Areas of Growth

This Unit discusses the concept of moral development as an important aspect of holistic
student development. Development of the character of integrity, honesty, transparency, truth
and altruism is at the core of the Unit. Students are first taken through dynamics of moral
development, before they embark on activities that foster inculcation of moral principles and
values in students. Exercises in this Unit will be done cognizant of the fact that there is a
clear-cut distinction between piety and erudition, i.e., having knowledge of what is good does
not necessarily lead to doing the good. We shall therefore need to put emphasis on how to do
well, even under difficult circumstances.

This unit aims to develop the following values and skills in students:

 Integrity,

 Honesty,

 Courage,

 Respect for others,

 Friendship,

 Transparency, dependability and accountability,

 Politeness,

 Spirit of Ubuntu,

Objectives
By the end of this Unit, students should be able to:

 Use Kohlberg’s theory as a tool of improving their moral reasoning and conduct,

 Use Kohlberg’s model to introspect on their self-awareness skills,

 Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory in comparison with Ubuntu and make sense of contemporary
discourse on Afrocentrism and Euro-centrism, and

 Identify what they regard as major moral problems in their lives and apply moral theories
in resolving them

Learning Outcomes
“Education without application is just entertainment.” (Tim Sanders: 2019)
 Students with the ability to critically identify, analyse and resolve moral dilemmas,

 Increase in cases that demonstrate virtues of integrity, honesty and rectitude,

 Marked decrease in cases of theft, fraud, violence, misrepresentation, etc., and

 Positive feedback from industry regarding the character and behaviour of our student

Theoretical Frameworks
Moral development theories can be classified as follows:

 Psychoanalytic theories, e.g. Sigmund Freud,

 Neuro-cognitive development theories, e.g. Jean Piaget,

 Gender-based theories, e.g. Gilligan,

 Cognitive Learning theory-behavioral and Social, e.g. Albert Bandura, and

 Social and Interactive theories.

Psychoanalytic Theories
Propounded by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic moral development theory posits that man
has an internal moral compass which rises with age, arising after age five. This moral campus
suppresses urges and drives him to ideal moral behaviour. The campus, also known as the
superego, consists of two main parts: the ego ideal and the conscience.

The ego ideal includes rules for good behaviour that are learned from authority figures.

The conscience includes rules of what not to do that are learned from authority figures.

Classic psychoanalytic theory suggests that guilt and self-punishment, stirred by the
superego, occur when a child behaves in a way that is contradictory to internalized parental
values.

More modern psychoanalytic theory stresses conscience development as the growth of a

superego, arising out of a positive identification with parental values rather than because of
guilt.

Neuro-Cognitive Development
Piaget (1962)’s game theory was born out of his study of children playing games and their
development of justice and fairness in the context of games. His theory, though much of an
accepted part of research in psychology and economics, has problems of validity across
chronological age boundaries.
Gender based Theory
Gilligan (1993) believes there is a difference in the ways that men and women develop that is
not fully explored in the traditional theories of development such as Chickering's. Gilligan
argues that men's development has a justice or separation orientation. Men look for one
answer, one truth that will end future debate about the subject. Women, on the other hand,
have a caring orientation. Women are more likely to view a problem in a particular context
and try to determine a solution which will cause the least harm to the most number of people.
Neither way of viewing the world is more right than the other; they are just different ways of
looking at the world.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: Source:

Slideshare.net
This theory was propounded by a Psychologist called Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- 1987) who
studied moral reasoning and development, with much of his work based on the works of Jean
Piaget and John Dewey. He argued that morality is close knitted into the concept of self-
awareness. He taught morals through exposing students to moral dilemmas. Kohlberg
believed that good morals are fundamental elements of being a good citizen and argued that
morality develops in a progressive way from infancy to adulthood. He posited that there are
three levels (in a total of six stages) through which morality develops in human beings. These
are, Preconventional, Conventional and Post-Conventional. Below is a detailed description of
the stages in Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development.

I. Pre-conventional Level

At this level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or
wrong, but he interprets the labels in terms of either the physical or consequences of action
(punishment, reward, and exchange of favors) or the physical power of those who enunciate
the rules and labels. The level is divided into the following three stages:

- Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation. The physical consequences of action

determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of these
consequences. Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning deference to power are values in
their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order supported by
punishment and authority.

-Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation. Right action consists of what instrumentally

satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human relations are viewed in
terms such as those of the market place. Elements of fairness, reciprocity, and equal sharing
are present, but they are always interpreted in a physical, pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a
matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours", not loyalty, gratitude, or justice.

2. Conventional Level

At this level, the individual perceives the maintenance of the expectations of his family,
group, or nation as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious
consequences. The attitude is not only one of conformity to personal expectations and social
order, but of loyalty to it, of actively maintaining, supporting, and justifying the order and
identifying with the persons or group involved in it. The level consists of the following two
stages:

-Stage 1: The Interpersonal Concordance or "Good Boy-Nice Girl" Orientation. Good

behavior is what pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much conformity
to stereotypical images of what is majority or natural behavior. Behavior is frequently judged
by intention. One earns approval by being nice.

-Stage 2: The "Law and Order" orientation. The individual is oriented toward authority, fixed
rules, and the maintenance of the social order. Right behavior consists in doing one's duty,
showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given social order for its own sake.

3. Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level.

The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity
and application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding them and apart from
the individual's own identification with the group. The level has the two following stages:

-Stage 1: The social-contract legalistic orientation: Right action tends to be defined in terms
of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon
by the whole society. There is a clear awareness of the relativism of personal values and
opinions and a corresponding emphasis upon procedural rules for reaching consensus. Aside
from what is constitutionally and democratically agreed upon, right action is a matter of
personal values and opinions. The result is an emphasis upon the "legal point of view", but
with an additional emphasis upon the possibility of changing the law in terms of rational
considerations of social utility.

-Stage 2: The Universal Ethical-Principle Orientation: Right is defined by the decision of

conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles that appeal to logical
comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency. These principles are abstract and ethical.
They are not concrete moral rules. At heart, these are universal principles of justice, of the
reciprocity, and equality of the human rights, and of respect for the dignity of human beings
as individual person.

Application of Moral Development Theory Themes to

Student Development and Life Skills
Definition of Morality

“My rights do not include the right to do wrong.” (Craig D. Lounsbrough: 2010)
Morality can be defined as a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct
from a particular philosophy, religion or culture (Kohlberg: 1981). Morality speaks of a
system of behavior in regards to standards of right or wrong behavior.

The word morality entails:

(a) moral standards, with regard to human behavior,

(b) moral responsibility, referring to our conscience, and

(c) moral identity, or one who is capable of right or wrong action. Morality describes the
principles that govern our behavior (Kohlberg: 1971).

Closely related to morality is moral character which is the sum totality of a person’s
dispositions or characteristics that play a role in how the person behaves.

Why your moral character matters?

“By shaping our morals we can shape our lives.” (Manan Verma: 2020)

The following are some of the major positive aspects of morality:

- It helps you to achieve peace of mind,

- It strengthens the trust that you get from other people,

- Good morals help you to build a solid reputation,

- People with good morals are stress free,

- Good morals is a good recipe for good leadership,

- People with good morals are very confident about themselves, • People of high moral
standards become positive role models,

- Good morals help a person to live a purpose-driven life, and

- Doing the right thing is good business.

Defining Moral Values

“Character is the foundation stone upon which one must build to win Respect and attain
Dignity” (R. C. Samuel: 2008)

• Moral values are internalized cognitive structures that guide choices by evoking a sense of
basic principles of right and wrong, a sense of priorities, and a willingness to make meaning
and see patterns (Grusec:2011).
• Moral values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or actions.
They help us to determine what is important to us.

• Moral values describe the personal qualities we choose to embody to guide our actions; the
sort of person we want to be; the manner in which we treat ourselves and others, and our
interaction with the world around us. They provide the general guidelines for conduct.

Why are moral values important?

A person with good moral values shows the following traits or characteristic:

• Has an objective attitude toward others’ ideas and practices that differ from his/her own
(acceptance), • Understands suffering of others and is eager to assist (compassionate),

• Believes that everyone deserves equal rights and to be treated with respect (equality),

• Acts in a just way, sharing appropriately (fairness),

• Willing to give resources, help or time to others (generosity),

• Values such as enthusiasm, humility, personal fulfillment help a person to grow and
develop. Other values include:

• Honesty • Integrity • Courage • Dependability • Determination • Friendship • Altruism •

Respect • Kindness

What are Moral Dilemmas

“Ethics are not the things that kill my fun Rather, they are the things that keep me from
getting killed by the things that I thought were fun.” (Craig D. Lounsbrough: 2010) • Any
situation in which a person making a decision experiences a conflict between the moral
rightness of a decision and the quality of the results it produces is a moral 35 dilemma.
Dilemmas can involve a morally wrong decision that produces a desirable result, or vice
versa. Moral dilemmas involve a decision in which the person is forced to choose only one of
two good things as illustrated below

Understanding Self-Awareness and Moral Growth

“I have to know me to grow me” (John Maxwell: 2014)

Self-Awareness is critical for moral consciousness. It is an awareness of the self, with the
selfbeing what makes one’s identity unique (Duval and Wicklund: 1972). These unique
components include thoughts, experiences, and abilities. It is the ability to see things from the
perspective of others (Silvia and O’Brien:1994). It is an intentional practice of examining
inner thoughts, feelings, emotions and behaviors. “Man is not what he thinks he is; he is what
he hides.” (André Malraux: 2014) 36 Self-awareness helps one to discover one’s own
strengths and weaknesses and work on the weaknesses to improve efficiency and
effectiveness. It allows one to see things from the perspective of others with the ultimate goal
to improve relationships. That act of considering choices, interests, needs and desires of
others is what ethics and morality are all about. One is able to harness emotions and
discharge them towards positive ends. It boosts self-motivation and gives one the impetus to
deliver. The more you know about yourself, the better you are at adapting life changes that
suit your needs and the needs of others.

Ubuntu
The concept of Ubuntu is a very important aspect of holistic student development.

Samkange and Samkange (1980) relate ubuntu to bonding with others which is a desirable
aspect in moral development.

Onyebuchi (2017) defines “Ubuntu” as a form of human engagement that allows for critical
thinking, non-domination and the optimal development of human relationships.

Ubuntu means that each individual`s humanity is ideally expressed in relationship with
others. It is about humanity. The three moral values crucial to the establishment of Ubuntu in
social order are the respect for human dignity, compassion and justice. Various words have
been used to describe the presence of Ubuntu. Some of these are:

-Sympathy, -Compassion, -Benevolence, -Solidarity, -Hospitality, -Generosity, -Sharing, -

Openness, -Affirming, -Available, -Kindness, -Caring, -Harmony, - Interdependence, -
Obedience, - Consensus.

Ubuntu is opposite to vengeance, opposite to confrontation, opposite to retribution and that

Ubuntu values life, dignity, compassion, humaneness harmony and reconciliation (Hailey,
2008; Wichtner-Zoia, 2012; Tutu, 2008).

References
Duval, S., and Wicklund, R. 1972. A Theory of Objective Self-Awareness. Johnson Research
Foundation. Academic Press

Gilligan, C.: 1993, In a different voice: psychological theory and women's development:
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

Grusec, J.E., 2011, Socialization Processes in the family: Social and Emotional Development.
Annual Review of Psychology 62, 243–269.

Kohlberg, L.: 1981. Essays in moral development: The philosophy of moral development.
New York: Harper Row.

Kohlberg. L.: 1971. Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education. In C. M.
Beck, B. S. Crittenden, and E. V. Sullivan (Eds), Moral Education: Interdisciplinary
approaches. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Kohlberg, L.: 1969 Stage and sequence. The Cognitive-development approach to
socialization. In D. A Goslin (Ed). Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp-347-
480). Chicago:

Randy McNally. Onyebuchi, E, M,: 2017. "I am Because You Are: Cosmopolitanism in the
Age of Xenophobia", Philosophical Papers, 46:1, 85-109. University of Cambridge

Silvia, P. J., & O'Brien, M. E. (2004). Self-awareness and constructive functioning:

Revisiting "the human dilemma." Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 475- 489.

Samkange, S. J. W. T. and Samkange, S.; 1980. Hunhuism or Ubuntuism: A Zimbabwe

Indegenous Political Philosophy. Harare: Graham Publishing. Wichtner-Zoia, Y.; 2012.
Could the philosophy of ubuntu support community connections, development and economic
prosperity in your community? Available from: http://msue.anr.msu.edu/news
ubuntu_is_powerful thinking (Accessed 5 June 2013).