ChE 4745
Process Control and Dynamics
Dynamic Behavior Of
Chapter 5
First Order and Second
Order Processes
Dynamic Behavior
In analyzing process dynamic and process control systems, it is
important to know how the process responds to changes in the
5
Chapter 5
process inputs.
A number of standard types of input changes are widely used for
two reasons:
C 1. They are representative of the types of changes that occur
h in plants.
a
pt 2. They are easy to analyze mathematically.
er
1. Step Input
A sudden change in a process variable can be approximated by
a step change of magnitude, M:
(5-4)
5
Chapter 5
The step change occurs at an arbitrary time denoted as t = 0.
C • Special Case: If M = 1, we have a “unit step change”. We
h give it the symbol, S(t).
a
pt • Example of a step change: A reactor feedstock is suddenly
er switched from one supply to another, causing sudden
changes in feed concentration, flow, etc.
Example:
The heat input to the stirred-tank heating system in Chapter 2 is
suddenly changed from 8000 to 10,000 kcal/hr by changing the
electrical signal to the heater. Thus,
Q t 8000 2000S t , S t unit step
5
Chapter 5
and
Q t Q Q 2000S t , Q 8000 kcal/hr
2. Ramp Input
C
h • Industrial processes often experience “drifting
a disturbances”, that is, relatively slow changes up or down
for some period of time.
pt • The rate of change is approximately constant.
er
We can approximate a drifting disturbance by a ramp input:
(5-7)
5 Examples of ramp changes:
Chapter 5
1. Ramp a setpoint to a new value. (Why not make a step
change?)
2. Feed composition, heat exchanger fouling, catalyst
C activity, ambient temperature.
h 3. Rectangular Pulse
a
pt It represents a brief, sudden change in a process variable:
er
(5-9)
XRP
5
Chapter 5
0 Tw Time, t
C
h Examples:
a
pt 1. Reactor feed is shut off for one hour.
er 2. The fuel gas supply to a furnace is briefly interrupted.
a
5
h
C
er
pt
Chapter 5
4. Sinusoidal Input
Processes are also subject to periodic, or cyclic, disturbances.
They can be approximated by a sinusoidal disturbance:
5
Chapter 5
(5-14)
where: A = amplitude, = angular frequency
C
h Examples:
a
pt 1. 24 hour variations in cooling water temperature.
er 2. 60-Hz electrical noise (in the USA)
5. Impulse Input
• Here, U I t t .
• It represents a short, transient disturbance.
Examples:
5
Chapter 5
1. Electrical noise spike in a thermo-couple reading.
2. Injection of a tracer dye.
• Useful for analysis since the response to an impulse input
is the inverse of the TF. Thus,
C
u t y t
h G s
a U s Y s
pt Here,
er
Y s G s U s (1)
The corresponding time domain express is:
y t g t τ u τ dτ
t
(2)
0
5 where:
Chapter 5
g t = L1 G s (3)
Suppose u t t . Then it can be shown that:
C y t g t (4)
h
a Consequently, g(t) is called the “impulse response function”.
pt
er
First-Order System
The standard form for a first-order TF is:
(5-16)
5 where:
Chapter 5
K = steady-state gain
τ = time constant
Consider the response of this system to a step of magnitude, M:
C
U t M for t 0 U s
M
h s
a
pt Substitute into (5-16) and rearrange,
er Y s
KM
(5-17)
s τs 1
Take L-1 (cf. Table 3.1),
(5-18)
Let y = steady-state value of y(t). From (5-18), y KM .
5
Chapter 5
1.0
y
t y
y 0 0
0.5
y τ 0.632
C
2τ 0.865
h 0
0 3τ 0.950
a 1 2 3 4 5
pt t 4τ 0.982
er τ 5τ 0.993
Note: Large τ means a slow response.
Integrating Process
Not all processes have a steady-state gain. For example, an
“integrating process” or “integrator” has the transfer function:
5
Chapter 5
Consider a step change of magnitude M. Then U(s) = M/s and,
C
h
a
pt Thus, y(t) is unbounded and a new steady-state value does not
er exist.
Common Physical Example:
Consider a liquid storage tank with a pump on the exit line:
qi
5
Chapter 5
h
- Assume:
q
1. Constant cross-sectional area, A.
C 2. q f h
h - Mass balance: A
dh
qi q (1) 0 qi q (2)
a dt
pt - Eq. (1) – Eq. (2), take L, assume steady state initially,
er
- For Q s 0 (constant q),
Exercise Problem
5
Chapter 5
C
h
a
pt
er
Second-Order Systems
• A second-order transfer function can arise physically
whenever two first-order processes are connected in series.
5
Chapter 5
• For such systems
C (5-37)
h
a • Alternatively, a second-order process transfer function
pt will arise upon transforming either a second-order
er differential equation process model
Second-Order Systems
• Standard form:
(5-38)
5
Chapter 5
which has three model parameters:
K = steady-state gain
τ = "time constant" [=] time
C ζ = damping coefficient (dimensionless)
h
a
pt
er
Damping coefficient ζ
• Damping coefficient ζ (zeta) is dimensionless. It provides a
measure of the amount of damping in the system—that is, the
degree of oscillation in a process response after an input
change.
5
Chapter 5
• Small values of ζ imply little damping and a large amount of
oscillation, as, for example, in an automobile suspension
system with ineffective shock absorbers. Hitting a bump
causes a vehicle to bounce up and down dangerously.
C
h • where ζ < 0; it corresponds to an unstable second-order
a system that has an unbounded response to any input. The
pt overdamped and critically damped forms of the second-order
er transfer function most often appear when two first-order
systems occur in series
Equating the denominators yields the relation between the two
alternative forms for the overdamped second-order system
Equating coefficients of the s terms,
Chapter 5
Step Response
The Characteristic polynomial
Poles are
Chapter 5
For a unit step input, the response will be:
1
3
Chapter 5
1. Overdamped Response
Where,
Case 2: Critically damped Response
Case 3: underdamped Response
Chapter 5
a
5
h
C
er
pt
Chapter 5
a
5
h
C
er
pt
Chapter 5
• The type of behavior that occurs depends on the numerical
value of damping coefficient, ζ :
It is convenient to consider three types of behavior:
Damping Type of Response Roots of Charact.
Coefficient Polynomial
5
Chapter 5
ζ 1 Overdamped Real and ≠
ζ 1 Critically damped Real and =
0 ζ 1 Underdamped Complex
C conjugates
h
a • Note: The characteristic polynomial is the denominator of the
pt transfer function:
er τ 2 s 2 2ζτs 1
What about ζ 0 ? It results in an unstable system
Several general remarks can be made concerning the
responses show in Figs. 5.8 and 5.9:
1. Responses exhibiting oscillation and overshoot (y/KM > 1) are
obtained only for values of ζ less than one.
5 2. Large values of ζ yield a sluggish (slow) response.
Chapter 5
3. The fastest response without overshoot is obtained for the
critically damped case ζ 1.
C
h
a
pt
er
a
5
h
C
er
pt
Chapter 5
1. Rise Time: tr is the time the process output takes to first
reach the new steady-state value.
2. Time to First Peak: tp is the time required for the output to
reach its first maximum value.
5 3. Settling Time: ts is defined as the time required for the
Chapter 5
process output to reach and remain inside a band whose width
is equal to ±5% of the total change in y. The term 95%
response time sometimes is used to refer to this case. Also,
values of ±1% sometimes are used.
C 4. Overshoot: OS = a/b (% overshoot is 100a/b).
h
5. Decay Ratio: DR = c/a (where c is the height of the second
a peak).
pt
er 6. Period of Oscillation: P is the time between two successive
peaks or two successive valleys of the response.
