atom of oxygen = H2O
• But if there is only one atom we do not write a small 1
• 2) if one of the elements in a molecule that only consists
of two atoms is hydrogen, then hydrogen is always
named first → hydrogen sulfide: 2 hydrogen atoms + 1
sulfur atom = H2S
 Rules for writing chemical formulas
• 3) if the molecule contains only non-metal elements,
then the second part of the name must end in –ide, and
must have one of the following prefixes to indicate the
number of atoms
Number of atoms Prefix Example Chemical formula
1 Mon(o)- Carbon monoxide CO
2 di- Sulfur dioxide SO2
3 tri- Boron trifluoride BF3
4 tetr(a)- Carbon tetrachloride CCl4
 Exercise
• Write the formula for the following molecules
• A)nitrogen dioxide
• B)silicon tetrachloride
• C)dinitrogen tetroxide
• Write the name of the following molecules
• A) CS2
• B) SO3
• C) NO
 Period 4
2.4 Bonding

• A full outer shell makes an atom chemically stable – it does not need to
loose or gain electrons from the outer shell
• Unstable atoms try and share electrons by bonding with other atoms so that
they can become stable
• To achieve a full outer shell:
• Share electrons with another atom
• Give electrons to another atom
• Take electrons from another atom
 Atoms form bonds

• Position of an element in the periodic table indicates

number of shells and number of electrons of an atom
• The number of outer electrons (group number) =
maximum number of bonds that an atom can make
Group Number of outer How can the Maximum
electrons atom obtain a number of bonds
full outermost
shell
1 1 Lose 1 electron 1
2 2 Lose 2 electrons 2
3 3 Lose 3 electrons 3
4 4 Share 4 electrons 4
5 5 Gain 3 electrons 3
6 6 Gain 2 electrons 2
7 7 Gain 1 electron 1
8 8 - 0
 Covalent bonding

• Where are metals found on the periodic table?

• Covalent bonding → bonding that occurs between two non-
metal atoms
• E.g. carbon, oxygen, hydrogen
• Can occur between two of the same types of atoms
• Or
• Between two or me different types of atoms (this is always in a
fixed ratio)
 Rules for covalent bonding

• Only non-metal elements and compounds that are made of only

non-metals can bond covalently
• The non-metals that take part in covalent bonding need to gain
electrons to obtain full outer shells
• These non-metals gain full shells by sharing electrons between
different elements
• Atoms can share only outer electrons
 Covalent bonding

• Covalent bond is formed when two non-

metal atoms share electrons
• Atoms bond to form molecules
• E.g hydrogen has one valence electron a
molecule of hydrogen is formed when the
shells from two atoms overlap and share
their electrons
• When 2 atoms share one electron a single
covalent bond is formed
 • Carbon dioxide
• Each atom shares two electrons with its
partner
• This is called a double covalent bond
• Carbon has 4 outer electrons
Covalent • Oxygen has 6 outer electrons
bonding • Carbon will share its outer electrons with 2
oxygen atoms
• Nitrogen (N2)
• Each atom shares three electrons with its partner
• This is called a triple covalent bond
• Nitrogen has 5 outer electrons therefore each atom needs to
share 3 outer electrons
 Water (H2O) - compound
Also known as dihydrogen oxide

• 2 hydrogen atoms
• 1 oxygen atom
• Oxygen has 6 outer electrons
• Hydrogen has 1 outer electron
• Therefore 2 hydrogen atoms will share
their outer electrons with oxygen
 Oxygen (O2) - element

• 2 atoms of oxygen
• 6 outer electrons in each
• Share 2 electrons in their outer shells
 Methane (CH4) - compound

• 1 carbon
• 4 hydrogen
• Carbon atom has 4 electrons and
therefore needs to share electrons with
4 hydrogen atoms
 Fluorine (F2) - element

• Fluorine has 7 outer electrons

• It shares one outer electron with a second
atom
 Ammonium (NH3) - compound

• 1 nitrogen
• 3 hydrogen
• Nitrogen has 5 outer electrons
• Hydrogen has 1 outer electron
• Therefore they share 3 outer electrons
Exam question