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Sun-Earth radiation balance

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Average Annual Ground Solar Energy on Earth

Solar Energy in Bangladesh

The long term average sunshine data indicates that the period of
bright sunshine hours in the coastal regions of Bangladesh
varies from 3 to 11 hours daily.

The insolation in Bangladesh varies from 3.8 kWh/m2/day to

6.4 kWh/m2/day at an average of 5 kWh/m2/day.

These indicate that there are good prospects for solar thermal
and photovoltaic application in the country.

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11

Solar Energy Technologies:

Solar Drying: Drying agricultural and other product.
Passive Solar Heating and Day lighting: Using solar energy to
heat and light buildings.
Solar Hot Water: Heating water with solar energy. Solar
Process Heating.
Solar Thermal Power Plant: Using the sun's heat to produce
electricity.
Photovoltaic Systems: Producing electricity directly from
sunlight.

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Solar drying :
i) Direct Solar Drying

Open-air solar drying uses solar radiation to heat directly the material.

It is a process used for millennia to preserve food, a natural convection
drying procedure, as the air movement is due to density differences.

Drying chili peppers with solar dryers Fish drying under the sun
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Rice Drying under Sun

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ii)Active Solar Energy Dryers:

Distributed type

A typical distributed-type active solar dryer is shown in Figure.

It comprises four components: a drying chamber, a solar energy air heater,
a fan, and ducting to transfer the hot air from the collector to the dryer.

15

Integral type

Large-scale, commercial, forced-convection, greenhouse-type dryers are
like transparent roof solar barns and are used for solar timber drying kilns.

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Another variation of this type of dryer is the solar collector–roof/wall,

in which the solar heat collector forms an integral part of the roof and/or
wall of the drying chamber. A solar-roof dryer is shown in Figure

17

Mixed-mode type

The mixed-mode dryer is similar to the distributed type with the
difference that the walls and roof of the dryer are made from glass, to allow
solar energy to warm the products directly, as shown in Figure

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iii) Passive Solar Energy Dryers:

Passive or natural circulation solar energy dryers operate by using
entirely renewable sources of energy, such as solar and wind.

Distributed type

Distributed, natural circulation, solar energy dryers are also called
indirect passive dryers.

A typical distributed natural circulation solar energy dryer comprises

an air heating solar energy collector, appropriate insulated ducting, a
drying chamber, and a chimney, as shown in Figure.

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Integral type

Integral-type, natural circulation, solar energy dryers are also called
direct passive solar energy dryers.

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Mixed-mode type

Mixed-mode, natural circulation, solar energy dryers combine the features
of the integral-type and the distributed-type natural circulation solar energy
dryers.

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Greenhouses:

Another application intended for the agricultural industry is the
greenhouse.

The basic function of a greenhouse is to provide environmental

conditions that accelerate the process of photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is the driving force for plant growth, in which

CO2 is transformed into H2O, using solar energy, to carbohydrates
and oxygen.

Photosynthesis is highly sensitive to environmental factors.

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Active Solar System for Building

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Solar Water Heater:

Flat Plate Collector (FPC)

Schematic of solar water heater

(natural circulation system)

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Passive (thermo siphon) solar water heaters on a rooftop

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Direct systems: (A) Convection Heat Storage unit (CHS or thermo siphon)
system with tank above collector.
(B) Active system with pump and controller driven by a photovoltaic panel.
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A solar water heater installed on a house in Belgium

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Schematic of solar water heater

(forced circulation with antifreeze and heat exchanger system)

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Solar Water Heater

Solar Water Heater in a Village School, Nepal

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Solar Water Heater

Solar Hot Water system for Krasnodar Reginoal Hospital, Russia

 Capacity : 10m3 daily
 Water temp. : up to 80oC
 Opt. season: Apr to Sept
 Use: Hot water for cooking
 No. of collector panels : 108
 Total collector area: 88 m2
 Installed in : 1995
 Project cost : US$16,400
 In 1996 the hospital saved
about US$ 6,400.

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Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC)

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Solar Thermal Power Plant

 High temperature system is used mainly for thermal engines
and electricity generation and uses concentrators and mirrors.
 Examples: power towers, parabolic trough concentration
system, parabolic dish concentrator system, etc.

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Figure: Solar thermal power plant without storage.

The main parts of the system are: the solar field, power block which contains
heat exchanger (as steam boiler), turbine, condenser, pump and generator.
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Concentrated Solar Thermal Systems:

CST power plants (often referred to as CSP) produce heat from sunlight, which
is subsequently converted into electricity.
The collected sunlight creates heat, which in turn is used to drive a turbine and
generator as in a conventional power station.
Stand-Alone Solar Rankine System:

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Hybrid System

Fossil Fuel Backup

Though CST plants can operate at their full rated electric power for up to 12
hours a day in clear and sunny locations, most CST plants include a fossil-
fuelled backup capability that can be used to supplement the solar output
during periods of low solar radiation.

This backup can either be a facility that heats up the heat transfer fluid or an
additional, fossil-fuel fired steam boiler.

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Supercritical Steam Turbines into Advanced Molten-Salt Power Tower Plants.

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Barstow Power Tower

10 MW solar system
1818 plane mirrors,
each 7mx7m,
Reflect direct radiation to
the raised boiler

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World's Biggest Solar Thermal Power Plant in Australia

150-megawatt structure in Port Augusta in South Australia.

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Solar Pond
A solar pond is simply a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar
thermal energy.
The saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also known as a
“halocline", in which low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity
water.

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The layers of salt solutions increase in concentration (and therefore

density) with depth. Below a certain depth, the solution has a
uniformly high salt concentration.
When the sun's rays contact the bottom of a shallow pool, they heat
the water adjacent to the bottom.
When water at the bottom of the pool is heated, it becomes less
dense than the cooler water above it, and convection begins. Solar
ponds heat water by impeding this convection.
Salt is added to the water until the lower layers of water become
completely saturated.

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High-salinity water at the bottom of the pond does not mix readily
with the low-salinity water above it, so when the bottom layer of water
is heated, convection occurs separately in the bottom and top layers,
with only mild mixing between the two.
This greatly reduces heat loss, and allows for the high-salinity water
to get up to 90 °C while maintaining 30 °C low-salinity water.
A vapor cycle engine can operate at this temperature difference.
Solar ponds are large-scale energy collectors with integral heat
storage for supplying thermal energy.
It can be use for various applications, such as process heating, water
desalination, refrigeration, drying and power generation.

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Power Generation from Solar Pond

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Solar Thermal Energy (contd.)

El Paso Solar Pond, USA. Capacity 70 kW

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Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

(OTEC)

• It uses the sea as a solar collector

• It exploits the small temperature difference between
the warm surface of the sea and the cold water at
the bottom.
• In deep waters, 1000m or more, this is around 20oC.
• Mechanical output power is P =ρ c Q (∆T)2/Th

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Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

(OTEC)

Schematic of an OTEC system

warm water inlets

25oC

outlets

1000 m
transmission cable

cold water
inlet
5oC

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Solar Photovoltaics

 PV is short for photovoltaics (photo=light, voltaics=electricity).

 PV is a semiconductor-based technology used to convert light
energy into direct current (dc) electricity, using no moving parts,
consuming no conventional fuels, and creating no pollution.
 First developed in 1953-54 in its modern form.

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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

 Has been used to power:

 satellites in space since 1958.
 remote telecommunications, cathodic protection, and
signaling systems since the mid 1960s.
 remote residential and commercial systems since 1970s.
 utility and inter-tied residential and commercial systems
since 1980s.

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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

 Solar cells represent the fundamental power conversion unit of a

photovoltaic system.
 The solar cell operation is based on the ability of semiconductors
to convert sunlight into electricity.
 In the conversion process, the incident energy of the light creates
mobile charged particles in the semiconductor that are then
separated by the device structure and produce electricity.
 In 1839 Alexandre Edmond Becquerel discovered the
photovoltaic effect .

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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

• In 1954 the first p/n junction solar cell was developed at Bell Lab.
An N-Type semiconductor is
created by adding pentavalent
impurities like phosphorus (P),
arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), or
bismuth (Bi) in silicon. A
pentavalent impurity is called a
donor atom because it is ready to
give a free electron to
a semiconductor. The impurities
Schematic of a p/n junction solar cell are called dopants.

P-Type Semiconductor: The addition of trivalent impurities such as boron,

aluminum or gallium to an intrinsic semiconductor creates deficiencies of
valence electrons, called "holes". A common p-type dopant for silicon is
boron.
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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

Crystalline silicon solar cell

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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

 To describe the solar cell characteristics the following two

important parameters are used:
 Short circuit current, Isc is a measure of the current generated
by the solar cell when it is short circuited by connecting the
–ve and +ve contacts with a wire of negligible resistance.
 Open circuit voltage, Voc is the voltage generated at open-
circuit condition with zero load current.

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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

I-V characteristics of a silicon solar cell.

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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

 Maximum output power, Pmax is represented by the area of the largest

rectangle that can be fitted under the curve.
 Rated power or Peak power is the output power at rated voltage (the
voltage assigned by the manufacturer at which the near maximum
power is obtained) under STC.
 STC are: Irradiance 1000 W/m2,
Cell temp. 25±2oC

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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

 A typical 4 inch dia. crystalline solar cell or a 10cm x 10cm

multicrystalline cell can provide 1 – 1.5 W of electrical energy under STC
while operating voltage is 0.5V to 0.6V.
 To get an appropriate working voltage, solar cells are connected in
series to form a module.
 The physical assembly of modules with support is called an array.
 Most PV manufacturers have standard configurations for modules that
can work with 12V batteries. 36 cells in series can ensure this.

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Solar Photovoltaics (contd.)

The photovoltaic hierarchy.

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A charge controller, charge regulator or battery regulator

A charge controller regulates and controls the output from the solar array
to prevent the batteries from being over charged (or over discharged) by
dissipating the excess power into a load resistance.
A charge controller is an important component in a battery
based solar system and are not used in straight grid tie systems.

Batteries: Batteries are an important element in any stand alone PV

system but can be optional depending upon the design. Batteries are used
to store the solar-produced electricity for night time or emergency use
during the day. Depending upon the solar array configuration, battery
banks can be of 12V, 24V or 48V and many hundreds of amperes in total.
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Inverter: The inverter can be another optional unit in a stand alone

system. Inverters are used to convert the 12V, 24V or 48 Volts direct
current (DC) power from the solar array and batteries into an
alternating current (AC) electricity and power of either 120 VAC or
240 VAC for use in the home to power AC mains appliances such as
TV’s, washing machines, freezers, etc.

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DC Isolators: These are used between high voltage DC PV arrays

and grid-connect inverters. They are located adjacent to the inverter
and are required to provide a means of manually isolating the entire
PV array during system installation or any subsequent maintenance.

AC isolator switch for use with a grid-connected solar array.

Positioned adjacent to the inverter and AC switch which is required
to provide a means of manually isolating the AC supply during
system installation or any subsequent maintenance.

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In case of large number of strings connected in parallel it is

necessary to ensure protection of PV panels against reverse currents,
and over current protection of cables of PV array.
Fuses are primarily used to protect the system against short circuit
and fire hazards.
Fuses and Isolation Switches: These allow PV installations to be
protected from accidental shorting of wires allowing power from the
PV modules and system to be turned “OFF” when not required
saving energy and improving battery life.
Wiring: The final component required in and PV solar system is the
electrical wiring. The cables need to be correctly rated for the
voltage and power requirements. Thin telephone wire will not work!.
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Stand Alone PV System Stand Alone PV System is

made up of a number of
individual photovoltaic
modules (or panels) usually of
12 volts with power outputs
of between 50 and 100+ watts
each. These PV modules are
then combined into a single
array to give the desired
power output. A simple stand
alone PV system is an
automatic solar system that
produces electrical power to
charge banks of batteries
during the day for use at night
when the suns energy is
unavailable. A stand alone
small scale PV system employs
rechargeable batteries to
store the electrical energy
supplied by a PV panels or
array.
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Mini Grid

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A mini grid, also sometimes referred to as a "micro grid or isolated

grid", can be defined as a set of electricity generators and possibly
energy storage systems interconnected to a distribution network that
supplies electricity to a localized group of customers.
"They involve small-scale electricity generation (10 kW to 10MW)
which serves a limited number of consumers via a distribution grid that
can operate in isolation from national electricity transmission networks.

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Grid-Intertied without Battery Backup

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A smart grid is an electrical grid which includes a variety of operational

and energy measures including smart meters, smart appliances,
renewable energy resources, and energy efficient resources.
A smart energy network, automatically reading and reacting to supply
and demand changes offers the potential for greater security of supply
through efficiency.

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PV applications

PV has a wide range of applications such as:

• Solar home system
• PV lantern
• Solar pumping
• Solar aeration
• Telecommunication
• Cathodic protection
• Street and Traffic light
• Vaccine refrigerator
• Water purification
• Village electrification

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PV applications

Solar Home System, Brazil Solar Home System, Bangladesh

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PV applications

Village market electrification by PV

Telecommunication

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PV applications

Solar Pump

Cyclone shelter electrification by PV

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PV powered boat Cathodic protection

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Roof top PV panel

PV light pole

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PV lighting billboard Solar pumping

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PV mobile charger

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For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the

time they face the sun.
Solar trackers achieve this by moving PV panels to follow the sun.
The increase can be by as much as 20% in winter and by as much as
50% in summer.
Static mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of the sun
path. Panels are often set to latitude tilt, an angle equal to the latitude,
but performance can be improved by adjusting the angle for summer
or winter.

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Solar Absorption Refrigeration System

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Solar Cooker

convert sunlight to heat, but

they were mostly using
mirrors to concentrate the
light into a single burning
point. Saussure was focused
on the heat-trapping capacity
of glass.
Parabolic cookers can use the
heat of the sun to reach
temperatures of up to 200
degrees Celsius.

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Solar Desalination Systems

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Water is one of the most abundant resources on earth, covering three

fourths of the planet’s surface.

About 97% of the earth’s water is saltwater in the oceans and 3%

(about 36 million km3) is freshwater contained in the poles (in the form
of ice), ground water, lakes, and rivers, which supply most human and
animal needs.

Nearly 70% from this tiny 3% of the world’s freshwater is frozen in

glaciers, permanent snow cover, ice, and permafrost.

Thirty percent of all freshwater is underground, most of it in deep,

hard-to-reach aquifers.

Lakes and rivers together contain just a little more than 0.25% of all
freshwater; lakes contain most of it.

Water Demand and Consumption:

Humanity is dependent on rivers, lakes, and underground water
reservoirs for freshwater requirements in domestic life (10%), agriculture
(70%), and industry (20%).

However, rapid industrial growth and a worldwide population

explosion has resulted in a large growth of demand for freshwater, both
for household needs and for crops to produce adequate quantities of food.

The provision of freshwater is becoming an increasingly important issue

in many areas of the world.

In arid areas, potable water is very scarce and the establishment of a
human habitat in these areas strongly depends on how such water can be
made available.

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Added to this is the problem of the pollution of rivers and

lakes by industrial wastes and the large amounts of sewage
discharge.

On a global scale, human–made pollution of natural sources of

water is becoming one of the greatest causes of freshwater
shortage.

Added to this is the problem of uneven distribution.

For example, Canada has a tenth of the world’s surface

freshwater but less than 1% of the world’s population.

Desalination and Energy:

The only nearly inexhaustible sources of water are the oceans. Their
main drawback is their high salinity.

It would be attractive to tackle the water-shortage problem by
desalinizing of this water.

Desalinize means to remove salt from seawater or generally saline water.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the permissible
limit of salinity in water is 500 parts per million (ppm) and for special
cases up to 1000 ppm.

Most of the water available on earth has salinity up to 10,000 ppm, and
seawater normally has salinity in the range of 35,000–45,000 ppm in the
form of total dissolved salts.

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Excess brackishness causes the problem of bad taste, stomach

problems, and laxative effects.

The purpose of a desalination system is to clean or purify brackish

water or seawater and supply water with total dissolved solids within the
permissible limit of 500 ppm or less.

This is accomplished by several desalination methods.

Desalination processes require significant quantities of energy

to achieve separation of salts from seawater.

This is highly significant because it is a recurrent cost that few

of the water-short areas of the world can afford.

Many countries in the Middle East, because of oil income,

have enough money to invest and run desalination equipment.

However, people in many other areas of the world have neither

the cash nor the oil resources to allow them to develop in a
similar manner.

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The installed capacity of desalinated water systems in the year

2000 was about 22 million m3/d, which is expected to increase
drastically in the next decades.

The dramatic increase of desalinated water supply will create a

series of problems, the most significant of which are those
related to energy consumption and environmental pollution
caused by the use of fossil fuels.

It has been estimated that the production of 22 million m3/d

requires about 203 million tons of oil per annum (about 8.5 EJ/a
or 2.36 x 1012 kWh/a of fuel).

According to the International Desalination Association, in

June 2015, 18,426 desalination plants operated worldwide,
producing 115 million cubic meters per day, providing water for
300 million people.

Global-installed-desalination-capacity-2010-2016

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Natural Desalination Process:

Solar desalination is used by nature to produce rain, which is

the main source of the freshwater supply.

Solar radiation falling on the surface of the sea is absorbed as

heat and causes evaporation of the water.

The vapor rises above the surface and is moved by winds.

When this vapor cools down to its dew point, condensation

occurs and freshwater precipitates as rain.

All available manmade distillation systems are small-scale

duplications of this natural process.

Desalination processes:

Desalination techniques may be classified into the following
categories: phase change or thermal processes and membrane or
single-phase processes.

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All processes require a chemical pre-treatment of raw seawater

to avoid scaling, foaming, corrosion, biological growth, and
fouling and also require a chemical post-treatment.

In the phase change or thermal processes, the distillation of

seawater is achieved by utilizing a thermal energy source.

The thermal energy may be obtained from a conventional

fossil fuel source, nuclear energy, or a non-conventional solar
energy source or geothermal energy.

In the membrane processes, electricity is used for either

driving high-pressure pumps or ionization of salts contained in
the seawater.

The most promising and applicable renewable energy system

(RES) desalination combinations are shown in Table

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Direct collection systems:

A representative example of the direct collection system is the
typical solar still, which uses the greenhouse effect to evaporate
salty water.

It consists of a basin in which a constant amount of seawater is

enclosed in an inverted V-shaped glass envelope

The sun’s rays pass though the glass roof and are absorbed by
the blackened bottom of the basin.

Figure: Schematic of a solar still.

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As the water is heated, its vapor pressure is increased.

The resultant water vapor is condensed on the underside of the

roof and runs down into the troughs, which conduct the distilled
water to the reservoir.

The still acts as a heat trap because the roof is transparent to

the incoming sunlight but opaque to the infrared radiation
emitted by the hot water (greenhouse effect).

The roof encloses the vapor, prevents losses, and keeps the
wind from reaching and cooling the salty water.

Classification of Solar Distillation Systems:

Figure: Common designs of solar stills.

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