1

CHAPTER 2 POWER AMPLIFIERS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A power amplifier is designed to deliver a large amount of power to the load.
To perform this function, a power amplifier must itself be capable of dissipating large
amount of power.
It must so designed that the heat generated when it is operated at high current and
voltage levels is release into surroundings at a rate fast enough to prevent destructive
temperature buildup.
Consequently, power amplifiers typically contain bulky component s having large
surface areas to enhance heat transfer to environment.
A power amplifier is often the last, or output, stage of an amplifier system.
The preceding stages may be designed to provide amplification, to provide buffering
to a high impedance signal source, or to modify signal characteristics in some
predictable way.
Power amplifier are widely used in audio component such as radio and television
receivers, phonographs and tape players, stereo and high fidelity system, recording-
studio equipment, and public address system.
The load of these applications is most often a loudspeaker (speaker) which requires
considerable power to convert electrical signal to sound waves.
It also used in electromechanical control system to drive electric motors. Example
include computer disk and tape drives, robotic manipulators, autopilots, antenna
rotator
One important aspect in the design power amplifiers is that it delivers a specified
power to the load efficiently.
Power amplifiers are classified according to the percent time the output transistors are
conducting, or turn on.
The five principle classifications are class A, class B, class AB, class C and class D.
These classifications are illustrated in figure 2.1 for a sinusoidal signal.


2

Figure 2.1 Collector current versus time characteristics (a) class A (b) class B (c) class
AB (d) class C

Amplifier circuits are classified as A, B, AB and C for analog designs, and class D and
E for switching designs. For the analogue classes, each class defines what proportion
of the input signal cycle is used to actually switch on the amplifying device.
In class A operation, an output transistor is biased at a quiescent current I
Q
and
conducts for the entire cycle of the input signal.
For class B operation, an output transistor conducts for only one-half of each sine
wave input cycle.
In class AB operation, an output transistor is biased at small quiescent current I
Q
and
conduct slightly more than half a cycle.
In contrast, in class C operation an output transistor conducts for less than half a
cycle.
In class D, the operation is using pulse (digital) signals which are on for a short
interval and off for a long interval.



3
2.2 EFFICIENCY
The power efficiency of an amplifier, defined as the ratio of power output to power
input. The other hands, the efficiency of an amplifier refers to the ratio of output-
signal power compared to the total input power.
An amplifier has two input power sources: one from the signal, and one from the
power supply.
Since every device takes power to operate, an amplifier that operates for 360 degrees
of the input signal uses more power than if operated for 180 degrees of the input
signal.
By using more power, an amplifier has less power available for the output signal; thus
the efficiency of the amplifier is low. This is the case with the class A amplifier. It
operates for 360 degrees of the input signal and requires a relatively large input from
the power supply. Even with no input signal, the class A amplifier still uses power
from the power supply. Therefore, the output from the class A amplifier is relatively
small compared to the total input power.
This result in low efficiency, which is acceptable in class A amplifiers because they
are used where efficiency is not as important as fidelity.
Class AB amplifiers are biased so that collector current is cut off for a portion of one
alternation of the input, which results in less total input power than the class A
amplifier. This leads to better efficiency.
Class B amplifiers are biased with little or no collector current at the dc operating
point. With no input signal, there is little wasted power. Therefore, the efficiency of
class B amplifiers is higher still.
The efficiency of class C is the highest of the four classes of amplifier operations.
Table 2.1 shows the summarizes the operation of the various amplifier classes.

4

Table 2.1 Comparison of Amplifier Classes

2.3 AMPLIFIER OPERATION
2.3.1 Class A Amplifier Operation
Class A amplifiers are biased so that variations in input signal polarities occur within
the limits of CUTOFF and SATURATION.
In a PNP transistor, for example, if the base becomes positive with respect to the
emitter, holes will be repelled at the PN junction and no current can flow in the
collector circuit. This condition is known as cutoff. Saturation occurs when the base
becomes so negative with respect to the emitter that changes in the signal are not
reflected in collector-current flow.
Biasing an amplifier in this manner places the dc operating point between cutoff and
saturation and allows collector current to flow during the complete cycle (360
degrees) of the input signal, thus providing an output which is a replica of the input.
The class A operated amplifier is used as an audio- and radio-frequency amplifier in
radio, radar, and sound systems, just to mention a few examples.
For a comparison of output signals for the different amplifier classes of operation,
refer to figure 2.2 during the following discussion.
5

Figure 2.2 A comparison of output signals for the different amplifier classes of operation
2.3.2 Class AB Amplifier Operation
Class AB Amplifier Operation Amplifiers designed for class AB operation are biased
so that collector current is zero (cutoff) for a portion of one alternation of the input
signal.
This is accomplished by making the forward-bias voltage less than the peak value of
the input signal. By doing this, the base-emitter junction will be reverse biased during
one alternation for the amount of time that the input signal voltage opposes and
exceeds the value of forward-bias voltage.
Therefore, collector current will flow for more than 180 degrees but less than 360
degrees of the input signal, as shown in figure 2.2 view B.
As compared to the class A amplifier, the dc operating point for the class AB
amplifier is closer to cutoff.
The class AB operated amplifier is commonly used as a push-pull amplifier to
overcome a side effect of class B operation called crossover distortion.
6
2.3.3 Class B Amplifier Operation
Amplifiers biased so that collector current is cut off during one-half of the input
signal are classified class B.
The dc operating point for this class of amplifier is set up so that base current is zero
with no input signal.
When a signal is applied, one half cycle will forward bias the base-emitter junction
and I
C
will flow. The other half cycle will reverse bias the base-emitter junction and
I
C
will be cut off.
Thus, for class B operation, collector current will flow for approximately 180 degrees
(half) of the input signal, as shown in figure 2.2 view C.
The class B operated amplifier is used extensively for audio amplifiers that require
high-power outputs. It is also used as the driver- and power-amplifier stages of
transmitters.

2.3.4 Class C Amplifier Operation
In class C operation, collector current flows for less than one half cycle of the input
signal, as shown in figure 2.2 view D.
The class C operation is achieved by reverse biasing the emitter-base junction, which
sets the dc operating point below cutoff and allows only the portion of the input
signal that overcomes the reverse bias to cause collector current flow.
The class C operated amplifier is used as a radio-frequency amplifier in transmitters.




7
2.5 CROSSOVER DISTORTION
Class B suffers from a fundamental problem in that the push-pull amplifier does not,
in practice, move smoothly from one half of the waveform to the other half.
When the current outputs from the two valves are added together by the output
transformer, a kink can be seen on class B amplifiers as shown in figure 2.3. Class
AB amplifiers can suffer from this also, if the bias current is too low.
The portion of the curve is called the dead band, and it produces a crossover
distortion as illustrated in figure 2.3
In summary:

Class B amplifiers generally introduce some crossover distortion.

Class AB amplifiers may introduce some crossover distortion.

Class A amplifiers introduce no crossover distortion, as both valves conduct
simultaneously.




Figure 2.3 Crossover Distortion Signal

2.5 SERIES-FED CLASS A AMPLIFIER
The simple fixed bias circuit connection as shown in figure 2.4 can be used to discuss
the main features of a class A series fed.
The only difference between this circuit and small signal circuit are in range of volts,
and transistor used is a power transistor that is capable of operating in the range of a
few to tens of watts.
8

Figure 2.4 Series-fed class A large-signal Amplifier
DC Bias Operation
The dc bias set by Vcc and R
B
fixes the dc base-bias current at
B
CC
B
R
V
I
7 . 0
= ------------------------------------------------(2.1)
B C
I I = -----------------------------------------------------(2.2)
C C CC CE
R I V V = -----------------------------------------------(2.3)
Figure 2.5 shows the transistor characteristic showing load line and Q-point.
9

Figure 2.5 Transistor characteristic showing load line and Q-point
AC Operation
When an input ac signal is applied to the amplifier of figure 2.4, the output will vary
from its dc bias operating voltage and current.
A small input signal as shown in figure 2.6, will cause the base current to vary above
and below the dc bias point, which will then cause the collector current (output) to
vary from the dc bias point set as well as the collector emitter voltage to vary around
its dc bias value.
10

Figure 2.6 Amplifier input and output signal variation
Power Consideration
The input power supplied to the class A series-fed amplifier is
Q
C CC i
I V dc P = ) ( -----------------------------------------------------------------(2.4)
By using rms signals, the ac power delivered to the load (R
C
) can be expressed using
C
C
O
C C O
C CE O
R
rms V
ac P
R rms I ac P
rms I rms V ac P
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
=
=
=
----------------------------------------------------(2.5)
By using peak signals, the ac power delivered to the load may be expressed using
11
C
C
O
C
C
O
C CE
O
R
p V
ac P
R
p I
ac P
p I p V
ac P
2
) (
) (
2
) (
) (
2
) ( ) (
) (
2
2
=
=
=
--------------------------------------------------------(2.6)
By using peak-to-peak signals, the ac power delivered to the load may be expressed
using
C
CE
O
C
C
O
C CE
O
R
p p V
ac P
R
p p I
ac P
p p I p p V
ac P
8
) (
) (
8
) (
) (
8
) ( ) (
) (
2
2

=

=
-----------------------------------------------(2.7)
The efficiency of a power amplifier is defined to be
% 100
) (
) (
% =
dc P
ac P
i
O
------------------------------------------------------(2.8)
The maximum efficiency for class A can be determined using the maximum voltage
and current swings where
% 25 % 100
) ( max
) (
%
2
) (
8
) (
max ) (
max ) (
2
2
= =
=
=
=
=
dc P
ac P Max
Max
R
V
dc P
R
V
ac P
R
V
p p I
V p p V
i
O
C
CC
i
C
CC
O
C
CC
C
CC CE

12
Example 2.1
Calculate the input power, output power and efficiency of the amplifier circuit in figure
2.7 for an input voltage that results in a base current of 10 mA peak.

Figure 2.7

Solution:
mA
k R
V
I
B
CC
B
3 . 19
1
7 . 0 20 7 . 0
=

=
mA m I I
B C
5 . 482 ) 3 . 19 ( 25 = = =
V m R I V V
C C CC CE
4 . 10 ) 20 )( 5 . 482 ( 20 = = =

W
m
R
p I
ac P
peak mA m p I p I
C
C
O
B C
625 . 0 ) 20 (
2
) 250 (
2
) (
) (
250 ) 10 ( 25 ) ( ) (
2 2
= = =
= = =

From figure 2.7 (b), mA I
CQ
480 =
13
W m I V dc P
Q
C CC i
6 . 9 ) 480 ( 20 ) ( = = =
The amplifiers power efficiency can then be calculated using
%# 5 . 6 % 100
6 . 9
625 . 0
% 100
) (
) (
% = = =
dc P
ac P
i
O

2.6 CLASS A COUPLING POWER AMPLIFIER
Class A amplifier having maximum efficiency of 50% uses a transformer to couple the
output signal to the load as shown in figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8 Transformer-coupled audio power amplifier

2.6.1 Transformer Action
A transformer can increase or decrease voltage or current levels according to the turns
ratio as shown in figure 2.9(a)
The voltage transformation is given by
1
2
1
2
N
N
V
V
= ----------------------------------------------------------------------(2.9)
The current in the secondary winding is inversely proportional to the number of turns
in the winding. The current transformation is given by
14
2
1
1
2
N
N
I
I
= -----------------------------------------------------------------------(2.10)
This relationship is shown in figure 2.9(b). If the number of turns of wire on the
secondary is greater than that on the primary, the secondary will be less than the
current in the primary.


Figure 2.9 Transformer Operation (a) Voltage transformation (b) current transformation
(c) impedance transformation

The impedance transformation is given by
2
2
2
1
2
1
'
a
N
N
R
R
R
R
L
L
=
|
|

\
|
= = --------------------------------------------------(2.11)
where
2
1
N
N
a = and '
L
R is the reflected impedance
We can express the load resistance reflected to the primary side as
2
2
1
R a R = or
L L
R a R
2
' = --------------------------------------------(2.12)
15
Example 2.2
Calculate the effective resistance seen looking into the primary of a 15:1 transformer
connected to an 8 load.
Solution
= = = k R a R
L L
8 . 1 ) 8 ( ) 15 ( '
2 2


Example 2.3
What transformer turns ratio is required to match a 16 speaker load so that the effective
load resistance seen at the primary is 10 k.

Solution:

1 : 25 625
625
16
10 '
2
1
2
2
1
= =
= = =
|
|

\
|
N
N
k
k
R
R
N
N
L
L


2.6.2 Operation of Amplifier Stage
The transformer (dc) winding resistance determines the dc load line for the circuit of
the figure 2.8.
Figure 2.10 shows the load lines for class A transformer-coupled amplifier.
16


Figure 2.10 Load lines for class A transformer-coupled amplifier

Figure 2.11 shows the voltage and current swings resulting in the circuit of figure 2.8.
17

Figure 2.11 Graphical operation of transformer-coupled class A amplifier

From the signal variations shown in figure 2.11 the values of the peak-to-peak signal
swings are
MIN MAX
CE CE CE
V V p p V = ) (
min max
) (
C C C
I I p p I =

The ac power developed across the transformer primary can then be calculated using
( )( )
8
) (
min max min max C C CE CE
O
I I V V
ac P

= --------------------------------(2.13)

For the ideal transformer the voltage delivered to the load can be calculated using
equation 2.9.
1
1
2
2
V
N
N
V V
L
= =
The power across load can then be expressed as
L
L
L
R
rms V
P
) (
2
= -----------------------------------------------------------------(2.14)
18
The load current is given by
C L
I
N
N
I I
2
1
2
= = ----------------------------------------------------------------(2.15)
The output ac power then calculated using
L L L
R rms I P ) (
2
= ------------------------------------------------------------------(2.16)

The input (dc) power obtained from the supply is calculated from the supply dc
voltage and the average power drawn form the supply;
Q
C CC i
I V dc P = ) ( ----------------------------------------------------------------(2.17)

For the transformer-coupled amplifier the power dissipated by the transformer is small
(due to the small dc resistance of a coil) and will be ignored in the present calculation.
Thus the only power loss considered here is that dissipated by the power transistor and
calculated using
) ( ) ( ac P dc P P
o i Q
= ---------------------------------------------(2.18)
where P
Q
is the power dissipated as heat.

The maximum theoretical efficiency for a class A transformer-coupled amplifier goes
up 50%.
The efficiency can be expressed as
% 50 %
2
min max
min max
|
|

\
|
+

=
CE CE
CE CE
V V
V V
--------------------------------(2.19)
The larger the value of
max CE
V and the smaller the value of
min CE
V , the closer the
efficiency approaches the theoretical limit of 50%.






19
Example 2.4
Calculate the efficiency of a transformer-coupled class A amplifier for a supply of 12 V
and outputs of
(a) V p V 12 ) ( =
(b) V p V 6 ) ( =
(c) V p V 2 ) ( =

Solution
Since , 12V V V
CC CEQ
= = the maximum and minimum of the voltage swing are
(a) V p V V V
CEQ CE
24 12 12 ) (
max
= + = + =
V p V V V
CEQ CE
0 12 12 ) (
min
= = =
% 50
0 24
0 24
50 %
2
=
|

\
|
+

=
(b) V p V V V
CEQ CE
18 6 12 ) (
max
= + = + =
V p V V V
CEQ CE
6 6 12 ) (
min
= = =
% 5 . 12
6 18
6 18
50 %
2
=
|

\
|
+

=
(c) V p V V V
CEQ CE
14 2 12 ) (
max
= + = + =
V p V V V
CEQ CE
10 2 12 ) (
min
= = =
% 39 . 1
10 14
10 14
50 %
2
=
|

\
|
+

=
The amplifier efficiency drops dramatically from a maximum of 50% for V(p) = V
CC
to
slightly over 1% for V(p) =2 V.






20
2.7 CLASS B AMPLIFIER OPERATION
Class B operation is provided when the dc bias leaves the transistor biased just off, the
transistor turning on when the ac signal is applied.
This is essentially no bias and the transistor conduct current for only one-half of the
signal cycle.
To obtain output for the full cycle of signal, it is necessary to use two transistor and
have each conduct on opposite half cycle.
Then the combined operation providing a full cycle of output signal.
Since one part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one half-cycle and the other
parts pulls the signal low during the other half-cycles, the circuit is referred to as a
push-pull circuit.
Figure 2.12 shows a diagram for push pull operation.

Figure 2.12 Block representation of push pull operation.

An ac input signal is applied to the push-pull circuit, with each half operating on
alternate half-cycles, the load then receiving a signal for the full ac cycle.
The power transistor used in the push-pull circuit are capable of delivering the desired
power to the load, and the class B operation of these transistor provides greater
efficiency than was possible using a single transistor in class A operation.
The power supplied to the load by an amplifier is drawn from the power supply which
provides the input or dc power as shown in figure 2.13.
21

Figure 2.13 Connection of push-pull amplifier to load: (a) using two voltage supplies, (b)
using one voltage supply.

The amount of this input power cab be calculated using
dc CC i
I V dc P = ) ( ------------------------------------------------------(2.20)
where Idc is the average or dc current drawn from the power supplies.
The average current drawn can be expressed as
) (
2
p I I
dc

= -----------------------------------------------------------(2.21)
Thus, using equation 2.21 in the power input equation 2.20 results
|

\
|
= ) (
2
) ( p I V dc P
CC i

----------------------------------------------(2.22)

The output power can be calculated as
L
L
O
R
rms V
P
) (
2
= -------------------------------------------------------(2.23)
L
L
L
L
O
R
p V
R
p p V
ac P
2
) (
8
) (
) (
2 2
=

= -------------------------------------(2.24)
The larger the rms or peak output voltage, the larger the power delivered to the load.
The efficiency of the class B amplifier can be calculated using the basic equation;
22
% 100
) (
) (
% =
dc P
ac P
i
O

( ) | |
% 100
) (
4
%
% 100
) ( / 2
2 / ) (
%
2
=
=
CC
L
CC
L L
V
p V
p I V
R p V

-------------------------------(2.25)
using
L L
R p V p I / ) ( ) ( = . Equation 2.25 shows that the larger the peak voltage, the higher
the circuit efficiency, up to a maximum value when
CC L
V p V = ) ( , this maximum
efficiency then being
max efficiency % 5 . 78 % 100
4
= =



The power dissipated ( as heat) by the output power transistors is the difference
between the input power delivered by the supplies and the output power delivered to
the load.
) ( ) (
2
ac P dc P P
o i Q
= --------------------------------------------(2.26)
where P
2Q
is the power dissipated by the two output power transistor.
The dissipated power handled by each transistor is then
2
2Q
Q
P
P = --------------------------------------------------------(2.27)











23
Example 2.5


For class B operation the maximum output power is delivered to the load when
CC L
V p V = ) ( .
Maximum
L
CC
O
R
V
ac P
2
) (
2
= ------------------------------------(2.28)

The maximum value of average current from the power supply is
Maximum
L
CC
dc
R
V
p I I

2
) (
2
= =
24
Where
L
CC
R
V
p I = ) (
Then, the maximum value of input power is
Maximum
L
CC
L
CC
CC dc CC i
R
V
R
V
V I imum V dc P

2
2 2
) (max ) ( =
|
|

\
|
= = ------------(2.29)
The maximum power dissipated by the two transistor accurs when the output voltage
across the load is
CC L
V p V 636 . 0 ) ( =
For a maximum transistor power dissipation of
Maximum
L
CC
Q
R
V
P
2
2
2
2

= -----------------------------------------(2.30)

Example 2.6
For a class B amplifier using a supply of V
CC
= 30V and driving a load 0f 16 ,
determine the maximum input power, output power , and transistor dissipation.

Solution
Maximum W
R
V
ac P
L
CC
O
125 . 28
) 16 ( 2
30
2
) (
2 2
= = =
Maximum W
R
V
dc P
L
CC
i
81 . 35
) 16 (
) 30 ( 2 2
) (
2 2
= = =


Maximum % 54 . 78 % 100
81 . 35
125 . 28
% 100
) (
) (
% = = =
dc P
ac P
i
O

The maximum power dissipated by each transistor is
Maximum
( )
W
R
V
P imum
P
L
CC
Q
Q
7 . 5
16
30 2
5 . 0
2
5 . 0
2
max
2
2
2
2
2
=
(

=
|
|

\
|
= =






25
The maximum efficiency of a class B amplifier can also be expressed as follows:
L
L
L
L
O
R
p V
R
p p V
ac P
2
) (
8
) (
) (
2 2
=

=
(

= =
L
L
CC dc CC i
R
p V
V I V dc P

) ( 2
) (

( )( ) | |
%
) (
54 . 78 %
% 100
/ ) ( / 2
2 / ) (
% 100
) (
) (
%
2
CC
L
L L CC
L L
i
O
V
p V
R p V V
R p V
dc P
ac P
=
= =

-------------(2.31)

Example 2.7
Calculate the efficiency of a class B amplifier for a supply voltage of V
CC
= 24 V with
peak output voltage of
(a) V p V
L
22 ) ( =
(b) V p V
L
6 ) ( =

Solution:
(a) % 72
24
22
54 . 78 %
) (
54 . 78 % = |

\
|
= =
CC
L
V
p V

(b) % 6 . 19
24
6
54 . 78 %
) (
54 . 78 % = |

\
|
= =
CC
L
V
p V

Notice that a voltage near maximum to V
CC
results in efficiency near the maximum,
while a small voltage swing still provides poor efficiency.








26
2.8 CLASS B AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
Figure 2.14 shows different way to obtain phase-inverted signal from a single input
signal.

Figure 2.14 Phase-splitter circuits

Figure 2.14(a) shows a center-tapped transformer to provide opposite phase signals.
If the transformer is exactly center-tapped, the two signals are exactly opposite in
phase and of the magnitude(no crossover distortion).
Figure 2.14(b) shows a circuit uses a BJT stage with in-phase output from the emitter
and opposite phase output from the collector.

27
2.8.1 Transformer-Coupled Push-Pull Circuits
Figure 6.15 shows a circuit uses a center tapped input transformer to produce opposite
polarity signals to the two transistor inputs
An output transformer to drive the load in a push-pull mode.

Figure 6.15 Push-pull circuit.

During the first half-cycle, Q
1
conduct whereas Q
2
off.
The current i
1
through transformer results in the first half-cycle of signal to the load.
During the second half-cycle, Q
2
conduct whereas Q
1
off.
The current i
2
through transformer results in the second half-cycle of signal to the
load.
The overall signal developed across the load then varies over the full cycle of signal
operation.

2.8.2 Complementary-Symmetry Circuits
Figure 6.16(a) shows a circuit using complementary transistors (npn and pnp) to
obtain a full cycle output across a load using half-cycles of operation from each
transistor.
28

Figure 6.16 Complementary-symmetry push-pull circuit
29

The npn transistor will be biased into conduction by the positive half-cycle of signal,
with a resulting half-cycle signal across the load as shown in figure 6.16(b).
During the negative half-cycle of signal the pnp transistor is biased into conduction
when the input goes negative as shown in figure 6.16(c).
During a complete cycle of the input a complete cycle of output signal is developed
across the load.
One disadvantage of this circuit is the need for two separate voltage supplies.
Another, less obvious disadvantage with the complementary circuit is shown in the
resulting crossover distortion in the output signal.
Crossover distortion refers to the fact that during the signal crossover from positive to
negative (or vice versa) there is some nonlinearity in the output signal.
A more practical version of a push-pull circuit using complementary transistors is
shown in figure 6.17.

Figure 6.17 Complementary-symmetry push-pull circuit using Darlington transistor.
30
The load is driven as the output of an emitter-follower so that the load resistance of the
load is matched by the low output resistance of the driving source.
This circuit connection to provide higher output current and lower output resistance.

Example 2.8
For the circuit of figure 6.18 calculate the input power, output power and power handled
by each output transistor and the circuit efficiency for an input of 12 V rms.

Figure 6.18 Class B power amplifier for example 2.8



Solution:
V rms V p V
i i
17 ) 12 ( 2 ) ( 2 ) ( = = =
Since the resulting voltage across the load ideally the same as the input signal,
V p V
L
17 ) ( =
The output power across the load is
W
R
p V
ac P
L
L
O
125 . 36
) 4 ( 2
17
2
) (
) (
2 2
= = =
31
The peak load current is
A
R
p V
I
L
L
L
25 . 4
4
17 ) (
= = =
dc current from supplies is calculated to be

( )
A p I I
L dc
71 . 2
25 . 4 2
) (
2
= = =


Power supplied to the circuit is
W I V dc P
dc CC i
75 . 67 ) 71 . 2 ( 25 ) ( = = =
Power dissipated by each output transistor is
W
P P
P
P
O i
Q
Q
8 . 15
2
125 . 36 75 . 67
2 2
2
=

= =
The circuit efficiency is then
% 3 . 53 % 100
75 . 67
125 . 36
% 100
) (
) (
% = = =
dc P
ac P
i
O

2.9 POWER TRANSISTOR HEAT SINK
The definition of power is the rate at which energy is consumed or dissipated ( 1 W =
1 J/s).
If the rate at which heat energy dissipated in device is less than the rate at which it is
generated, the temperature of the device must rise.
The power dissipated in a transistor increases its internal temperature above the
ambient temperature.
If the device or junction temperature Tj becomes too high, the transistor may suffer
permanent damage.
Special precautions must be taken in packaging power transistors and in providing
heat sinks so that heat can be conducted from the transistor.
Figure 6.18(a) and (b) show two packaging scheme, and figure 6.18(c) shows a
typical heat sink.
32

Figure 6.19 Two packaging schemes: (a) and (b) for power transistor and (c) typical heat
sink