Pumps and pipeline

1. Applications of pumps
Add energy to the fluid to overcome:
➢Friction and minor losses along a pipeline system
➢Elevation changes or potential energy changes
2. Working fluid: gas or liquid
•Air: fan, blower, compressor – compressibility effect
•Liquid: pump – cavitation may be a concern
•The basic operating principles for air and liquid are the same,
Reference books:
[1] Mechanics of Fluids, 2nd Edi, by MC Potter and DC Wiggert, Prentice Hall, 1997.
[2] Munson, D. F. Young and T. H. Okiishi, 4th edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
[3] Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, by E. John Finnemore and Joseph,
B. Franzini, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2002
[4] Civil Engineering Hydraulics, C. Nalluri & R. E. Featherstone, Blackwell Science1
 Threshold concepts for pumps and pipeline

1. Energy equation for pumps and turbine is involved;

2. The pumping system demand is determined by energy equation;

3. The pump characteristics is provided by pump manufacturer;

4. When pumps are operated in series or parallel, the system demand

does not change, but the combined pump characteristic curve will be
changed.

2
 Lecturer’s expectations for this Section

1. Know how to use the energy equation when pump/turbine are involved;
2. Know how to get the system demand through using energy equation;
3. Know how to get the pump characteristic curves when pumps are
arranged in parallel, in series and/or a combination of them;
4. Know how to use the pump similarity laws.

3
3. Objectives

(1) Pump selection

•Nature of jobs: Demanded by the system,
•Types of pumps available
─ radial-flow
─ axial-flow or
─ mixed-flow
•Costs ─ initial, operating and maintenance costs
(2) Determination of pumping location
•To avoid cavitation
4
Main contents of Chapter 3
1. Pump categories: radial flow, axial-flow & mixed-flow pumps
2. Head developed by a pump and pump efficiency
3. Performance characteristics of pumps at constant speed
4. Operating point of a pump
5. Similarity laws for pumps – dimensional analysis & similarity
6. Specific speed of pumps – Pump selection
7. Performance characteristics of pumps at different speed
8. Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)-Pump installation
9. Pumps operating in series and in parallel

5
1. Pump categories
Axial-flow

Radial-flow Figure 1

• Radial-flow, the blades are shaped to force fluid outward at right angles
to its axis – normally for high hump head,
• Axial-flow, fluid maintains an axial-flow direction from the inlet to outlet
– normally for high flow rate,
• Mixed-flow, to give fluid a radial- and axial-flow velocity components
for the flow through the rotor row. 6
2. Head developed by a pump and pump efficiency
Initial fluid energy at (1): p2,V2, z2
p1 V12
+ z1 +
g 2g p1,V1, z1 Discharge side
Final energy at (2): Radial-flow
Suction side
p2 V22 pump
+ z2 +
g 2g Figure 2

(Please note that energy loss is neglected here)

From energy equation, the pump head Hp (m) can be obtained as:
 p2 V22   p1 V12 
H p =  + z2 +  −  + z1 +  (4.1)
 g 2 g   g 2g 
.
Actual power W f (W) gained by the fluid:
. 7
W f =  QH p (4.2)
The power delivered to the impeller (or shaft) of the pump:
.
WP = T
(4.3)
: rotating speed (rad/s)
T: Torque of the pump shaft.
. .
If there is no loss,  W f = WP
. .
In reality, W f  WP due to:
• hydraulic losses,
• mechanical losses in the bearings and seals.
• fluid leakage between back surface of impeller hub plate and
the casing, or through other pump components.

So the pump efficiency P is defined as,

. . QH P (4.4)
 P = W f / WP = 8
T
Example 4.1
Water is to be pumped from the reservoir to a fire hose at a velocity of 4
m/s. If the total head losses is 20 m at 4 m/s, find HP (m)

Solution:
Since p1 =0, V1=0, p2 = 0,
write Energy Eq between HP

(1) & (2),

Figure 3

V22
H p = z2 − z1 + + HL
2g
= 55 + 0.81 + 20 = 76.8m
9
System demand of pump head in general form
The piping system between two
tanks: (1) to (2)
Flow rate: Q
Assuming total head loss
from (1) to (2):
H L = RQ 2
Figure 4
From energy Eq between (1) and (2)
H P = Z + H L = Z + RQ 2 (4.5)

Eq. (4.5) is derived from the piping system and is usually called as the
system demand head.
Note: Eq. (4.5) may be different for different systems 10
3. Pump performance characteristics at fixed speed
Pump characteristics show the dependence of:
• Pump head Hp vs. flow rate Q
• Efficiency P vs. flow rate Q
• Power W vs. flow rate Q
H P = c + bQ + aQ 2 (4.6)
Shutoff head: Hpmax

Shutoff head Hpmax: For a fixed 

when Q=0, we have Hpmax.

Figure 5 Pump characteristics provided by manufacturers 11

Determination of pump characteristics

• For small pumps, laboratory and in-situ tests can be done,

• For large pumps, scaled models will be tested in labs,

• Variables to be measured

– Discharge Q: difficult for large pumps but easy for small pumps

– Head Hp: pressure gauges or pressure transducers

– Power input to the pump

For 
– Speed : revolution counters and timers

From the above tests, pump characteristics can be obtained.

This will be provided by the manufacturer. 12
4. Operating point of a pump at a fixed speed
The operation of pumps depends on:
•Pump characteristics (Eq (4.6)
•System demand (Eq. (4.5)
Pump characteristic (4.6)
Best efficient point (BEP)
Operating
point
HP 

HP

Q Q
Change in
System equation (4.5) system eq 13
Figure 6
Summary for the operation of a pump:

•Operating characteristics is determined using both the system demand

and the pump performance curve,

•Operating point: at the intersection, the head and flowrate satisfy both
the system demand and the pump characteristics,

•Ideally, operating point should be near the best efficiency point (BEP)
for the pump,

•For a given pump, as the system equation changes, the operating point
will shift.
14
5. Dimensional analysis and similarity laws for pumps

(1) Importance of dimensional analysis

– Examination for the influence of various variables on pump
performance
– pumps to be grouped according to the type

15
(2) Dimensional analysis (Buckingham Pi theorem)
Step 1: Determine pump dependent variables: H P , 𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 , and .
Step 2: Determine number of variables k (=variable + 1 dependent variable):
─ Geometrical configuration (3 variables-related with gemoetry)):
•diameter D; other pertinent lengths l; surface roughness .
─ Other important variables (4-related with flow characteristics):
• flowrate Q; rotating speed ; fluid viscosity  and density .
The general relationship will be (i.e. k = variable +1 dependent variable):

H P 𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 , or  = f (Q, D, l, , , , ) (4.7)

Step 3: Selecting , D,  as repeating variables (i.e. r = 3)

Step 4: Determine number of Pi terms: = k-r = 5

16
According to the Buckingham Pi theorem, the equation can be rearranged
in terms of dimensionless Pi terms 1 = (2, 3, …, k-r)
Step 5: Finding the Pi expressions:
1 should include the dependent variable, for example Hp, normally
write as gHp
1 =(gHP)aDbc
2 = laDbc
Note: a, b, and c may not be the
3 = aDbc same in these relations
4 = QaDbc
5 = aDbc
Step 6: Non-dimensionalise all the Pi terms using FLT (force, length and
time) or MLT (mass, length and time) system, i.e. make the Pi terms
without a dimension.
Take 1 as an example. Under MLT (mass, length and time), the
dimensions of each variable can be written as: 17
 𝑀 𝐿 1 𝑎 𝑀 𝑐
Π1 =   𝐿 𝐿𝑏  = 𝑀1+𝑐  𝐿−3+1+1+𝑏−3𝑐 𝑇 −2−𝑎
𝐿3 𝑇2 𝑇 𝐿3

Non-dimensionalise M, L and T, we get:

1+c = 0 c = −1
−3 + 1 + 1 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 = 0 a=−2
−2 − 𝑎 = 0 b = −2
𝑔𝐻𝑃
Finally we get: 1 =gHp-2D-2-1 = 2 2
𝜔 𝐷

Using the same method, you can get 2 to 5. Finally we have:
ghP  li  Q D 2 
= 1  , , 3 , 
 D
2 2
 D D D  

Step 7: Repeat Steps 5 and 6 to get the Pi terms for Wshaft and . 18
Finally, dependent pi terms involving H P ( P /  ) ,Wshaft and :

➢Head rise coef:

ghP  li  Q D 2 
CH = 2 2 = 1  , , , ,
 D  D D D
3
  (4.9)
Relative roughness Reynolds number
➢Power coef: .
W  l  Q D 2

CP = = 2  , ,
i
, , (4.10)
 D
3 5
 D D D
3
 
➢The efficiency:
gQhP  li  Q D 2 
= = 3  , , , , (4.11)
 D D D  
. 3
W shaft
•Reynolds number effect – negligible when Re is large,
•For simplicity, relative roughness effect /D is neglected in pumps 19
For geometrically similar pumps, i.e. li / D is a constant,
the dependent pi terms can be rewritten as:

ghp 
CH = 2 2 = 1 
Q  (4.12)
3
 D  D 

𝑊 𝑄
𝐶𝑃 = 3 5
= 𝜙2 (4.13)
𝜌𝜔 𝐷 𝜔𝐷3

gQhp  Q 
= = 3  3 (4.14)
 D 
.
W

Flow coefficient: CQ = Q /  D3 (4.15)

20
If two pumps of the family are operated at the same flow coefficient,
 Q   Q 
i.e.  3
= 3
, then
  D 1   D  2

 gh p   gh p 
 2 2  =  2 2  (4.16)
  D 1   D  2

𝑊 𝑊
= (4.17)
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 1
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 2 Similarity Laws

1 = 2 (4.18)

CQ = Q /  D3 (4.15)

We can also prove that:  = CQCH / CP (4.19) 21

(3) Special pump scaling laws (pump affinity laws)
(a) For a given pump (D1=D2) with the same flow coefficient, a
change in  affects pump characteristics:

Q1 1
= (4.20)
Q2 2

h p1 12
= 2 (4.21)
hp 2 2

𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡1 𝜔13
= 3 (4.22)
𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡2 𝜔2

22
(b) For a geometrically similar family with the same flow
coefficient, a change in D affects pump characteristics:
Q1 D13
= 3 (4.22)
Q2 D2

h p1 D12
= (4.23)
hp2 D22

𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡1 𝐷15
= 5 (4.24)
𝑊𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡2 𝐷2

For cases when viscosity & surface roughness are important,

the pump efficiency will be influenced:
1/ 5
1 − 2  D1 
 
1 − 1  D2  (4.25) 23
6. Performance characteristics of pumps at different speeds and sizes
Figure 5 is obtained at a constant speed 1.
To obtain pump characteristics at other speed 2 or 3, Figure 7

H(m) h2
From Eq. (4.20) & (4.21)

2 h1
Q2 = Q1
1
2
 2 
hp 2 =   h p1
 1 

The lines for equal efficiency Q1 Q2

are determined by test
24
To obtain pump characteristics at other diameters, D2 and D3,

From Eq. (4.22) & (4.23)

H(m) Figure 8
3
 D3 
Q3 =   Q1
 D1  h1

2
 D3  h3
h p 3 =   h p1
 D1 

Q1
Q3
The lines for equal efficiency
are determined by test
25
Example 4.2
A variable speed pump having the tabulated characteristics, at 1450 rev/min,
is installed in a pumping station to handle variable inflows. Static lift = 15 m;
diameter of pipeline = 250 mm; length 2000 m,  = 0.06 mm. Minor loss =
10.0 V2/2g . Determine the total head of the pump and discharge in the
pipeline at pump speeds of 1450 rev/min, 1000 rev/min and 500 rev/min.

Discharge (L/s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Total head (m) 45 44 42.5 39.5 35.0 29 20.0 6.0

Steps: (1) We plot the pump characteristics first

(2) Using Eqs. (4.20) and (4.21), we get the pump characteristics
under 1000rpm and 500rpm
(3) Calculate the system demand:
L V2
H p = Z static + H L = 15 + ( f + 10) (1) 26
D 2g
 (4) As we do not know V, we have to use try and error to find f
For /D=0.00024, assume wholly turbulent region f =0.014 (on Moody Diag)
From (1)
Also V=Q/A H p = 15 + 2583Q 2 (system demand)
(5) Plot system demand on the same figure as pump characteristic curve,
the crossing point is the operating point → you can get hp and Q
(6) Check the value of f:
from the Q obtained in the figure, → U → Re
Based on Re and /D, on Moody diagram, check if the flow is really
wholly turbulent or not. If yes, then the answers are correct. If no, you
need to get a new f from Moody Diagram based on Re and /D. → you
will get a new system demand, e.g. H P = 15 + 3090Q 2
(7) Plot the new demand on the figure again, get new Q and hp.
Repeat (6) (based on the new Q value) until f does not change too much.
27
For 500rpm, no discharge will be produced as there is no crossing point
 50
=1450rpm 2
HP=15+3090*Q (second try)
2
Hp=15+2583*Q (first try)
40

30
H (m)

=1000rpm
20
Q=0.0556

10
=500rpm
Q=0.027 Q=0.0568
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
3
Figure 9 Q (m /s) 28
7. Pump specific speed – Pump Selection

The specific speed in SI system:

 e Q 
N SI =  
3/ 4  (4.26)
 ( gh)  BEP
NSI is a non-dimensional parameter.

In USA, specific speed is defined:

 e Q 
N S =  3 / 4  (4.27)
 (h )  BEP

where e in rpm, Q in gpm, and h in ft.

Figure 10

The figure shows the pump type corresponding to the specific speed.
29
Example 4.3
For a pump at BEP, Q=0.6m3/s, h=20m, and =1200rpm,
What type of pump should be used?

For =1200rpm, we have =126rad/s

 e Q  126 0.6
N SI =  
3/ 4 
= = 1.86
 ( gh)  BEP (9.8  20)
3/ 4

From Figure 10,  mixed-flow pump should be used

30
8. Cavitation in pumps and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

(1) Cavitation: The rapid vaporization and recondensation of liquid

as it briefly passes through a region of low absolute pressure.
 p V2 
From Bernoulli’s Eq:  +z+  = Constant
 g 2g 
when V↑, p ↓  As the minimum pressure in fluid: Pv

if liquid pressure is reduced to Pv, liquid vaporizes to form bubbles

when bubbles move to higher pressure region (i.e. lower V region)

then
the bubbles is squeezed the bubbles collapse

generates high speed, high temperature and high frequency jets

effects on solid surface: weakening, pitting, erosion and fatigue.

31
(2) Causing effects such as:
➢Reducing the pump efficiency,
➢Flow becomes unsteady and machine to vibrate,
➢Generating noise
➢Cavitation may damage the machine

In a pump, cavitation tends to begin at the suction side where the

flow is accelerated into the impeller.

(3) Cavitation can be avoided if pressure everywhere in the pump can be kept
above the vapor pressure, i.e.

PP Pv

g g
32
(4) Characterization of the potential for cavitation
➢Using difference between total head on suction side and the vapour pressure
Vs2 Pv
Ps
NPSH = + −  net positive suction head (NPSH), (4.28)
 2g 
➢There are actually two values of NPSH of interest
−Required NPSHR: must be maintained. For a given pump, NPSHR is
determined experimentally by the manufacturers

−Available NPSHA: represents the head that actually occurs for the particular
flow system. It can be determined experimentally, or calculated if the system
parameters are known.

For proper pump operation, it is necessary that

NPSHA  NPSHR. 33
For pump installation in Fig. 11, NPSHA can be calculated as follows:
Energy Eq between (1) and (2) (suction side):

Patm PS VS2
− z1 = + + hL (4.29)
  2g
p1=patm Suction
PS VS2 Patm side
+ = − z1 − hL (4.30)
 2g 
Figure 11

𝑃𝑆 𝑉𝑆2 𝑃𝑣 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃𝑣
 NPSH𝐴 = + − = − 𝑧1 − ෍ ℎ𝐿 − (4.31)
𝛾 2g 𝛾 𝛾 𝛾

34
(5) Cavitation Number R =
NPSH R
(4.32)
hp

NPSH A Patm /  − Pv /  − z1 − hL

A = = (4.33)
hp hp

•From Eq. (4.33), σ decreases if:

➢hp is large
➢Low patm, or high elevation
➢Large hL
➢Large elevation z1
➢Large pv (or high temperature)
NPSH A
• For cavitation-free operations  A = R
hp
 Patm  Pv
 − z1 − hL    required h p + (4.34)
 g  g 35
•Critical cavitation number σc − below which cavitation occurs
➢σc depends on type of pump,
➢Operation conditions, e.g. at BEP or not,
➢For a given pump, σc varies with flow rate

Fig 11. σc for a centrifugal

pump operated near BEP

•The highest pump elevation:

For Eq.(4.33), when σ = σc, z1 = zmax,

zmax = ( Patm − pv ) /  −  c hp − hL (4.35)

36
Example 4.4 A pump with σc = 0.1, hp=150m, patm/=10m, pv / = 0.35m,
hL=1.5m. Find maximum pump elevation relative to water surface at intake.
Substitute all values into Eq. (4.35), we get
zmax = Patm /  − pv /  −  c hp − hL
= 10 − 0.35 − 0.1150 − 1.5 = −6.85m
Pump should be placed 6.85m below reservoir water surface

•Prevention Cavitation
To prevent cavitation, we need to increase NPSH
NPSH = Patm /  − z1 − hL − pv /  (4.31)
– Reducing flow rate and hence head loss
– Decreasing the pump elevation z1
– Decreasing vapour pressure (reduce temperature)
– Increasing atmospheric pressure 37
Example 4.5
Water is discharged into atmosphere. Pipe diameter = 0.1m, f = 0.1. Minor
loss coef: Kinlet = 0.8, Kbend = 0.3, Kexit = 1.0. Patm = 101.3kPa, Pv = 2.3kPa.
Given the pump performance curves and required NPSH, find:
(1)the maximum flow rate before pump cavitation
(2)what flow rate will the system operate at?

Note: when calculating NPSHA, pipe length should be 3 + 6 + 1 = 10m

38
(1) For non-cavitation, NPSHAvailable>NPSHRequired
From Eq. (4.31), the NPSHAvailable can be obtained, with L = 1+3+6=10m:
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 /𝛾 − 𝑝𝑣 /𝛾 − 𝑧1 − Σℎ𝐿
101.3 − 2.3 × 103 10 Q2
= − 3 − (0.8 + 0.3+1 + 0.1 ) 2 (1)
1000 × 9.81 0.1 𝐴 2𝑔
= 7.09 − 9172𝑄 2
2
NPSHA=7.09 – 9172Q
6
The NPSHR vs Q is replotted
non-cavitation
Crossing point: NPSH (m) 4
cavitation

Qmax without cavitation

Qmax without cavitation
3
= (0.025m /s)
2
For non-cavitation, NPSHA > NPSHR
NPSHR

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
3
Q (m /s) 39
(2) The pump characteristics is replotted
System demand is calculated as:
110 Q 2
h p = z +  H L = 3 + (0.8 + 0.3 + 1 + 0.1 ) 2 = 3 + 92625Q 2 (2)
0.1 A 2 g

Plotting the pump characteristics and system demand:

Crossing point is the operation point
60 Pump characteristics
2
System demand hP=3+92625Q

As Qoperating < Qmax without Cavitation, 40

hp
Operating point

hP(m)
no cavitation will occur.

20
Qmax without cavitation
3
= (0.025m /s)
Q: operating
3
=0.0202m /s
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
3 40
Q (m /s)
9. Pumps operating in series and in parallel
9.1 Pumps in Series Operations
•Pump discharge is the same
•Pump heads are added
•Pump characteristics changed
•System demand remains the same

41
9.2 In Parallel Operations New pump characteristic curve of the two pumps

(From Potter and Wiggert)

•Pump heads are same

•Q are added from each pump
•Pump characteristics changed
•System demand remains the same

For two different pumps in parallel

42
For identical pumps in parallel arrangement
Example 4.6 Two identical pumps will be used to transport water. Diameter of
pipe is 200mm, length 2.5kM. Static lift is 15m, minor loss: 10V2/2g. Pipe
.
roughness 0.15mm. Find the discharge Q and power W = QH P consumed if:
(a) Pumps are in parallel; (b) in series.
Pump characteristics are tabulated as :

The above characteristics can be plotted for a single pump.

System demand by Energy Eq and tabulated as (steps are neglected)
hP = H ST + h f + hm

Q (l/s) 10 20 30 40
hP(m) 16.53 20.8 27.37 36.48 43
•For pumps in parallel, characteristic curve is changed – the discharge is
doubled under the same head.
•The demand curve is obtained using energy equation.
•Crossing point is the operation point

44
•For pumps in series, characteristic curve is changed-head is doubled for same Q.
•The demand curve is obtained using energy equation.
•Crossing point is the operation point.

45