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 According to S.L. Arora

Walking

Walking

One of the activities everyone does daily is walking. While a person is walking they
press on the ground with their feet slightly slanted in the backward direction. While the
force is being exerted by the foot, the ground also exerts upon the person an equal
amount of force directed at the opposite direction and reaction.

LEARNING Objectives
1. Define force, force systems, scalars, vectors, and resultants.
2. Understand the way of finding the resultant of two or more forces and resolving
a resultant force into its components.
3. Apply the concepts to find the resultant of a force.

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Basic Mechanics
Introduction
Engineering mechanics may be defined as the science which considers the effects of forces on
rigid bodies. It usually deals with either two of its natural parts: statics and dynamics. Statics deals
with the effects of forces on rigid bodies that remain at rest. Dynamics on the other hand deals
with the same forces, however this time considering the motion rigid bodies caused by the forces
acted upon it.
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Space, time, and mass. These are concepts that cannot truly be defined that are used in the basic
concepts of mechanics. These concepts are accepted as a basis or framework, and even reference
to the study of mechanics. These are also important when it comes to defining an event. Space is
usually associated with three lengths measured from a point of origin or reference that diverge in
three different directions. These measurements are then known as the coordinates of P, to which
space is associated to. Mass is used on the basis of fundamental mechanical experiments, as we
know it is the measure of how much there is of a certain body or object. Though these two are
important concepts, just knowing how much of an object there is, and where that object is in a
specific space is not enough to identify it as an event. Time is needed to be specified for the event.
Force. Force is either a push or a pull that is acted upon a body caused by the body’s interaction
with factors that surround it. Whenever two bodies interact, there will be a force acted upon both
bodies. Likewise, when the interaction subsides between the two bodies, the force that acted upon
both bodies cease. This can be defined as external effect of force. Internal effect of force on the
other hand produces stress and deformation in the body that the force acts upon. In engineering
mechanics, external effects of forces are considered, while the internal effects of forces are dealt
with in strength of materials.
Force itself has three characteristics: magnitude, the line of action, and its direction. Force is
represented as a vector quantity.
Though space, time, and mass may be considered to be independent concepts from one another
the concept of force is directly linked to them, implicating that force cannot be independent of the
other three concepts. This can be seen whereas a resultant force that acts on a body is related to
the body’s mass at a specific position in space and the velocity is directly connected to the time.
Rigid Body. A rigid body may be defined as a definite amount of matter whose fixed parts are in
relative positions to one another. This is true for both instances that a load is applied to it, and
when a load is not applied to it. It is not so important to consider the material of the rigid body as
in actuality solid bodies are never rigid, they deform under the forces applied to them. Many of

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these cases have a deformation that is relatively negligible compared to the size of the body, thus
it may be considered a rigid body.
Concentrated Force. Concentrated Force is a force that is considered to act along a single line
within its space. It represents the effect of bearing a load that acts on a certain point upon a body
given that the point of bearing the load is relatively small given the size the body it is acting upon.
Force Systems
A force system can be defined
as any arrangement where two
or more forces act on a specific
body or a group of related
bodies. Forces of a force system
whose lines of actions lie
within one plane are referred to
as coplanar, while otherwise
they are referred to as non-
coplanar. Force systems are
then classified further based on
their lines of action. Those forces whose lines of actions pass through a common point are referred
to as concurrent, while lines of actions that are parallel are called parallel force systems, if neither
criterion are met, they are non-concurrent.
Axioms of Mechanics
The study of mechanics rests on fundamental principles or axioms. These were postulated upon
facts based on experimental and demonstrative evidences. The following are said principles:
1. The Parallelogram Law for the Addition of Forces: The resultant of two forces acting
upon a body is represented as the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by the vectors of
the two forces. The diagonal is then referred to as the resultant.
2. The Principle of Transmissibility: The point of application of a force can be moved
anywhere along its line of action while the forces acted upon the body remain unchanged,
thus conserving equilibrium.
3. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion: The laws of motion formulated by Sir Isaac Newton:
• First Law (Inertia): A body at rest will remain at rest until a force is exerted
upon it. A body in motion will remain in motion until a force is exerted upon
it. If a resulting force of zero is exerted upon a body, the body will continue
to be either at rest (if originally at rest) or in motion (if originally in motion).
• Second Law (Acceleration): The acceleration of an object, as produced by
a resulting net force greater than zero, is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction of the net force, and
inversely proportional to the mass of an object. This can be represented as

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 the formula F = ma. F represents the force, m represents the mass, while a
represents the acceleration, all of which are expressed in a consistent system
of units.
• Third Law (Interaction): For every action caused by a force onto a body,
there is a reaction of equal magnitude in the opposite direction
4. Newton’s Law of Gravitation: Two masses of M and m are mutually attracted with equal
and opposite forces defined by F and -F of magnitude F. This can be represented by the
formula F = GMm/r2. G is the universal constant of gravitation and r is defined as the
distance between the two bodies.
Free Body Diagram
An important concept to be understood in mechanics is that of the
free body diagram. It is important to understand this concept as it
helps distinguish early on the differences between action and
reaction forces that affect a body. To create a free body diagram
or FBD the first step is to identify the body that the forces are
acting upon, and isolate it. The forces are then sketched
depending on how they interact with the body. Forces that act on
the body are action forces, also referred to as applied forces.
Forces that are done by the body upon other bodies are referred
to as reaction forces.
Scalar and Vector Quantities
Scalars: Scalar quantities can be described as a quantity that possesses a magnitude but has no
direction, such as mass, volume, energy, distance, and speed. Scalar quantities can be
arithmetically added.
Vectors: Vectors are quantities that possess both a magnitude and a direction. These quantities are
represented by arrows with the length being defined by the magnitude and the arrowhead pointing
to the direction if the vector. To add these types of quantities together, it is done geometrically
through vector addition. In instances where two vectors have the same magnitude and direction,
they are considered equal regardless of their points of application. Equal vectors may be denoted
with the same variable. In the case of a negative vector denoted by -A, it is defined as having an
equal magnitude as A however it is directed in the opposite direction. A and -A in this case are
examples of equal and opposite vectors. When equal and opposite vectors are added together, the
resultant will always be zero. A + (-A) = 0.
Fixed Vector (Bound Vector): A vector that cannot be moved without the modification of the
problem’s conditions and factors.
Free Vector: A vector that is allowed to freely move within the space. Couples are an example of
free vectors.
Sliding Vector: Vectors that can be moved along their respective lines of action.

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Vector Addition
Parallelogram Law
Vector addition is a process that is based on the
parallelogram law, one of the fundamental axioms of
mechanics. It states that to obtain the value of A + B,
considering that both A and B are vectors, the two vectors
must be placed head to tail with one another and drawing
the line from the free head to the free tail. This constructed
line is the resultant of A + B.

Triangle Law
The Triangle Law in vector addition states that when two vectors
are represented as the sides of a triangle through a head to tail
connection, then the third side of the triangle represents the
resultant with the magnitude and direction.

Resultant
Introduction
The outcome of forces that act upon a certain body can be expressed as a single resultant. The
resultant is what determines the body’s motion due to the forces that act upon it. A body is regarded
to be in equilibrium when the resultant is zero, thus no motion occurs.
Forces and Components
A single force, which can be denoted by F, acts upon a body, it is possible to replace it with its
components. These components are two or more forces whose resultant will be that of the single
force F. This process can be referred to as resolving the force into its components.
Adding Forces by Components
Adding forces through its components is often the most convenient way to add forces. It is the
most common approach, especially in rectangular components.
Rectangular Components of a Force
When a force F is resolved into two perpendicular components, it is resolved along the x and y
axis. A rectangle can then be formed with F as the diagonal and the resolved components of F on
the x and y axes can be referred to as Fx and Fy.

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To better understand the rectangular components of a force, unit vectors may be used. Unit vectors,
denoted by i and j respectively, are two vectors of unit magnitude whose directions lie along the x
and y axes.
It is also possible to obtain the rectangular components of F by multiplying the scalar with the
proper unit vector.
Fx = Fxi
Fy = Fyj
F = Fxi + Fyj
It is important to remember that the components of F refer both the scalar components and vector
components
Scalar Components
The scalar components of F may be expressed as:
Fx = Fcosθ
Fy = Fsinθ
Direction of Force
When a force F is defined by its rectangular Fx and Fy components, θ defines its directionl. Θ Can
be derived from
Tanθ = Fy/Fx
The magnitude F of the force on the other hand can be obtained through the following means
F2 = Fx2 + Fy2
Fx = Fcosθ
Fy = Fsinθ
Addition of Forces Through the Summation of x and y Components
When three or more forces are to be added there is no direct solution to obtain the resultant. In
these instances, the most effective way is to resolve the forces into their rectangular components.
For example, the forces P, Q, and S are acting on the same body, the resultant R will be equal to
the summation of the three forces.
R=P+Q+S
After resolving the forces into their rectangular components:
Rxi + Ryj = (Px + Qx + Sx)i + (Py + Qy + Sy)j

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From the equation derived, we can say:
Rx = Fx
Ry = Fy
In conclusion, when several forces are acting upon a single body, obtaining the scalar components
Rx and Ry of R is done through adding the corresponding scalar components of the given forces.
R2 = ∑Rx2 + ∑Ry2

Resultant of Forces
It has been previously stated that the resultant is the sum of two or more forces acting upon a single
body. The resultant R can be obtained through the parallelogram law as well.
Resultant of Concurrent Forces
Concurrent forces are two or more coplanar forces whose
lines of action intersect at a point. To obtain the resultant
of these types of forces, the polygon rule is applied. The
polygon rule done through repeated parallelogram law
applications on the concurrent forces.

Resultant of Parallel Forces

A force system that has forces with parallel lines of action is known as a
parallel force system. The resultant of these forces is determined when the
magnitude, direction, and position are known.
Now that the basic information and concepts have been discussed let us
now proceed to some examples where we will apply those that have been
discussed.

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EXAMPLE 1:
Two forces F1 and F2, as shown in the figure, are acting upon a body. Determine the
resultant of the two forces.

SOLUTION:
First, we resolve the forces into its components. After such, we then solve for the sum.

ΣFx = 0
500 cos (30 o) N – 250 cos (50 o) N = 0
Fx = 272.3157995 N
ΣFy = 0
500 sin (30 o) N – 250 sin (50 o) N = 0
Fy = 441.5111108 N
As we can see, since the vectors are in opposite direction in the x-axis, they were
subtracted. While they both go the same direction in respect to the y-axis, they are added together.

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 The resultant force will then have a magnitude of:

R2 = (272.3157995 N)2 + (441.5111108 N)2

R = 518.7368848 N
For the direction
tanθ = 441.5111108 N/272.3157995 N
θ = tan-1 (441.5111108 N/272.3157995 N)
θ = 58.33449043o
Thus, the resultant has a magnitude of 518.74 at an angle of 58.33o

EXAMPLE 2:
Two boats push on a barge at angles seen in the problem below. The first tug boat pushes
on the barge with a force of 2.3 x 105 N directly in the x-axis. The second boat on the other hand
exerts a force of 3.2 x 105 N directly in the y axis. The mass of the barge is 4000000kg and has an
acceleration of 7.5 x 10-2 m/s2

SOLUTION:
Firstly, let us create a free body diagram.

Since FD or drag goes against the direction of Fapp, thus the free diagram is shown as above.
The system of interest here is the barge, since the forces on it are given as well as its acceleration.

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Because the applied forces are perpendicular, the x- and y-axes are in the same direction as F1 and
F2. The problem quickly becomes a one-dimensional problem along the direction of Fapp, since
friction is in the direction opposite to Fapp. Our strategy is to find the magnitude and direction of
the net applied force Fapp and then apply Newton’s second law to solve for the drag force FD.
Since Fx and Fy are perpendicular, we can find the magnitude is direction of Fapp directly.

Fapp = √(F12 + F22)

Fapp = √((2.3 x 105)2 + (3.2 x 105)2)

Fapp = 3.940812099 x 105 N
The angle can then be solved by
θ = tan-1 (2.3 x 105/3.2 x 105)
θ = 35.7066914o
Going off from Newton’s laws, we know that this is the same direction as the body’s
acceleration. We also know that the drag is the opposite of Fapp, since it is what causes the boat to
decelerate. We can the deduce that Fnet or the net force, or resultant, is equal in direction of Fapp but
less in magnitude because of drag.
In this case we can say that
Fnet = Fapp - FD
Considering Newton’s second law of acceleration, F = ma. In this case
Fnet = ma
Thus, we can also say that
Fapp - FD = ma
Substituting the values that we have obtained
FD = (3.940812099 x 105 N) – [(4000000kg)( 7.5 x 10-2 m/s2)
FD = 9.40812099 x 104

EXAMPLE 3:
Find the resultant of the force system in the figure below where P is 280 N, Q is 260 N, and R is
210 N.

SOLUTION:
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The coordinates of points on the lines of action are given by the table below:

To calculate the components, we use

Force multiplier

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PROBLEM 1:
Given the figure below, find the resultant R of the two forces A and B. (Answer: R = 1413.27 N)

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PROBLEM 2:
A block shown in the figure below is being acted upon by forces that include its weight of
200 lb, a horizontal force F of 600 lb, and pressure P exerted by the inclined plane it is currently
on. The resultant R is parallel to the incline thereby sliding the block up it. Determine P and R.
(Answers: P = 473.2050808 lbs; R = -419.6152423 lbs)

PROBLEM 3:
Two forces are being applied to nail. Given that the magnitude of A is 35 N, find the value of α if
the resultant R of the two forces if the resultant is to be horizontal and the value of R itself.
(Answers: α = 29.25o ; R = 83.06)

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Problem 4
Two forces P and Q are applied to the lid of a storage bin as shown in the figure below. Knowing
that P has a magnitude of 48 N and Q has a magnitude of 60 N, determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of the two forces. (Answers: R = 104.366N;
𝛼 = 13.2947𝑜 ; 𝜃=86.705)

Problem 5
Two structural members C and D are bolted to a bracket as shown in the figure below. Knowing
that both members are in compression and that the force is 15N in member A while member B has
a force of 10 N. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant forces applied to the two
members.(Answers: R = 21.794N; 𝛼 = 23.414𝑜 ; 𝜃=73.414)

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Introduction To Engg Mechanics - Newton's Laws of motion - Kinetics – Kinematics
https://youtu.be/ksmsp9OzAsI

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 According to Coasterpedia

Swing Ride

Flying Fiesta Swing Ride

One of the rides seen in an amusement park is categorized as Wave swinger, a

ride that consists of chairs suspended to a rotating top that swings outward when the
ride operates. The Flying Fiesta is known for its spinning motion as the main prominent
feature of this ride. The motion of this ride is possible because the top rotates at a fixed
point to which applies the lesson cover for this chapter, the moment of a force.

LEARNING Objectives
Define moment, couple, and moment of a couple
1. Understand the way on solving for the moment and moment of a couple
2. Apply Varignon’s theorem in solving for the problems

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 Understanding Moments
In everyday situations such as riding on a seesaw, snipping a scissor, closing or opening a door, or
tightening a screw have all something in common - they all involve a moment of force. The capacity of
causing an object to rotate about a fixed point or pivot is referred to as the moment of a force.[1]

Shown in Figure 2.0, it can be observed that the

y-axis is perpendicular to the plane where the line of
action is. The moment center O is said to be the point
where the axis of moments and the plane intersect. The
moment arm is the perpendicular distance starting from
the moment center to the line of action.[2]

The moment of a force can be defined by

the force multiplied to the perpendicular distance at a
specified point from the axis to the line of action.[3]

M = Fd
Figure 2.0

Additionally, the moment of the force can also

be defined by the area of the triangle. Combining the
moment center to the tips of the forces will result in Figure 2.1
two areas of a triangle.[4] Thus, forming a moment.
Based on Figure 2.1, the height of the triangle from
the moment center O is equal to the perpendicular
distance d - also referred to as the moment arm d - and
the force F will be the base of the shaded part of the
triangle. Obtaining the area of the shaded triangle will
be one-half the product of the base times the height
wherein it is equal to two times the moment at O.

Since moment is the product of force and distance, its unit can be expressed as the unit of force
times the unit of distance.[5]
- Force in pounds (lb); Distance in feet (ft); Moment in pound-feet (lb-ft)
- Force in Newton (N); Distance in meter (m); Moment in pound-feet (N-m)

The rotation produced by the applied force can either be in two directions; clockwise or
counterclockwise. Establishing which among the two should be positive or negative depends on the
problem. Moreover, it should be observed that only one convention should be used in solving a given

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[1][2][4] Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
[3][5] Beer, F., Johnston, Jr, Eisenberg, E., & Mazurek, D. (2010). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math.
 problem.[6] Curved arrows can be used to specify the direction with the corresponding sign. For example,
moment about O is positive in counterclockwise direction and the summation of moment is denoted by:

⤽ΣMο
Cartesian Vectors
There are other problems that may involve more than two dimensions, and this is where the
cartesian vector formula can be used in finding the moment of a force. Derivation of the formula was based
on the given figure showing the three-dimensional vectors.

i j k

Mο = Fd = dx dy dz

Fx Fy Fz

dx, dy, dz
are the distance in the x, y, and z axes respectively

Fx, Fy, Fz
are the forces in the x, y, and z axes respectively
Referring to the given figure, Figure 2.2, the moment about
point O can be determined by solving for the moments of Fx, Fy, and Fz
about the x axis. It is seen that Fx is parallel to the x axis meaning this
will not create a moment about the x axis. The line of action of Fy is
along point B, having the perpendicular distance of Fy as dz and its
moment about point A will be Fy・dz . Then the line of action of Fz is
along point C, in which the moment of Fz will be Fz・dy.[7] Having the
resultant moment at O about the x axis: Figure 2.2

(Mο)x = (Fy・dz - Fz・dy)

Principle of Moments: Varignon’s Theorem

The principle of moments, developed by the French

Mathematician Varignon, is commonly used in the study of
engineering mechanics. Varignon’s Theorem states that the
moment of a force about a point is equal to the sum of the
moments of the components of the force about a point. This
means that the individual moments sum up the moment of a
force at a specific point.[8]

In solving problems in two dimensions, this concept is

used by sorting out the force into rectangular components along
with scalar analysis in solving for the moment.
Figure 2.3
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[6] Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
[7][8] Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.
 Mο = Fх・y - Fy・x

Couple
A couple is two parallel forces having the same magnitude but
opposite in direction that are set apart by a perpendicular distance d as
illustrated in the given illustration, Figure 2.4. In a couple, the resultant
force is zero in which a rotation in a specified direction is the only
effect that it has on a body.[9]

A couple moment is
the moment produced by a
Figure 2.4 couple and finding its value is
by solving the sum of
moments of both couple forces at any chosen point. At any part of
a body that a couple moment is applied, its rotational effect
remains the same since it is a free vector.[10] Referring to the
Figure 2.5
diagram, Figure 2.5, the distance from point O to B and point O
to A is d1 and d2, respectively. Finding the moment of the couple
at O is through:

C = F・d1 + (-F・d2) = F (d1 - d2)

Where d1 = d2 + d or d = d1 - d2, reducing the formula to:

C = Fd
The couple and the moment center are independent of each other in which the effect is to produce
a rotation, remains constant under the following conditions:[11]

● Couple is rotated at any angle in its plane

● Couple is moved in any position along its plane
● Couple is moved to a parallel plane

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[11] Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
[9][10] Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.
EXAMPLE 1: A metal rod has three forces acting upon it
as seen in the figure given wherein the distance of AB is
0.5 m and BC is 0.6 m . Find the moment of force about
point C if FA=35 N, FB=50 N, and FC = 40 N
(counterclockwise is positive).

SOLUTION:
a) Finding the moment of force at C can be solved by first finding the moment of each individual force:

Moment of Force A:
𝛴𝑀𝐴 = 𝐹𝐴 (𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90०)
= 35𝑁(0.5𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90०)
= −17.5 𝑁・𝑚
The moment of force about point A rotates clockwise which will result in a negative sign on the
final answer.

Moment of Force B:
𝛴𝑀𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵 (𝐵𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90०)
= 50𝑁(0.6𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90०)
= 30 𝑁・𝑚
Since the moment of force about point B rotates counterclockwise, its answer will have a positive
sign.

Moment of Force C:
𝛴𝑀𝐶 = 𝐹𝐶 (𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90०)
= 50𝑁(0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90०)
= 0 𝑁・𝑚
b) Calculating for the resultant of the moment of force, given that each individual moments are determined:
𝛴𝑀 = 𝛴𝑀𝐴 + 𝛴𝑀𝐵 + 𝛴𝑀𝐶
= −17.5 𝑁・𝑚 + 30 𝑁・𝑚 + 0 𝑁・𝑚
= 12.5 𝑁・𝑚

EXAMPLE 2: Two couples are acting on the frame. A 375 N couple force acts on two specific points on
top of the frame and a 200 N couple force acts on the body of the frame. Given the distance between the
points are 3 meters, solve for the resultant couple acting on the frame.

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 SOLUTION:
a) Two sets of couple forces are given in the problem and solving for the resultant couple can be done
by solving for the moment of each couple force. First is to resolve the force on the x and the y
components.

In the diagram, there is a 3-4-5 triangle which will be used to

solve for the x and y components.

Solving for the x and y components of the 375N force:

𝐹𝑥 = 375𝑁(3/5)
𝐹𝑥 = 225𝑁

𝐹𝑦 = 375𝑁(4/5)
𝐹𝑦 = 300𝑁

After solving for the force x and y component, the moment for the 375N force can be solved.

Solving for the Moment of the Couple of the :

𝛴𝑀 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑑
𝛴𝑀 = (225𝑁)(0) + (300𝑁)(3𝑚)
𝛴𝑀 = 0 + 900
𝛴𝑀 = 900 𝑁・𝑚

b) Then using the same procedure as before, only this time solving for
the forces will use an angle of 30 degrees since it is already given in
the diagram.

Solving for the x and y components of the 200N force:

𝐹𝑥 = 200𝑁(𝑐𝑜𝑠30°)
𝐹𝑥 = 173.205𝑁

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Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.

 𝐹𝑦 = 200𝑁(𝑠𝑖𝑛30°)
𝐹𝑦 = 100𝑁

Then solving for the moment of the couple force of 200 N using the force on the x-component and
force on the y-component,

Solving for the Moment of a Couple:

𝛴𝑀 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑑
𝛴𝑀 = (173.205𝑁)(3𝑚) + (100𝑁)(0)
𝛴𝑀 = 519.615 + 0

𝛴𝑀 = 519.615 𝑁・𝑚

With all the needed variables solved, the resultant couple can be calculated by simply adding the
moments from the two sets of couples:

Solving for the Resultant Couple:

𝛴𝑀 = 900 𝑁・𝑚 + 519.615 𝑁・𝑚

𝛴𝑀 = 1419.615 𝑁・𝑚

EXAMPLE 3: The end of a drainpipe is being lifted by a construction crane. The force that the crane exerts
is 150 lb that is acting along the line of cb. Solve for the moment at about point ‘a’ given the available
components in the diagram below. Answer should be in cartesian form with reference to the coordinate
system indicated.

SOLUTION:
a) In finding the moment about ‘a’, first is to determine the force that the crane produces as it lifts the
pipe. We are given point c as the winch of the crane and point b where the hook of the crane is
pulling the pipe. Solving the unit vector from along bc:

(22 − 16) + (12 − 6)

ê𝑏𝑐 =
√(22 − 16)2 + (12 − 6)2
ê𝑏𝑐 = 0.7071(î + ĵ)

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 After the unit vector along bc has been solved, the component or cartesian form of the Force of
the crane is:
𝐹 = (150 𝑙𝑏) (0.7071(î + ĵ))
𝐹 = 106.065(î + ĵ)𝑙𝑏

The distance from point ‘a’ until the end of the pipe in the x-axis is 16 ft and the height or distance
of the end of the pipe from the ground is 6 ft that is along the x-axis. Then the perpendicular distance
when the moment is about point ‘a’ in cartesian form will be:

𝑑𝑎 = (16î + 6ĵ)

b) Now that all the requirements needed - force and perpendicular distance - have been determined,
the moment of point ‘a’ can now be solved by simply substituting the values of the force and
perpendicular distance to the formula of finding the moment. Since indicated in the illustration that
y is in the positive direction and x is in the negative direction than it is tto be applied in the formula
𝑀𝑎 = 𝐹𝑑
𝑀𝑎 = 106.065(î + ĵ) × (−16î + 6ĵ)
𝑀𝑎 = −1697.04𝑘̂ + 639.9𝑘̂
𝑀𝑎 = −2336.94𝑘̂ 𝑙𝑏・𝑓𝑡
𝑀𝑎 = 2336.94𝑘̂ 𝑙𝑏・𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘̂𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 ′𝑎′

PROBLEM 1: Three couple forces F1, F2, and F3 are acting on the plate. If the magnitude of F1 = 350N,
F2 = 600 N, and F3 = 450N, solve for the resultant couple force of the three wherein d1=7m, d2=5m, and
d3=9m. Note: Counterclockwise is positive. (Answer: 3500 𝑁・𝑚 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘̂𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒)

31
PROBLEM 2: A 15 feet long fixed hook stands with a height of 30 feet from the ground. The illustration
consists of points A, B, C and D. Solve for the moment about all points of the given figure below if the
horizontal force F applied is 300 lb (c=7.5 ft). (Answer: 𝑀𝐴 = 6750 𝑙𝑏・𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘̂𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒;
𝑀𝐵 = 0 𝑙𝑏・𝑓𝑡; 𝑀𝐶 = 2250 𝑙𝑏・𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘̂𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒; 𝑀𝐷 = 2250 𝑙𝑏・𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘̂𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒)

PROBLEM 3: Serious neck injuries can happen if a player is

struck in the face guard of the football helmet as shown in the
illustration, similar to the mechanism of a guillotine. Determine
the moment of the knee force P = 60 lb about point A. Then, find
the neck force F in order to counterbalance the moment about A.
(Answer: 𝐹 = 28.2115 𝑙𝑏)

PROBLEM 4: In the pipe assembly, two

wrenches have a 25 N force acting on them.
Wrench A has a moment about the x-axis and
wrench B has a moment about the z-axis. Find the
couple moment acting on the pipe using the
cartesian vector notation. (Answer: 𝑀 = {−25î +
0ĵ + 150𝑘̂}𝑁・𝑚)

32
PROBLEM 5: A telephone pole with a height of 8.4 meters is
supported with two wires that are connected to it. The wires have
forces of 3725 N applied to them that are aligned with the line of
action of these wires. With the use of the cartesian vector
notation, determine the moment about O that is caused by the
given forces. (Answer: 𝛴𝑀𝑂 = (24036.978î −
2184.042𝑘̂) 𝑁・𝑚)

Moments | Forces & Motion | Physics | FuseSchool

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=22VGQM1jCn8&t=62s

33
34
35
 According to Wikipedia

Teeterboard

Seesaw

A teeterboard or seesaw is long, narrow board that can be made from wood or a metal.
This are commonly seen in playground near the school or within a park. Children will
ride on both ends that will provide the force acting on the seesaw. It has a support
located at the center in order to produce a movement of both unsupported ends. This
is a simple example of the application of equilibrium on real life scenarios.

LEARNING Objectives
1. Define what is equilibrium and familiarize types of supports and connections.
2. Identify the three different conditions of equilibrium.
3. Solve for problems involving equilibrium mechanics.

36

Royalty-Free photo: Brown wooden log seesaw near water | PickPik. (n.d.). Royalty. https://www.pickpik.com/see-saw-swing-swing-device-rock-
playground-play-130520
 →What is Equilibrium?
As the subject matter essentially deals with forces acting on the bodies with no motion, the
concept of equilibrium is applied. Such a concept is used to describe the condition of the body
when the resultant is zero or summation of all forces acting on that body is equal to zero (∑𝐹 =
0). It can further strengthen the concept of equilibrium by Newton’s law of motion. The second
law described by the equation ∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 wherein acceleration is equated to zero that gives off the
original concept ∑𝐹 = 0.
This chapter shall tackle the different conditions and equations regarding the concept of
equilibrium as a vital part of learning about engineering mechanics and rigid bodies.

5. 1 Understanding Free-Body Diagram

In solving problems in mechanics, ranging from simple to complex ones, it is an ease in
the mind to have an isolated system to look into. This system is commonly referred to as a free-
body diagram (FBD). This allows to the determine the unknown forces and to display
internal/external forces acting upon a body. However, always do remember that it doesn’t include
the forces exerted by the FBD itself upon other bodies. By converting the given problem into this
diagram, it became more easier to determine on how to analyze and solve the problem.

Steps in drawing the

free-body diagram:
1. Completely isolate the
body being considered from
the rest of other bodies and
draw its outlined version. This
may consist of all the entire
structure or just a part of it.
2. Show the forces or
components found on its
designated points of removal.
3. Identify using the
magnitude the known forces
and using a symbol for
unknown ones.

37
Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
CE Box. (2019, March 13). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCYsUdmyg1l7T-PA4gZ6kj2A
Statics of Rigid Bodies Chapter 3 Supports & Connections (PH). (2021, August 29). [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wx7qeUF6cug&list=PL5-rj23AEMNiYKVhoPxaxgVtn_lGpxtnE&index=3
 5. 2 Digging Deep with Support and Connection
As the foundation of many higher levels of learning in engineering mechanics, it is utmost
importance to truly understand earlier the concept within the support and connection. It is said to
be in state of equilibrium if it involves forces that balanced out the effect exerted by the resultant
of a system. It can be in vertical, horizontal, or even moments especially if distances are present.
This knowledge is beneficial on giving deeper understanding between the differences of the
support and connections.
The resultant taken from the whole structure is specifically resisted by supports. There are
pinned support, roller support, and fixed support that varies on the reaction that will be given on
the structure.
Pinned / Hinged Support
This type of support
takes in two reactions since
it can oppose only the
vertical and horizontal
action affecting the body. If
a force acts on the body
contain a distance from the
point of application, there is
a tendency to create a rotating motion that keep the moment effect. This support transmits forces
in any direction while allowing rotation. Therefore, we can only use the equations 𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0 and
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0 in solving for its unknowns.

Hinge Support of Sydney Harbor Bridge

38
Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
Statics of Rigid Bodies Chapter 3 Supports & Connections (PH). (2021, August 29). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wx7qeUF6cug&list=PL5-
rj23AEMNiYKVhoPxaxgVtn_lGpxtnE&index=3
Anupoju, S. (2021, August 16). Types of Supports and Reactions and Their Applications in Structures. The Constructor. Retrieved November 25, 2021, from https://theconstructor.org/structural-
engg/types-of-supports-reactions-uses-structures/16974/
 Roller Support
Only one reaction is found
on rollers for it can only
support the perpendicular
action implied on the plane
of a rigid body. The
horizontal and moment
effects are not restricted in
this type which leaves the
equation 𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0 in identifying the unknown. For real life application, these are can be found on
one side of a bridge which prevents damage to the bridge as it allows the contraction or expansion
due to alteration in temperature.

Roller Support on One End of a Bridge Fixed Support - Beam Fixed in Wall

Fixed Support
This type is also known as rigid support.
This is the one which can support the three effects
of forces. There’s an equivalent reaction for the
horizontal (𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0), vertical (𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0), and
moment 𝛴𝑀 = 0 effect therefore can be used in
solving three unknowns. These are used as an
application that will provide good stability to the
structure. At least one rigid support should be
provided. These are commonly seen as beam
fixed in wall is a good example for fixed support.

39
Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
Statics of Rigid Bodies Chapter 3 Supports & Connections (PH). (2021, August 29). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wx7qeUF6cug&list=PL5-
rj23AEMNiYKVhoPxaxgVtn_lGpxtnE&index=3
Anupoju, S. (2021, August 16). Types of Supports and Reactions and Their Applications in Structures. The Constructor. Retrieved November 25, 2021, from https://theconstructor.org/structural-
engg/types-of-supports-reactions-uses-structures/16974/
 Connections, on the other hand, are those that only deal with two or more members within
that structure. It also varied in the number of reactions by its classification. This is an important
lesson for having a strong foundation for future lectures like structural analysis.

5. 3 Equilibrium of Concurrent Force System

Recall that concurrent forces are those passing through a common point. The equilibrium
for these systems is described by equations that will come up with a resultant of zero. The
magnitude of the resultant is obtained by 𝑅 = √∑𝐹𝑥 2 + ∑𝐹𝑦 2 which is satisfied by the conditions
of equilibrium, ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0. By using the such conditions, not more than two unknown
values should be considered first in solving for equilibrium.
Various methods are can be used in solving problems regarding concurrent force systems.
It includes using horizontal and vertical axes; using rotating axis; and force triangle. All methods
will be introduced in the proceeding problem below.

A system of two ropes is attached to one another lifting a

load of 200 lb. Force A is at 60° while Force C is at 60°, both from
the horizontal axis. With the given load, what are the tensions in
cable A and cable C?
40
Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
Statics of Rigid Bodies Chapter 3 Supports & Connections (PH). (2021, August 29). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wx7qeUF6cug&list=PL5-
rj23AEMNiYKVhoPxaxgVtn_lGpxtnE&index=3
 Using horizontal and vertical axes
This method is just the simple way of forming equations
with 𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0 and 𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0 then eliminating the unknowns
one-by-one. Finding the components of each force is also
necessary in the given problem before applying the conditions of
equilibrium.

𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐴 cos 60° − 𝐶 cos 75° = 0 (equation 1)
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
sin 35° − 𝐶 sin 20° − 200 𝑙𝑏 = 0 (equation 2)
Manipulate both equation and utilize it in eliminating one unknown.

𝐴 cos 60° − 𝐶 cos 75° = 0 (equation 1) 𝐴 sin 35° − 𝐶 sin 20° − 200 𝑙𝑏 = 0 (equation 2)
0.5 𝐴 − 0.2588 𝐶 = 0 (0.5176 𝐶) sin 35° − 𝐶 sin 20° − 200 𝑙𝑏 = 0
0.2588
𝐴= 0.5
𝐶 0.2969 𝐶 − 0.3420 𝐶 = 200 𝑙𝑏

𝐴 = 0.5176 𝐶 0.0451 𝐶 = 200 𝑙𝑏

200
Where 𝐶 = 4430.9566 𝑙𝑏 𝐶 = 0.0451 𝑙𝑏

𝐴 = 2293.4631 𝑙𝑏 𝐶 = 4430.9566 𝑙𝑏

Using rotation of axis

The method is done by aligning the axis to a certain unknown force in order to lessen those that are
to be computed. An important note to remember is that this method is only applicable to a system with only
3 forces and given angles. You should come up to the same answer from other methods.

Using force triangle

If three forces are available, we can utilize the sine law to a triangle whose side and angle is dependent on
the given forces. Just like the graphical method, the end of the last force should touch the tip of the first
plotted force. You should come up to the same answer from other methods.

41
Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
Statics of Rigid Bodies Chapter 3 Supports & Connections (PH). (2021, August 29). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wx7qeUF6cug&list=PL5-
rj23AEMNiYKVhoPxaxgVtn_lGpxtnE&index=3
5. 4 Equilibrium of 2D Force Systems
For 2D systems (coplanar systems), equilibrium is mathematically expressed in its conditions: 𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0,
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 and ∑𝑀 = 0. These are used to solved problems with regards to 2D force system of
equilibrium.

Steps in solving problems in static equilibrium.

- Identify all the forces acting on a body. Label it with magnitude or letter together with its
indicated direction if known.
- Draw a free-body diagram for easy analyzation.
- Use the three conditions of equilibrium 𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑𝑀 = 0 and equate
everything to that.
- Solve for the unknown equations.

Beams are horizontal structural members that carry loads perpendicular to it along its span. Determine
the support reactions of the beam.

Identify the all the present forces in this body and label them.
Since all forces acting are only parallel on
the y axis, there will be no equivalent for
horizontal further neglecting the force
exerted by Ax = 0. With only vertical
forces left, the system can be solved as a
parallel non-concurrent system. The
condition ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑𝑀 = 0 will be
used.
Next is to take summation forces Fy. Note that to determine the resultant force of the rectangular
load.

42
∑Fy=0 Next take the summation moment equal to zero.

𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 − 15 (3) = 0 ∑M=0
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 45 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1) 𝑅𝐴 (6) + 𝑅𝐵 (3) − 15(3) (1.5) = 0
2𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 22.5 (𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2)

Solve the whole system with the gathered data by the process of substitution.
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 45(𝑒𝑞𝑡𝑛 1) 2𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 22.5(𝑒𝑞𝑡𝑛 2) 𝑅𝐵 = 45 − 𝑅𝐴 (𝑒𝑞𝑡𝑛 3)

Eqtn 2 to eqtn 3: Eqtn 1 to substitute

2𝑅𝐴 + 45 − 𝑅𝐴 = 22.5 22.5+𝑅𝐵 = 45
−𝑅𝐴 = 22.5 − 45 𝑅𝐵 = 45 − 22.5
𝑅𝐴 = 22.5

5. 5 Equilibrium of 3D Force Systems

3D force system of equilibrium, on the other side, is mathematically expressed in its conditions:

𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑧 =0

𝛴𝑀𝑥 = 0 ∑𝑀𝑦 = 0 ∑𝑀𝑧 =0
These are used to solved problems with regards to 3D force system of equilibrium. Note that the
moment equations can be determined about any point. Usually, choosing the point where the
maximum number of unknown forces are presents simplifies the solution.

The rod, supported by thrust bearing at A

and cable BC, is subjected to an 80 lb force. Find
the reactions at the thrust bearing A and cable BC.

43
Identifying and labeling all the forces acting on the body:

Taking the summations of all the forces:

𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝛴𝑀𝑦 = 0 𝛴𝐹𝑧 = 0
𝐴𝑥 = 0 𝐵𝐶(3) − 80(1.5) = 0 𝐴𝑧 + 40 − 80 =0
𝐵𝐶 = 40 𝑙𝑏 𝐴𝑧 = 40 𝑙𝑏
𝛴𝑀𝑥 = 0 𝛴𝑀𝑧 = 0
𝐵𝐶(6) − 80(6) + 𝑀𝐴𝑥 = 0 𝑀𝑧 = 0
𝑀𝐴𝑥 = 240 𝑙𝑏 ∗ 𝑓𝑡

Statics of Rigid Bodies

Chapter 3 Supports &
Connections
https://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=wx7qeUF6cug&list=P
L5rj23AEMNiYKVhoPxaxg
Vtn_lGpxtnE&index=4

44
 Statics of Rigid Bodies Chapter 3 Equilibrium of Concurrent Force Systems Intro
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qXD5jl2pF9s

PROBLEM 1: Collar A is connected to a 150-lb load and can

slide on a frictionless horizontal rod. Determine the magnitude of
the force P required to maintain the equilibrium of the collar when
x = 45 in. Disregard the weight of the string and assume that there
is deforminity in the string. (Answer: P = 90 lbs)

PR0BLEM 2: Solve for the external forces that will act on

the bar that weighs 2000 kg.

45
PROBLEM 3:
An object is suspended by two strings attached
to it. Determine the tension force acting on the
two strings. (Answers: 𝑇1 = 41.30 𝑁; 𝑇2 =
52.63 𝑁)

PROBLEM 4:
A wooden joist that measures 3.2 m in length
is being pulled by a man through a rope,
having an angle of 45 degrees when it is lifted.
With the illustration given, determine the
tension force T that acts on the rope and the
reaction force at A. (Answers: 𝑇 = 61 𝑁;𝑅 =
114.73 𝑁)

PROBLEM 5:
Given the following figure,
determine the support reactions at A
and C where the distance between
points B and C is 4 inches. Round
your answers up to three decimal
places. (Answers: Ay = 186.667 lbs,
Ax = 0 lbs, Cy = 116.667 lbs, Cx = 0
lbs)

46
47
48
 According to Studiousguy

A Running Car

Running Car

The wheels of a vehicle such as a car moves along the surface of the ground to
which the wheels and the road have friction occurring on them. Considering that the
friction would be zero, the car will continuously move. With that comes the importance
of having friction as it enables a car or anything in motion to be halted.

LEARNING Objectives

1. Understand friction, theory of dry friction and characteristics of dry friction

2. Determine the equations in solving for the friction
3. Apply the formulas of friction in solving for the different types of friction
problems

49
 Friction
The occurrence of slipping when walking is likely to happen if the floor is wet. When it
comes to walking on a path that does not have any potential slipping hazards, people can go about
their walk without worrying about constantly sliding or slipping. This is where the importance of
friction is applied. In the course of this subject, frictional force will be the term in describing the
force present when there is friction between the contact surface and the object. Frictional force is
defined as the force that resists motion when two contact surfaces slide relative to each other. This
force is tangent to the surface of contact and directed opposite to the motion or approaching motion
between the surfaces.[1] Additionally, the occurrence of friction exists on rough surfaces. Thus, the
presence of frictional force. Given that the surface is considered to be smooth, is a situation in
which friction will be neglected.

Theory of Dry Friction

Understanding the theory of dry friction is done with
an example. A block that has a uniform weight denoted by
W, is resting on a rough horizontal surface wherein the block
can be moved when a force is applied on it. Referring to the
provided illustration, Figure 4.0, there is the downward
weight force W and in order to have equilibrium, an upward
normal force N is applied oppositely directed to counteract
the force exerted by W in which the upper part of the block
is rigid. Then a rightward applied force P is also acting on
the block and this is where the frictional force will counter
the force in achieving equilibrium. The frictional force F will
have a direction opposite to the
Figure 4.0
applied force which is going to
the left. Meaning that the direction of the frictional force will be
opposite to the direction of the motion. When that motion happens,
the frictional force will depreciate immediately to a kinetic value that
remains constant. In consideration to the possibility that there is no
motion, then the direction of the frictional force F will be opposite to
that of the impending motion.[2]

For the next illustration, Figure 4.1, it shows that the floor or Figure 4.1
surface has an unequal distribution on the surface of contact of normal force N and the frictional
force F. As mentioned previously, the normal force will be applied upward countering the weight
force, and the frictional force countering the applied force.

50

[1][2] Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.
 The resultant of the frictional force and normal force
determines the effect of the distribution of loads of these forces.
From the line of action of W up to the normal force is the distance
denoted by x as shown in Figure 4.2. The importance of this x
distance is for the uniform distribution of the normal force so as to
balance the tipping effect produced by the applied force P. If the
applied force is given a height of h from the ground, the equilibrium
of moment about O is determined by Wx = Ph.[3]
Figure 4.2

Impending Motion
There are instances where the contact surface
tends to be slippery which would imply the
magnitude of the frictional force will not be high
enough to counteract with the magnitude of the
applied force P and eventually the block has the
tendency to slip. This means that as the value of P
increases gradually, F also increases gradually
until it reaches its maximum value denoted by Fs
which is referred to as the limiting static frictional
force. Reaching this maximum value will result in
an unstable equilibrium of the block because the
gradual increase of P will initiate the block’s
motion. Since the limiting static frictional force Fs
is directly proportional to the resultant normal
force N, formulating the equation,[4]
Figure 4.3 𝐹𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁

The limiting static frictional force Fs is the product of the proportionality constant μs
referred to as the coefficient of static friction.

In the situation that the block is close to slipping, the frictional force F and the normal force
N will have the resultant Rs. Then the angle between the resultant force Rs and the normal force N
is referred to as the angle of static friction denoted by ɸs. Solving for the angle of static friction
will have the formula,[5]
𝐹𝑠 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
ɸ𝑠 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜇𝑠
𝑁 𝑁

Presented on the table are some common values for the coefficient of static friction that
varies during experiments that have variables that can be affected under certain conditions such as
51

[3][4][5] Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.
 roughness and the cleanliness of the surface of contact. The materials that will come into contact
with one another are two materials that are either the both the same material or two different types
of materials.[6]

Common Values of Coefficient of Static Friction (μs)

Materials of Contact Coefficient

Metal on ice 0.03-0.05

Leather on wood 0.20-0.50

Leather on metal 0.30-0.60

Wood on wood 0.30-0.70

Aluminum on aluminum 1.10-1.70

Typical values for μs
Motion
Increasing the magnitude of the applied force P
slightly greater than the limiting static frictional force
Fs , on the surface of contact the frictional force will
decrease to a lower value called the kinetic frictional
force denoted by Fk. This will result in the block to
slide along with increasing speed.
Situations that involved blocks that are sliding
shows that the magnitude of the resultant normal force
N is directly proportional to the kinetic frictional force
Fk, formulating the equation,

𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 Figure 4.4

The proportionality constant coefficient of kinetic friction μk. Common values for μk are 25
percent lesser than the table of values for the coefficient of static friction in approximation.[7] Now,
the angle between the normal force N and the resultant force Rk is called as the angle of kinetic
friction denoted by ɸk which can be determined by,
𝐹𝑘 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
ɸ𝑘 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜇𝑘
𝑁 𝑁

From describing the coefficient of static friction and the coefficient of kinetic friction,
ɸs ≥ɸk

52

[6][7] Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.
 Discussing the effects of friction is represented through a
graph showing the variation between the applied force P and the
frictional force F wherein the frictional force is classified in three
types:[8]
● If equilibrium is constant, F is a static frictional force.
● When F reaches a maximum value needed to maintain
equilibrium, F is a limiting static frictional force Fs.
● When sliding occurs at the contacting surface, F is a kinetic
frictional force Fk.
Figure 4.5

Characteristics of Dry Friction

General rules are set that apply to the bodies in association of dry friction. These are as
follows:[9]
● The frictional force is tangent to the surface of contact wherein its direction is opposite to
the motion or the impending motion.
● The maximum static frictional force Fs that is produced is independent from the area of
contact given that the normal pressure is somewhat low nor high enough to critically cause
deformation to the surface of contact of the bodies.
● The maximum static frictional force is overall higher than the kinetic frictional force
between any two contact surfaces. But if one of the bodies has a very low velocity over the
surface of another, Fk is about equal to Fs and μk≈μs.
● When slipping is on the verge of occurring at the surface of contact, the maximum static
frictional force will be proportional to the normal force, denoted by Fs=μsN.
● When slipping is presently occurring at the surface of contact, the kinetic frictional force
will be proportional to the normal force, denoted by Fk=μkN.

Problems Involving Dry Friction

When a rigid body is in equilibrium and it is put through a system of forces involving the
effect of friction, the systems of forces to be used should both suffice the equilibrium equations
and the laws of frictional forces[10]

Types of Friction Problems

In the course of mechanics, problems involving dry friction are categorized into three types.
These are classified after the free body diagrams have been drawn and when the number of
unknowns are determined and compared with the total number of equilibrium equations.
1) There is no supposed impending motion
The problems involved in these types are purely equilibrium problems requiring the
number of unknowns to be the same as the number of usable equations of equilibrium.

53

[8][9][10] Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.
 After the frictional forces are solved in the solution, the numerical values should suffice
the inequality F≤μsN. If not, the body will not maintain equilibrium and slipping will
happen.

2) There is impending motion at all points of Contact

For this category, the total number of unknowns will be equal to the total number
of usable equations of equilibrium and with the total number of available frictional
equations, denoted by F=μN. If there is impending motion on the points of contact, the
equation will be Fs=μsN and when the body is slipping, the equation will be Fk=μkN.

3) There is impending motion at some points of contact

In this type, the number of unknowns will be lesser than the number of available
equations and the number of available equations of frictional force for tipping.
Consequently, there will be various possibilities for motion or impending motion to exist
and will involve determining the kind of motion that will occur in a given problem.

Equilibrium versus Frictional Force Equations

Problems that the frictional force F is an equilibrium force and the inequality F≤μsN will
be satisfied, it can be assumed that the direction of F on the free-body diagram. After determining
the answers to the equations of equilibrium of F, the right sense of the direction will then be
resolved. After solving for F and its value is negative, the initial assumption will be changed.
Applying the equilibrium equation would result in zero for the components of the vectors that are
in the same direction to which assumption for the sign of F will be easier. But this cannot be
applied in problems that use the frictional force equation F=μN. And when drawing a free body
diagram, the sense of F should be right when using the frictional force equation in solving for what
is needed for a given problem.[11]

Steps for Solving:

Drawing the Free Body Diagram
1. Start by looking and reading the problem carefully to assess if there are specific conditions
such as impending motion or the slipping is occurring. If none, draw the free body diagram
for the given problem where the frictional force/s are the unknowns. Note: The assumption
should not be F=μN.
2. Identify how many unknowns are found. Once the number of unknowns have been
determined, compare it with how many equilibrium equations that are available.
3. Assessing that the number of unknowns are greater than the available equations of
equilibrium, the frictional force equations can now be used at only certain points of contact
to arrive at an equation that will help in solving the problem.

54

[11] Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.
 4. One thing to remember when using the frictional force equation F=μN, the F shown in the
free body diagram should have the right sense of direction.

The Equations of Equilibrium and Friction

1. Use the equilibrium equations and the required frictional force equations to solve for the
unknowns. Frictional equations under specific conditions - possibility of tipping - can also
be used.
2. For problems that contain force systems in three dimensions, the application of cartesian
vectors can be used with the equilibrium equations. [12]

EXAMPLE 1: A 450 N crate is being pushed on an inclined plane by an applied force of 200N.
The coefficients of friction between the crate and the surface are 𝜇𝑠 =0.25 and 𝜇𝑘 = 0.20. Solve for
the value of the frictional force and identify if the crate will slide down the plane.

SOLUTION:
a) First is to draw the free body diagram of the given problem remembering that the
direction of the frictional force is opposite to the impending motion.Next is to solve
for the frictional force and normal force.
Solving for the Frictional force:
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
3
200𝑁 − (450𝑁) − 𝐹 = 0
5
𝐹 = 200𝑁 − 270𝑁
𝐹 = −70𝑁

55

[12] Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.
 Solving for the Normal force:
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
4
𝑁 − (450𝑁) = 0
5
4
𝑁 = (450𝑁)
5
𝑁 = 360𝑁

Solving for the maximum friction force:

𝐹𝑚 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
𝐹𝑚 = (0.25)(360𝑁)
𝐹𝑚 = 90𝑁

Since the maximum friction force has a magnitude less than the friction force required to
have equilibrium, the kinetic friction force will be solved for the box not to slide.
𝐹𝑚 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
𝐹𝑚 = (0.20)(360𝑁)
𝐹𝑚 = 72𝑁

EXAMPLE 2: A 25-kilogram block is placed on top of another block of 35 kilograms wherein

the upper portion of this second block is inclined at an angle of 15°. The friction coefficients
between the surfaces of contact are μs=0.4 and μk=0.3. With the assumption that the pulleys are
well lubricated and the ropes are stable, solve for the force P wherein there is impending motion
on the 35 kilograms and that the cable AB is connected as illustrated below.

SOLUTION:
a) Given the illustration, two free body diagrams can be drawn from it with
consideration to the direction of the forces that act on the blocks. There will be two
free body diagrams

56
since there are different or variations of forces that act on block A which may not act on
block B and vice versa. It will also be easier to use the friction equilibrium equations since
there is the distinction between the two. Starting with the free body diagram of block A as
shown in the figure.

b) From the free body diagram, the equilibrium equation of the force can now be written
into its x and y components which are as follows:
For the y component of block A, there is a downward weight force WA which can
be obtained by multiplying the constant value of the gravitational constant (9.81) to the
mass of the block which is 25 kg and another force for the y component is the normal force
NA that counteracts the weight force.

↑ +𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0;
𝑁𝐴 − 𝑊𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° = 0
𝑁𝐴 − (25)(9.81)𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° = 0
𝑁𝐴 = 236.893 𝑁

Then for the x component, there is the force FAB which is the
force of the cable, the frictional force of block A which is FA
and also the x component of the downward weight force are
the variables used in this equation for solving the force on
the cable FAB.

→ +𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0;
𝐹𝐴𝐵 − 𝑊𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° − 𝐹𝐴 = 0
𝐹𝐴𝐵 − (25)(9.81)𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° − (0.4)(236.893) = 0
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 300.768𝑁

For block B, there are some of the forces that act on block A that may also act or affect
block B which is why some of those forces are included in the equation of equilibrium such
as the normal force NA on block A. Using the free body diagram drawn, another unknown
can be solved.
↑ +𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0;
𝑁𝐵 − 𝑁𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° − 𝑊2 + 𝐹𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° = 0
𝑁𝐵 − (236.893)𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° − (35)(9.81)
+ (0.4)(236.893)𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° = 0
𝑁𝐵 − 572.171 + (0.4)(236.893)𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° = 0
𝑁𝐵 = 547.646 𝑁

57
 Following the same techniques for solving the x components of block B, the magnitude of
the force P can now be calculated by the use of the equations,
→ +𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0;
𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° + 𝑁𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° − 𝑊𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° = 0
(300.768) + (0.4)(547.646) + (0.4)(236.893)𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° + (236.893)𝑐𝑜𝑠 15°
− (25)(9.81)𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° − 𝑃 = 0
840.176 − (25)(9.81)𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° − 𝑃 = 0
𝑃 = 776.7 𝑁

Therefore, the value of force P when the cable AB is attached to the blocks with an
impending motion on block B is P=776.7 N.

EXAMPLE 3: Two blocks are connected to one another

by a link that has no weight. These blocks are labeled as
A with a mass of 4.5 kilograms and B with a mass of 10.5
kilograms. Find the largest downward force P that can
be exerted on pin C that will not cause the blocks to
move. The contact surface and the blocks have a
coefficient static friction of μs=0.3.

SOLUTION:
a) First is to analyze the diagram before drawing the free
body diagram. Pin C is connected to blocks A and B in
which these connections are the forces.
Then, assessing the possible motions of the blocks
should be determined in order to establish the direction of
the forces. For block A, its connection FAC would move to
the left and in order to counteract this, the FA should have
a rightward direction.
For block B, its force FB should have a leftward
direction to oppose the possible motion when block B is
moved that is caused by the force between pin C and block

B, FBC. And out of the seven unknowns and six usable equilibrium force equations, only
one of the frictional equations will be needed.

58
b) Next is to solve for the unknowns using the equilibrium equations of friction. First is
solving for the forces acting on the connections, FAC and FBC, with consideration to the
equilibrium of pin C.
Solving for the force acting on the y axis, we have the downward force P - which will have
a negative sign - and the y-component of force FAC - which will have a positive sign since
it is directed upwards.

↑ +𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0;
𝐹𝐴𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠(30°) − 𝑃 = 0
𝑃
𝐹𝐴𝐶 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠(30°)
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 1.1547 𝑃
Then solving forces acting on the x axis which includes the
x-component of force FAC and the force FBC since it is a
horizontal force going to the left which will have a negative
sign. From the previous equation FAC is solved with only the
force P as the unknown, and by substituting it to this
equation, FBC can be determined.
→ +𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0;
𝐹𝐴𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30°) − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0
1.1547𝑃 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30°) − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0.57735 𝑃

c) Since FAC has been solved, the frictional force acting on

block A as well as the normal force can be identified as well
by substituting the value of FAC to the following equations.
From the free body diagram for block A its frictional force
FA is a horizontal force directed to the right in which is
positive and for the x-component of force FAC its direction is
downward to the left indicating a negative sign.
→ +𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0;
𝐹𝐴 − 𝐹𝐴𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30°) = 0
𝐹𝐴 − 1.1547𝑃 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(30°) = 0
𝐹𝐴 = 0.57735 𝑃

59
 For the normal force NA, the force acting on the y axis are NA which is directed upwards
and will have a positive sign, the y-component of the force FAC that is directed downward
to the left - its sign will be negative - and a downward weight force W that is equal to the
product of the force due to gravity, 9.81 and the mass of block A which is 4.5 kilograms.
↑ +𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0;
𝑁𝐴 − 𝐹𝐴𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠(30°) − 𝑊 = 0
𝑁𝐴 − 1.1547𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠(30°) − 4.5(9.81𝑁) = 0
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑃 + 44.145𝑁

Applying the equilibrium force equation on the forces acting on block B. The forces acting
on this block are the frictional force FB and the normal force NB. For solving x-force
components, the frictional force FAof block A can be used in formulating the equation,
→ +𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0;
𝐹𝐴 − 𝐹𝐵 = 0
(0.57735𝑃) − 𝐹𝐵 = 0
𝐹𝐵 = 0.57735𝑃

And for the y-component, there is also a downward weight force W on block B which
will be solved by multiplying the mass of it. 10.5 kilogram and the force due to gravity,
9.81. Then inputting it to the equation,
↑ +𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0;
𝑁𝐵 − 𝑊 = 0
𝑁𝐵 − 10.5(9.81) = 0
𝑁𝐵 = 103.005𝑁

d) After reducing the unknowns to just one, next is to make an assumption which block will
slip first. If the assumption will be at block A, the frictional equation will be

𝐹𝐴 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐴
𝐹𝐴 = 0.3𝑁𝐴

Substituting 𝐹𝐴 = 0.57735 𝑃and 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑃 + 44.145𝑁to 𝐹𝐴 = 0.3𝑁𝐴

𝐹𝐴 = 0.3𝑁𝐴
0.57735 𝑃 = 0.3(𝑃 + 44.145𝑁)
0.57735 𝑃 − 0.3 𝑃 = 13.2435
𝑃 = 47.75 𝑁

Now, when block B will be the one to slip first then the equation that will be used is,
𝐹𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁𝐵

60
 𝐹𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.3(103.005)
𝐹𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 30.90 𝑁

From this result the value of 𝐹𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 is obviously greater than 𝐹𝐵 , represented by
30.90 𝑁 > 27.57 𝑁, when block B will slip first. This indicates that block B will not move or
slip. Therefore, the final answer would be from the solution wherein the assumption that block A
will slip first. Thus, having the final answer of P=47.75N..

PROBLEM 1: In an inclined plank, two blocks are

attached together by a rope wherein this connection
between the blocks are labelled as CD. The angle θ
from the ground to the plank will begin to increase and
would initiate the blocks to slide. Given that block A is
315 N and block B is 275 N and where the static
friction coefficients between the plank and the blocks
are μA=0.30 and μB=0.40, determine the angle that
would make the blocks slide and the force acting on
the connection CD. (Answer: 𝜃 = 19.117°; 𝐹𝐶𝐷 =
13.87 𝑁)

PROBLEM 2: A man of 85 kg is attempting

to pull a block with a mass of 175 kilograms
using a rope that is attached to the side of the
block. The coefficient of static friction
between the ground and the block is μB=0.35.
With the given information, find the
minimum coefficient of static friction for the
shoes of the man and the ground that will
enable the man to move the block. (Answer:
𝜇𝑀 = 0.445)

61
PROBLEM 3: A metal coil connects block A with block B while lying on an incline with an angle
of θ. The coefficients of static friction between the surface of contact are μA=0.20 and μB=0.35. If
the weight of block A is 25 N and block B has a weight of 15 N, solve for the angle θ which would
initiate the movement of either of the two blocks. Solve also the frictional force acting on the
blocks A and B. (Answer: 𝜃 = 11.31°;𝐹𝐴 = 4.90 𝑁;𝐹𝐵 = 2.94 𝑁)

PROBLEM 4: Three blocks, A, B, and C, are stacked to one another with a rope wrapped around
from block A to block B. Block A has a weight of 65 N, Block B has a weight of 40 N, and Block
C has a weight of 26 N. The static friction coefficient μA=0.4 is for in between blocks A and B,
μB=0.5 for in between blocks B and C, and μC=0.45 for in between blocks C and the ground. Find
the smallest value of P that will bring about an impending motion. (Answer: 𝑃 = 78.5 𝑁)

PROBLEM 5: A rope spool of 55 kg is under block C of 65

kg with rollers on each side of the block. The interior core of
the spool is where the rope is wrapped around. With the
coefficient of static friction being μA=0.35 and μB=0.65.
Calculate the force P that will bring about the movement of the
spool. (Answer: 𝑃 = 892.71 𝑁)

62
What is Friction? | Physics | Don't Memorise
https://youtu.be/n2gQs1mcZHA

63
64
65
 According to Quatr.US

Simple Machines

Simple Machines

Simple machines are devices or equipment used to increase force through using
mechanical advantage or leverage. These have been one of the biggest breakthroughs
humans have discovered since they made heavy work less exhausting by decreasing
the force input needed to produce the desired force. The earliest utilization of these
machines or tools can be traced back to as early as 3000 BC where ancient civilizations
used most of these tools not only for hunting but, also, as an additional manpower [1].

LEARNING Objectives
1. Identify the simple machines
2. Determine the friction on each machine
3. Define the laws of friction
66
[1]
Carr, K. (2017, A). What is a wedge? – Simple machine – Physics. Quatr.US. Retrieved December 8, 2021, from
https://quatr.us/physics/wedge-simple-machines-physics.htm
 Humans have been developing and inventing things that would make work easier. It is
evident on the results that society have access with today. Every machine currently available in
the 21st century is a product of its own ancestral inventions produced by the early civilization of
humans. It was not until humans decided to move as a group that they were able to transcend the
limitations of the brain. One of the greatest inventions that humans have developed is the use of
stone tools [2].
The invention of these tools can serve as a proof that
humans stopped depending on their animalistic instinct and
wild nature. Likewise, they started to rely on the capabilities
of their brain. Through their careful assessments and
inevitable trials, they were able to create their own type or
version of society. Little by little, be their efforts produced
little to no effect at all, they progressed as coordinated,
mindful group of individuals.
This is where the simple machines that became one
of the most beneficial innovation up until today come into
action. Not only did they make work easier, but they also
allowed a much more progressive evolution.
Figure 5.1 Stone tools

These simple machines might look like simple tools but, they were not just invented out of
thin air. A small mistake in the creation of these machines would result into the failure to
accomplish something. They were carefully designed to produce a desired output. The
mathematics behind these tools are complex considering that the ancient civilizations did not have
the advanced tools, such as computers and calculators, to help them create its structure without
miscalculations.
One of the primary principles involved
in these simple machines is friction. Friction
is the resistance exerted by an object to oppose
the movement of another object or body it has
contact with. Moreover, friction exists
because of the roughness of an object thus,
friction is directly proportional to roughness.
However, in some mathematical problems
concerning two objects, friction is neglected
since those objects are assumed to be under an Figure 5.2 Real life situation involving friction
ideal situation.

67
[2]
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). 10 Inventions That Changed Your World. Britannica. Retrieved December
6, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/list/10-inventions-that-changed-your-world
 5.1 Laws of Friction
Before delving into the laws that govern the concept of friction, it is important to fully
understand the other underlying terminologies involved in friction. Since friction is defined as the
resistance of an object to an impending motion, the resistive force parallel to this motion is called
frictional force or, in other textbooks, friction force. Assuming that the two objects are loaded
together, and a tangential force is inserted, the specific value required to initiate sliding of the
object on top is called the static friction force. In order to maintain this, another force is needed
which is called the kinetic friction force. In general, kinetic friction, which is independent of
velocity (forth law of friction), is lower than the static friction (fifth law of friction) [3].

First Law of Friction

The first law of friction states that the frictional
force is inversely proportional to the normal force. Normal
force can be defined simply as the force with the same
magnitude as the weight of the object but, with an opposite
direction. This is also perpendicular to the surface. Given
this point, it can be justified why heavier objects are harder
to push than the lighter ones.
Figure 5.3 First Law of Friction

Second Law of Friction

The second law of friction states that, even though
frictional force is dependent on the normal force of an
object, decreasing the area of the object in contact with the
surface does not change its normal force. Hence, changing
the orientation of an object would neither decrease nor
increase the normal force of an object.
Third Law of Friction Figure 5.4 Second Law of Friction
The third law of motion states that the frictional
force depends on the type of surface that the object is in
contact with. This is the reason why it is much easier to
push or pull a heavy object in a smooth surface such as
tiled floor rather than that of a carpeted one. Hence, due to
the roughness of surfaces in contact, a proportionality
constant, f, may be added to the equation such as:

Figure 5.5 Third Law of Friction 𝑭 = 𝒇𝑵 Equation 1

68
[3] JEE.(n.d.). Friction: Laws Of Friction. BYJU’S. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from https://byjus.com/physics/friction-laws-of-
friction/?fbclid=IwAR0eyXvi_6AE3HuywIV7zI8M9hFhsLUts5kzItDdL6h80sNbtzgcyFs7QUQ
 These laws are the same principles involved in dealing with the simple machines
introduced in the beginning of this chapter. However, due to the differences on shapes and
mechanism, the formula for calculating friction on these machines also varies.

W
5.2 Angle of Friction

N R
The frictional force F that opposes the impending motion P is perpendicular to the normal
force N. Due to this, they can act as the x and y components of the resultant R, which is the total
reaction of the surface in contact with the object in motion. When the maximum frictional
resistance is acting, the resulting value of the angle 𝜃is called the angle of friction [4]. Based on the
figure, the value of the angle of friction can be denoted as:
𝑭
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = =𝒇 Equation 2
𝑵

5.3 Wedges

Just like an inclined plane, a wedge is shaped in a

way that it can support, or hold, and elevate a solid object
on top of it. In the earlier times, wedges are primarily
used to break logs due to its mechanical advantage. Its
mechanical advantage is greater when its width is longer,
and its tip is thinner [5].
Figure 5.6 Wedge

Wedges can be used in two ways:

1. Low friction wedges – creates a larger normal force in order to move objects with only
small, exerted forces.
2. High friction (self-locking) wedges – control the location and hold objects in place.

69

[4][5] Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
 Determine the force P required to start the wedge shown in the figure below. The angle of
friction for all surfaces in contact is 15°.

Solution:
From the FBD of the block to the right,
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑅1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° = 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° + 200
𝑅1 = 0.2679492𝑅2 + 200.0552361

𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° = 𝑅1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° + 50
𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° = (0.2679492𝑅2 + 200.0552361 )𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° + 50
0.8966𝑅2 = 103.59
𝑅2 = 115.54𝑘̂𝑁

From the FBD of the wedge to the left,

𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝑅3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30° = 𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15°
𝑅3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30° = 115.54 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15°
𝑅3 = 128.87𝑘̂𝑁

𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑃 = 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° + 𝑅3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°
𝑃 = 115.54 𝑠𝑖𝑛 15° + 127.87 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°
𝑷 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟑𝟒𝒌𝑵

5.4 Square-threaded Screws

Just like wedges, square-threaded screws involve the
concept of an inclined plane. The only difference is that
these screws look like an inclined plane wrapped around
a cylinder, creating a helix. The height of the imaginary
inclined plane or the vertical distance in one revolution is
called the lead of the screw (L). In single-threaded screw,
it is akin to pitch (p). In a multiple-threaded screw, lead
can be denoted as 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑝, where m is the multiplicity of
threading [6].

Figure 5.7 Square Threaded Screws

70
[6] Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
Motions of an Object on an Inclined Plane

There are a lot of forces acting on an object

on top of an inclined plane. These forces can push or
pull the object causing it to move or lose inertia. In
an object on an inclined plane, the value of Q is
𝑸 = 𝑾𝒕𝒂𝒏(∅ + 𝜽) Equation 3

Figure 5.8 Upward motion

In an object on an inclined plane with an acting

downward motion, the value of Q is
𝑸 = 𝑾𝒕𝒂𝒏(∅ − 𝜽) Equation 4

In addition, the moment of P, which is the force

exerted at the end of a lever with length d, with respect to (a) (b)
the axis of the screw, must be synonymous to the moment Figure 5.9 Downward motion
of Q. Hence,

𝑸𝒓 𝑾𝒓
𝑷= = 𝒕𝒂𝒏(∅ ± 𝜽) Equation 5
𝒅 𝒅

A single-threaded jackscrew has a pitch of 0.5 in. and a mean of radius of 1.75 in. The
coefficient of static friction is 0.15 and of kinetic friction, 0.10. (a) Determine the force P applied
at the end of a lever 2 ft long which will start lifting a weight of 2 tons. (b) What value of P will
keep the jackscrew turning?
0.15
Given: (a) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∅ = 0.15 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = ( )
3.5𝜋
0.15
pitch = 0.5 in = lead of the screw d =2 ft. or 24 in ∅ = tan−1 0.15 𝜃= tan−1 ( )
3.5𝜋
radius = 1.75 in W = 2 tons or 2000 lbs ∅ = 8.5308° 𝜃 = 2.6036°
𝜇𝑠 = 0.15
𝜇𝑘 = 0.10 R 𝑊𝑟
2000 lbs 2000 lbs 𝑃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅ ± 𝜃)
𝜑+𝜃 𝑑
(2000)(1.75)
𝑃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛(8.5308 + 2.6036)
Q Q 24
𝑃 = 28.7023 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝐿 = 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 0.5 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟎 𝒍𝒃𝒔
R
The pitch is equal to the lead of the screw since the given is a
𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 2𝜋(1.75) = 3.5𝜋 single-threaded jackscrew. See page 6. Solve for P using equation 5.

71
 (b) 𝑊𝑟
𝑃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅ ± 𝜃)
𝑑
0.15 (2000)(1.75)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∅ = 0.10 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = ( )
3.5𝜋 𝑃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛(5.7106° + 2.6036°)
−1 0.15 24
∅ = tan−1 0.10 𝜃 = tan ( ) 𝑃 = 21.3117 𝑙𝑏𝑠
3.5𝜋
∅ = 5.7106° 𝜃 = 2.6036 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟑𝟏 𝒍𝒃𝒔

5.5 Belt
Wrapping a belt around a support or an object
gives out a flexible belt friction. In this context, a
belt refers to any material that is flexible and
capable of being stretched such as a rope and
cable. The transferring of power or load depends
on the frictional resistance of the belt and the
surface it is in contact with. In a pulley, just like
what is shown in the figure, the tension on both
sides of the pulley is constant since the surface of
the of both belt and the wheel is smooth.
Figure 5.10 Belt

Assume a pulley driven in a counterclockwise direction as shown in figure 5.11 (a). The
area of the belt in contact with the wheel is denoted as 𝛽. In addition, its rotation is caused by
difference in tensions on both sides. This difference can be analyzed through cutting off a section
of the figure to create a free-body diagram just like figure 5.11 (b) [7].

(b)

Figure 5.11 Counterclockwise

Rotation
The equilibrium equations, namely 𝛴𝑀 = 0, 𝛴𝑥 = 0, and 𝛴𝑦 = 0, can be used to
determine the formulas needed to solve problems involving belt friction. This can be done through
the application of the conditions of these equations [8].

72
[7] Cannon, J. (2011). Belt/Rope Friction. Http://Ffden-2.Phys.Uaf.Edu/. Retrieved December 7,
2021, from http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_spring2011.web.dir/Justin_Cannon/Body2.html
[8] Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
 Neglecting the thickness of the belt on figure 5.11,
• the summation of the moments can be denoted as:
𝛴𝑀 = 𝑇𝑟 + 𝑟. 𝑑𝐹 − (𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇)𝑟 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑑𝑇 Equation 6
• the forces upon the y-axis:
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝛴𝑦 = 𝑑𝑁 − (𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇) sin − 𝑇 sin =0
2 2 Equation 7

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑁 = 2𝑇 sin + 𝑑𝑇 sin
2 2 Equation 8

𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑁 = 2𝑇. = 𝑇𝑑𝜃
2 Equation 9

When slipping happens, [F=fN]

𝑑𝐹 = 𝑓𝑇𝑑𝜃 Equation 10
𝑇2 𝛽
𝑑𝑇
∫ = 𝑓 ∫ 𝑑𝜃 Equation 11
𝑇1 𝑇 𝜃

𝑇1
log 𝜃 = 𝑓𝛽 Equation 12
𝑇2
𝑇1
= 𝑒 𝑓𝛽 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 Equation 13
𝑇2
This equation can easily be formulated using common logarithm:
𝑇1
log10 = log10 𝑇1 − log10 𝑇2 = 0.434𝑓𝛽 Equation 14
𝑇2

A steel cable supporting a 60-kg mass is run a quarter of the way around a steel cylinder
and supported by a pulling force as shown in the diagram below. The static coefficient of friction
between the cable and the steel cylinder is 0.3.
• What is the minimum pulling force required to lift the mass?
• What is the minimum pulling force required to keep the mass from falling?

73
 In order to solve this problem, illustrate its free-body diagram and identify the given
values.
𝑇1
Since the area of the belt in contact with the wheel is
𝜋
equal to the quarter of the wheel, 𝛽 is equal to 2 . In addition, as
𝛽 stated in the problem a, the direction of the belt would be
towards 𝑇1 thus, the reaction is clockwise. Using Equation 13,
𝑇1
= 𝑒 𝑓𝛽 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇2
𝑇1
𝑇2 = 𝑒 𝑓𝛽
𝑇2
𝑇1 = 𝑇2 𝑒 𝑓𝛽
𝜋
𝑊 = (9.81)(60) = 588.6 𝑁 𝑇1 = (588.6)𝑒 (0.3)( 2 )
𝑇1 = 941.9240 𝑁
𝑻𝟏 = 𝟗𝟒𝟏. 𝟗𝟐 𝑵

Where 𝑇1 is the minimum pulling force to lift the mass.

In answering problem b, there would be no direction of

the belt. However, the tension would still be greater on the belt
towards the pulling force. Due to this, equate the tension on 𝑇2
to 𝑇1 multiplied by 𝑒 𝑓𝛽 . Hence,
𝑇2
= 𝑒 𝑓𝛽
𝑇1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑒 𝑓𝛽
𝜋
(9.81)(60) = 𝑇1 𝑒 (0.3)(2 )
(9.81)(60)
𝑇1 = 𝜋
𝑒 (0.3)( 2 )
𝑇1 = 367.4209 𝑁
𝑻𝟏 = 𝟑𝟔𝟕. 𝟒𝟐 𝑵

Where 𝑇1 is the minimum pulling force to keep the mass from

falling.
74
1. A differential band brake is used to measure the torque output of an engine shown in
the figure below. Determine the torque M on the brake when P = 10 lb. Assume that
the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.20. Original Ans. M = 4350 lb-in.

35

2. The blocks shown in the figure below are separated by a solid strut which is attached
to the blocks with frictionless pins. If the coefficient of friction for all surfaces is 0.20,
determine the value of the horizontal force P to cause motion to impend to the right.
Ans. 259.6 lb

75
3. Determine the value of P acting to the left that is required to pull the wedge out from
under the 40-kN block. Ans. 20.31 kN

4. Determine the minimum weight of block B that will keep it at rest while a force P starts
blocks A up the incline surface of B. The weight of A is 100 lb and the angle of friction
for all surfaces in contact is 15°. Ans. WB = 273.20 lb

5. A vertical two start square threaded screw of a 100 mm mean diameter and 20 mm
pitch supports a vertical load of 18 kN. The axial thrust on the screw is taken by a collar
bearing of 250 mm outside diameter and 100 mm inside diameter. Find the force
required at the end of a lever which is 400 mm long in order to lift and lower the load.
The coefficient of friction for the vertical screw and nut is 0.15 and that for collar
bearing is 0.20. Ans. 1423 N, 838.3 N

76
 The Organic Chemistry Tutor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPTNKnCqlW4

77
78
79
 According to Engineering Statics

Balancing ball on fingers

Centroids

Spinning a ball in one finger requires skills and training as well as some application of
centroids. The center of mass of any object is necessary to locate in order to fund
where is its mass mostly concentrated about. With the use of such knowledge, it is
possible to balance out any type of object regardless of shape, size, and volume.

LEARNING Objectives
1. Define the difference between centroids and center of gravity.
2. Identify the different formulas of moment of inertia
3. Solve for problems involving moment of inertia using different ways 80
Shahraini, V. (2018, December 26). Centroid and Center of Gravity - Statics. Lessons for Civil. https://lessons4civil.com/statics/centroid-center-gravity/
Shea, C. (n.d.). How to spin a basketball on your finger. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/relationships/how-to-spin-a-
basketball-on-your-finger/article592091/
 This lesson will be utilized as a foundation on analysis at higher subject like in Engineering
Mechanics adding to the significance of knowing the location of centroid in an area. Such
knowledges are important to achieve a uniform distribution of loads that will further result in
satisfying the conditions of equilibrium.

6. 1 Defining terms
A centroid is the common point on which the line of action of the applied forces intersected.
It is specifically the geometric center of an object where the mass is concentrated. Determining its
location on the considered body is necessary in finding where did the resultant acted on. The center
of gravity, on the other hand, is the point where total weight of the body is exerted. The two can
be in an identical location only if the object have uniform density.
• CENTER OF MASS – location in a system where the resultant of mass is concentrated. It
is also known as the centroid.
• CENTER OF GRAVITY – is where the resultant for the concentrated weight acts on a
body.
6. 2 Flat Plate’s Center of Gravity

Locating the center of gravity, we need to the consider the moment of all its part be equal to the
moment of its resultant. Note that (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) are used to indicate the weight of the resultant while
(x,y) are the original weight of the element.

81
6. 3 Centroids by Integration
Centroid of a body can be determined with the use of the process of integration. Remember
that this procedure is known in finding the summation of infinitesimal values that is perfect on
finding the centroids.
Steps in using integration on locating centroids:
1. Find and draw the differential element on the graph.
2. Use (𝑥, ̃ 𝑦̃) to denote the centroid of the element.
3. Label as well the intersection between the element and the curve occurs.
4. Identify the proper equation to use.
5. Substitute all the terms given to the identified equation to be used.
6. Know the limits of integrations.
7. Integrate to get the final answer.
The equation mentioned on step 4 depends on which figure we are dealing on. If we are to find the
centroid of an area, use the equation
∑𝑎𝑥 ∑𝑎𝑦
𝐴𝑥̃ = ∑𝑎𝑥 ; 𝐴𝑦̃ = ∑𝑎𝑦 or 𝑥̃ = ; 𝑦̃ =
𝐴 𝐴

where A𝑥̃ and A𝑦̃ are the moment of area. It is further defined as the product between an area and
its perpendicular distance from the center of area to the moment’s axis, just like a normal equation
of moment should be. However, it is necessary to use integration as we are dealing infinite number
of particles. Then we got,
𝑥𝑑𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝑥̃ = ∫ ; 𝑦̃ = ∫
𝐴 𝐴

If other figures are to be used, the following is the necessary equation to be used:

82
6. 3 Centroids of Composite Figures
The following are the commonly used object and its corresponding formula in finding the center
of mass.

83
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QK_TuE2lfSc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWu_i-19Rn0

84
Solve for the centroid of the line below.

Since the line lies on three coordinates, we should also use the three equations providing each for
x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis. Decompose the lie into simpler versions. Use a table for easy
analyzation of problem and organization of answers.
Line length (L) 𝑥̃ 𝑦̃ 𝑧̃ 𝑥̃(𝐿) 𝑦̃(𝐿) 𝑧̃ (𝐿)
1 𝜋(60) 60 -38.2 0 11310 -7200 0
= 188.5
2 40 0 20 0 0 800 0
3 20 0 40 -10 0 800 -200
Total (𝛴) 248.5 11310 -5600 -200

𝛴𝑥̃𝐿 11310 𝛴𝑦̃ 𝐿 −5600 𝛴𝑧̃ 𝐿 −200

𝑥̃ = = = 45.4 𝑚𝑚 𝑦̃ = = = −22.5𝑚𝑚 𝑥̃ = = = −0.805𝑚𝑚
𝐿 248.5 𝐿 248.5 𝐿 248.5

Locate the centroid in the figure below.

We can use this composite figure and try to decompose it into a
regular shape that has a given formula in the table provided
above.
It is evident that the figure is a rectangle with hole in the middle.
First find for the area of the rectangle and the circle individually.
Then subtract it from one another providing the answers as our
total area of the original figure.
Use a table to set an organized solution. Always note that a
negative value is assigned on wholes.

85
 Figure 𝐴(𝑖𝑛2 ) 𝑥̅ (𝑖𝑛) ̅ (𝑖𝑛)
𝑦 𝑥̅ 𝐴(𝑖𝑛3 ) ̅ 𝐴(𝑖𝑛3 )
𝑦
Rectangle (whole) 280 7 10 1960 2800
Circle (hole) -50.27 6 12 -301.62 -603.24
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙(𝛴) 229.73 1658.38 2196.76

All data needed to proceed with the formula is provided in the table. We can now proceed,
𝛴𝑥̅ 𝐴 1658.38 ̅𝐴
𝛴𝑦 2196.76
𝑥̅ = = = 7.22 ̅=
𝑌 = = 9.56
𝛴𝐴 229.73 𝛴𝐴 229.73

Find the centroid on the figure.

Just like the prior problems, we
can sub-divided this into parts
where we can use a formula
from the table. Always note that
using table is an organized
matter in solving for the
problem.

Figure 𝐴(𝑚2 ) 𝑥̅ (𝑖𝑛) ̅ (𝑖𝑛)

𝑦 𝑥̅ 𝐴(𝑖𝑛3 ) ̅ 𝐴(𝑖𝑛3 )
𝑦
(whole) Rectangle 18 3 10 54 27
Triangle 4.5 7 31.5 4.5
Quarter circle 9𝜋 3 3 -9 9
−4 ∗ 4∗
4 3𝜋 3𝜋
Semi-circle (hole) -50.27 0 1 0 -2/3
−4 ∗
3𝜋
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙(𝛴) 229.73 76.5 39.83

𝛴𝑥̃ 𝐴 76.5 𝛴𝑦̃ 𝐴 39.83

𝑥̃ = = = 2.73 𝑚 𝑦̃ = = = 1.42 𝑚
𝐴 28.0 𝐴 28.0

86
PROBLEM #1: Locate the centroid of the
shaded area of the given figure from the
origin. (Answers: ẋ=2 m; ȳ=5.1 m)

PROBLEM #2: Locate the centroid of the

shaded area.

PROBLEM #3: Determine the centroids of the area.

87
 PROBLEM #4: Determine the moment of inertia
with respect to x-axis. Solve using both horizontal
and vertical strips.

PROBLEM #5:
Determine the volume and total surface area of the
solid generated by revolving the area.

88
89
90
 According to Wonderopolis

Donut Holes

Krispy Kreme Donuts

One of the most popular credits American seafarer Hanson Gregory with
inventing the donut's hole in 1847 while aboard a lime-trading ship. He was just 16
years old at the time. As the story goes, Gregory wasn't happy with the doughy
consistency of the fried cakes served on the ship. In truth, though, many donuts with
holes don't actually have any dough cut out of them to make their shape. Instead,
special machines spray dough into a fryer in a circular pattern. The donut holes you
buy at the bakery or grocery store are usually made out of dough simply cut into small
squares!

LEARNING Objectives
1. Classify the variation of the two theorems formulated by Pappus
2. Identify the real-life applications of the Theorem of Pappus
3. Evaluate the learning strategies on solving by answering various problems
91
Theorem of Pappus
Pappus of Alexandria (300 A.D.) was a Greek
mathematician who gave a simple proof of how the equations of
volumes and surface areas could work to gether to locate the centroid
of a given figure. His theorem concerns about two theorems that
allows us to locate surface areas and volumes.
Figure 9.1 Pappus of Alexandria
First Theorem of Pappus
The first theorem states that the surface area is the product
of the length of the generating curve multiplied by the distance
traveled by its centroid . Also, it could be stated that the surface
area of a surface revolution, defined by the rotation of curve, is equal
Figure 9.1 Pappus of Alexandria
to the product of the arc length of the generated distance traveled
through the curve’s geometric centroid. Having it in a working
Figure 9.2 First Theorem equation, we are given with:

𝑆 = 𝑠𝑑1 = 2𝜋𝑠𝑥̅

To illustrate how the first theorem works, the figure beside shall represent the further
discussion of this theorem. We let the curve of CD of length L be revolved about VY through an
angle θ radian(s) equal to or less than 2π radians. For such figure, the
differential length dL shall revolve and sweep through the
distance 𝜃𝑥 generating a hoop (circular) whose area is the
product of 𝜃𝑥 and dL. The summation of areas generated
by CD is the area of all hoops or

𝐴 = ∫ 𝜃𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝐿 = 𝜃 ∫ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝐿 = 𝜃𝑥̅ 𝐿
Figure 9.3
Cone
Figure 9.2 If we were given with a Line L which composes of
Cylinder several segments, the centroid 𝑥̅ of that line is no longer necessary to be
determined since the product of the length L and the centroid 𝑥̅ is also
equivalent to the sum of moments of length for such segments.

92
To add, the following table may be used to be considered in handling with surface areas using
Pappus’s centroid theorem for various surfaces of revolution.

solid Generating 𝒔 ̅
𝒙 𝑺
curve
cone Inclined line √𝑟 2 + ℎ 2 1 𝜋𝑟√𝑟 2 + ℎ2
𝑟
segment 2
cylinder Parallel line ℎ 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
segment
sphere semicircle 𝜋𝑟 2𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋
Table 9.1 First Theorem of Pappus Formulae

Second Theorem of Pappus

Some figures have their centroid given within their area. In such cases, the volume generated by
rotating this area about a non-intersecting axis can be determined by the application of the second
theorem presented by Pappus. The second theorem generally states that the volume V of a solid
revolution is the product of the area of the given figure multiplied by the length of path contained
within the centroid of the area.

Having such, the differential area of 𝑑𝐴 sweeps through the distance 𝜃𝑥 generating a ring whose
volume is 𝜃𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴. To simply put, the total volume is

𝑉 = ∫ 𝜃𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜃 ∫ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜃𝑥̅ 𝐴

To add, the following table may be used to be considered in handling with surface areas
using Pappus’s centroid theorem for various surfaces of revolution.

Generating
solid 𝑨 ̅
𝒙 𝑽
lamina
1 1 1 2
cone Right triangle ℎ𝑟 𝑟 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
2 3 3
1
cylinder Rectangle ℎ𝑟 𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
2
1 2 4𝑟 4 2
sphere Semicircle 𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟
2 3𝜋 3

Table 9.2 Second Theorem of Pappus Formulae

93
Another approach that we could use for determining the volume is using a
lamina. The second theorem of Pappus also states that the volume of a solid
revolution generated by the revolution of a lamina about an external axis is
equal to the product of area (lamina) and the distance travelled by the lamina’s
geometric centroid. To simply put, the working equation for this approach is
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑2 = 2𝜋𝐴𝑥̅

For cases wherein the generated area A is composed of several

Figure 9.4
parts, the centroid of that area is not necessary to be located since the product
Sphere
of 𝐴𝑥̅ is equivalent to the sum of the moments of area (i.e., ∑ 𝑎𝑥) of the several
parts.

EXAMPLE 1: Ernie decided to rotate a square and investigate

the volume of the obtained solid of revolution. In this problem,
he has a square of side a, and is rotated about an axis lying in
its plane and passing through one of the vertices. The angle
between the square side and positive direction of the axis of
rotation is 𝛼.

SOLUTION:
Find the half of the diagonal of the square AG
𝑎√2 Figure 9.5 Ernie’s square
𝐴𝐺 =
2

Using the angle 𝛽 = ∠𝐾𝐺𝐴 is expressed in terms of 𝛼 as follows:

𝛽 = 45° − 𝛼

Hence, the distance m from the centroid G to the axis of revolution is given by
𝑎√2
𝑚 = 𝐾𝐺 = 𝐴𝐺𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = cos (45° − 𝛼)
2

Since we encounter several cosines, let us simplify and recall the cosine subtraction identity
such that cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵. We write the distance m in the form
𝑎√2
𝑚= cos(45° − 𝛼)
2
𝑎√2
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠45°𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛45°𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)
2
𝑎√2 √2 √2 𝑎
= ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)
2 2 2 2

94
Having the distance d transverse by the centroid of the square G is given by

𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑚 = 𝜋𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)

Applying the 2nd theorem of Pappus, we can find the volume of the solid revolution
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑 = 𝑎2 ∙ 𝜋𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) = 𝜋𝑎3 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)

Having the volume as a function of angle 𝛼 we can determine its largest value:
𝑉(𝛼) = 𝜋𝑎3 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)
𝑉 ′ (𝛼) = 𝜋𝑎3 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼)′ = 𝜋𝑎3 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
𝜋
𝑉 ′ (𝛼) = 0, → 𝜋𝑎3 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼) = 0, → tan 𝛼 = 1, → 𝛼 =
4

To have our checking, we may consult with the second derivative test
𝑉′′(𝛼) = 𝜋𝑎3 (− sin 𝛼 + cos 𝛼)′ = −𝜋 𝛼 3 (cos 𝛼 + sin 𝛼),

And consequently generates,

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉 ′′ ( ) = −𝜋𝛼 3 (cos + sin ) = − 𝜋𝛼 3 √2 < 0.
4 4 4
𝜋
Therefore, the volume has the maximum at 𝛼 = such that:
4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 ( 4 ) = 𝜋𝛼 3 (cos 4 + sin 4 ) = 𝜋𝛼 3 √2.

EXAMPLE 2: Having a right triangle, a student was tasked to determine the

centroid of such. The figure beside shows the figure for the following
problem.

SOLUTION:
In finding the coordinates of the given figure, we can use the second theorem
of pappus. Suppose that the given right triangle shall be rotated about the y-
axis, and that we may form a cone. It can have the volume by using the
formula: Figure 9.6
𝜋𝑎2 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝑣= and that the area shall be, 𝐴 = Right triangle
3 2
for Example 2

Having the second theorem of Pappus,

𝜋𝑎2 𝑏
𝑉𝑦 3 𝑎
𝑉𝑦 = 2𝜋𝑥̅ 𝐴; → 𝑥̅ = = 𝑎𝑏 =3
2𝜋𝐴 2𝜋∙
2

Having the triangle rotate about the x-axis, we can then also find the volume having:
𝜋𝑎𝑏 2
𝑉𝑦 = 3

And with a y-coordinate of the centroid as

95
 𝜋𝑎𝑏2
𝑉𝑦 3 𝑏
𝑉𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑦̅𝐴; → 𝑦̅ = = 𝑎𝑏 =3.
2𝜋𝐴 2𝜋∙
2

Therefore, the centroid of the triangle is located at

𝒂 𝒃
̅) = 𝑮 ( , ) by which the point of intersection is the figure’s medians.
̅, 𝒚
𝑮(𝒙 𝟑 𝟑

EXAMPLE 3: Presented below is a circular arc with the

radius of R having lines subtended (joint at a single point) at a
central angle of 2𝛼, and is rotated about the x-axis. The figure
after the problem serves the demonstration of the problem.
Find the centroid of the arc using the Theorem of Pappus.

Observing that the figure shows symmetry, we may be able to

use some concepts that could establish our solving.

SOLUTION:
As symmetry exists, the given may prove that the centroid Figure 9.7 Circular arc
exists in on its y-axis, and its coordinates are
𝐺(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = 𝐺 (0, 𝑚)
where 𝑚 = 𝑦̅ is the distance from the centroid to the axis of
rotation that we’re going to find

When the arc is rotated it forms a spherical (sphere-like) segment.

The surface area A is then concerned for this figure and is given by
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅ℎ,

where we are given with h as the distance between the parallel planes cutting the sphere.

Since ℎ = 2𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼, we can write 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅 ∙ 2𝑅 sin 𝛼 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 sin 𝛼.

From the former side, we can use the 1st Theorem of Pappus such that,
𝐴 = 𝑑𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑚𝐿 where 𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑚 is the path traversed by the centroid in one turn and 𝐿 = 2𝛼𝑅
is the length of the arc.

With that given formula, we can follow that

4𝜋𝑅 2 sin 𝛼 𝑅 sin 𝛼
𝑚 = 𝑦̅ = = .
2𝜋∙2𝛼𝑅 𝛼

Using the formula, we may be able to assign specific values of 𝛼:

96
As 𝛼 = 0, then
𝑅 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛼
𝑚 = (𝑎 = 0) = lim = 𝑅lim = 𝑅;
𝑎→0 𝛼 𝑎→0 𝛼

As 𝛼 = 𝜋, then

𝑅 sin 𝜋
𝑚 = (𝑎 = 𝜋) = = 0;
𝜋
𝜋
As 𝑎 = 2 , then
𝜋
𝜋 2𝑅 sin 2 2𝑅
𝑚 = (𝑎 = ) = = .
𝑤 𝜋 𝜋

PROBLEM ONE: The number five (5) was presented as a curve and is
rotated about the y-axis. Find the surface area of the revolution. (Answer:
310 units)

PROBLEM TWO: A given hexagon of a given side

length of 𝛼 is rotated about one of the sides. Find
𝟗𝝅𝜶𝟑 Figure 9.8 Problem One
the volume of revolution. (Answer: units)
𝟐

PROBLEM THREE: Find the given centroid

Figure 9.9 of a uniform semicircle of radius R. (Answer: 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝑹
Problem Two units)

PROBLEM FOUR: An ellipse containing the

semimajor axis (longest semidiameter or one half of the Figure 9.10
major axis) b is rotated about a straight line parallel to Problem Three
the axis a and spaced from it at a distance 𝑚 > 𝑏. For
this problem, we must find the volume of the solid of
revolution. (Answer: 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒂𝒃𝟐 units)
Figure 9.11 PROBLEM FIVE:
Problem Four A triangle with the vertices A (1,2) B(2,6) and C(6,2) is
rotated about the x-axis. For this problem, we must find the
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝝅
volume of the solid of revolution thus obtained. (Answer: 𝟑 units)
Figure 9.12
Problem Five

97
Pappus Theorem: Solid of Revolution | Integral Calculus
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g55C3-P3-bk

98
99
100
 According to AutoGURU

Flywheel of an Automobile

Flywheel

A flywheel is a thick metal disk used to provide mass for the rotational area to maintain
the running of the engine. It is typically made up of iron and/or steel. Furthermore, it
is designed to withstand tensional stress to prevent flexing. It is mounted on the
crankshaft of an engine. The magnitude of the moment of inertia of a flywheel is very
high thus, taking a huge part on storing energy. Its edge has a row of gear teeth that
engages with the engine’s starter motor [1].

LEARNING Objectives
1. Define moment of inertia, radius of gyration, and polar moment of inertia
2. Identify the different formulas of moment of inertia
3. Solve for problems involving moment of inertia using different formulas
101
[1]Unrau, J. (2019, October 11). What is a flywheel and what does it do? AutoGURU. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from
https://www.autoguru.com.au/car-advice/articles/what-is-a-flywheel-and-what-does-it-
do?fbclid=IwAR098wZjeD6gA1vJF2SAazIbAaQ_vek3yiwFXFpQWwhg-0jFSs4D07a2oi0
 The years spent on studying the concepts, ideologies, and secrets of the universe have focused
more on the discipline of science and mathematics. Due to the questioning nature of humans, a lot
of laws and theorems have been discovered, developed, and proven over time. The most prominent
law known to man is Newton’s Laws of Motion.
In this chapter, the discussion would revolve around
Newton’s First Law of Motion or sometimes referred to as
the Law of Inertia. Inertia, in layman’s term, is simply the
ability of an object to stay at rest unless acted upon by a
force. Sometimes, these forces cause the object to move or
rotate. The rotation of the object varies depending on the
point or direction of the force. This rotation is a result by
an applied force to a point on an object about its axis of
rotation (torque or moment).
Combining these two terms would result to moment of
inertia – a mathematical term used to identify the moment
or torque required to produce a specific angular
acceleration of an object. Some mathematical formulas
involving moment of inertia are [2]:
Figure 8.1 Isaac Newton

Angular τ = Iα ; Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Angular L = Iω ; Momentum
1
Angular KE = 2 I𝜔2 ; Kinetic Energy
1
Angular 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝜃 = ∆ [2 𝐼𝜔2 ] ; Work Energy

The moment of inertia (I) of an object where the mass, m, is concentrated on the same point
from the rotational axis is defined as 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 , where r is the perpendicular distance. Its SI unit is
𝑘̂𝑔. 𝑚2 . This formula may vary depending on the shape of the object.

r m
r
m

Figure 8.2 Moment of Inertia

102
[2]Nave, R. (n.d.). Moment of Inertia. Hyper Physics. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mi.html?fbclid=IwAR0XfxjW5B5nv901JKvHWRaSy9hcDJ0mj4u3D-6DYvovMVBudQxF5KA04Ls
 However, there are some instances where an object has a continuous distribution of mass across
its surface. These masses have constant varying distance from the object’s rotational axis. Solving
for the moment of inertia of these objects involves the use of Basic Calculus – Integration [3].
The mathematical formula to calculate the moment
of inertia of this object is ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝐴, where the square
x of moment arm (𝑟) about its reference axis is
multiplied by the infinitesimal areas (𝑑𝐴) of the
total surface area. Hence, the moment of inertia
about the x-axis and y-axis is:

y
𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 𝐼𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
Figure 8.3 Moment of Inertia CMD

These infinitesimal areas may be changed thus,

altering the formula based on the area of the new
x
dy shape. For example, it can be evaluated as
rectangular strips with 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑥 ℎ.
ℎ
1
y 𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑏𝑑𝑦 = 𝑏ℎ3
0 3
dA = (a-x)dy

Figure 8.3 Rectangular Strips

8. 1 Polar Moment of Inertia

An area's moment of inertia in relation to a line or axis perpendicular to the plane is called
polar moment of inertia. This concept is important in calculating problems involving torsion of
cylindrical shafts and rotational slabs.
Polar moment of inertia can be denoted as:
x
𝐽𝑜 = ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝐴

y = ∫(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝐴
z
= ∫(𝑥 2 )𝑑𝐴 + ∫(𝑦 2 )𝑑𝐴
𝐽𝑜 = 𝐼𝑦 + 𝐼𝑥

Figure 8.4 Polar Moment of Inertia

103
[3] Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.
 8. 2 Radius of Gyration
Moment of inertia may sometimes be
defined using other mathematical formulas.
One of which is the radius of gyration. It is the
imaginary distance from the centroid of the
object where the mass may be concentrated to
obtain the same moment of inertia of when the
integration-based formula for MOI is used [4].
This is denoted as k, where,

𝐼
𝑘̂ = √
𝐴 Figure 8.5 Radius of Gyration

Using the same formula, we can rearrange the variables to solve for the moment of inertia,
given the area and radius of gyration. Hence, moment of inertia can be calculated using 𝐼 = 𝑘̂ 2 𝐴
or 𝐼 = 𝑘̂ 2 ∫ 𝑑𝐴.

8. 3 Moment of Inertia for Geometric Shapes[5]

Shape Moment of Inertia Radius of Gyration
Rectangle

Y
𝑌𝑜 𝑏ℎ3 ℎ
𝐼̅𝑥 = ̅̅̅
𝑘̂𝑥 =
12
𝑏ℎ3 √12
𝑋𝑜 𝐼𝑥 = ℎ
h 3 𝑘̂𝑥 =
C √3
X
b

Triangle

𝑏ℎ3 ℎ
𝐼̅𝑥 = ̅̅̅
𝑘̂𝑥 =
36 √18
h 𝑋𝑜 𝑏ℎ3 ℎ
C 𝐼𝑥 = 𝑘̂𝑥 =
12 √6
X

104
[4] Anwar, N., & Najam, F. A. (2017). Understanding Cross-Sections. Structural Cross Sections, 39–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-
12-804443-8.00002-6
[5] Vert, J. (n.d.). Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration. Mathalino. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from

https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-mechanics/moment-inertia-and-radius-gyration
 Table 8.1 Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration of Geometric Shapes

Other references:
• https://oxscience.com/moment-of-inertia/

105
[4] Anwar, N., & Najam, F. A. (2017). Understanding Cross-Sections. Structural Cross Sections, 39–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-
12-804443-8.00002-6
[5] Vert, J. (n.d.). Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration. Mathalino. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from

https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-mechanics/moment-inertia-and-radius-gyration
 8.4 Theorems Involved in Moment of Inertia
Just like any other scientific and mathematical concepts, moment of inertia is governed by
different theorems. Two of which are the involvement of moment of inertia to coplanar and
colinear axes. These theorems are called parallel axis theorem and perpendicular axis theorem [6].

Parallel Axis Theorem

The moment of inertia of a body about an axis
parallel to the body passing through its center
is equal to the sum of moment of inertia of the
body about the axis passing through the center
and product of the mass of the body times the
square of the distance between the two axes[1].
Mathematically, this theorem can be expressed
as:
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑚𝑟 2
where I is the moment of inertia of the body,
Ic is the moment of inertia of the body about
the axis passing through the center,
m is the mass of the body, and Figure 8.6 Parallel Axis Theorem
r is the distance between the two axes

Perpendicular Axis Theorem

For any plane body the moment of inertia about

any of its axes which are perpendicular to the
plane is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia
about any two perpendicular axes in the plane of
the body which intersect the first axis in the
plane[2]. Likewise, it can be denoted as:
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐

Figure 8.7 Perpendicular Axis Theorem

106
[6] Nikil.(2021, January 16). Parallel and Perpendicular Axis Theorems. ProtonsTalk. Retrieved December 6, 2021, from
https://protonstalk.com/rotational-motion/parallel-and-perpendicular-axis-
theorems/?fbclid=IwAR1bu23Y9WNs3WYOxc3YsJ6fb7BWx8pi1ubd5tkAx9Up9hfR1U_9_LoTfZ8
8. 5 Theorems of Moment of Inertia
A teaching channel from Youtube named 7activestudio took their time to discuss the theorems of
moment of inertia – Parallel Axis Theorem and Perpendicular Axis Theorem. For more
information, visit the link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLzUb-jWw1E.

Figure 8.8 Theorems of Moment of Inertia

1. Bryan is twirling a rubber stopper, mass = 25 grams, which is attached to an almost mass
less, 45-cm string. By what amount does the rubber stopper resist changes in its rotational
motion?
Given: Solution:
m = 25 grams; 1𝑘̂𝑔
𝑚 = 25𝑔 𝑥 = 0.025𝑘̂𝑔 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
1000𝑔 = (0.025𝑘̂𝑔)(0.45𝑚)2
1𝑚
r = 45 cm. 𝑟 = 75𝑐𝑚 𝑥 = 0.45𝑚 = 0.01125𝑔. 𝑚2 𝑜𝑟
100𝑐𝑚 𝑰 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐
In order to solve this problem, convert the given into SI units first.
Then, substitute the converted values to the formula of moment of
inertia. Round off the final answer to at least two decimal points.

107
 2. Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area with respect to the x-axis.

Solution:
Compute the moments of inertia of the semi-
circle and the rectangle with respect to the x-
axis. Then, subtract the computed values to
find the moment of inertia of the shaded area.

Rectangle:
1 3 1
𝐼𝑥 = 𝑏ℎ = (240𝑚𝑚)(120𝑚𝑚)3 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎𝟒
3 3

Semi-circle:
Moment of inertia with respect to 𝐴𝐴′ .
1 1
𝐼𝐴𝐴′ = 𝜋𝑟 4 = 𝜋(90)4 = 25764986.75𝑚𝑚4
4𝑟 (4)(90) 8 8
𝑎= = = 38.1972𝑚𝑚 Moment of inertia with respect to 𝑥 ′ .
3𝜋 3𝜋 𝐼𝑥̅ ′ = 𝐼𝐴𝐴′ − 𝐴𝑎2
𝑏 = 120 − 𝑎 = 80.8028𝑚𝑚
1 1 = 25764986.75 − 18563845.7691
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(90)2 = 12723.4502𝑚𝑚2 = 7201140.9809𝑚𝑚4
2 2
𝐴𝑎2 = (38.1972)2 ( 12723.4502) Moment of inertia with respect to 𝑥.
= 18563845.7691𝑚𝑚4 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥̅ ′ + 𝐴𝑏 2
𝐴𝑏 2 = (80.8028)2 ( 12723.4502) = 7201140.9809 + 83072583.1202
= 83072583.1202𝑚𝑚4 = 𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟑𝟕𝟐𝟒. 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏𝒎𝒎𝟒

Shaded Area:
𝐼 = 138240000 − 90273724.1011 = 47966275.8989𝑚𝑚4
𝑰 ≈ 𝟒. 𝟖𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒎𝟒

3. Find the moment of inertia for the area 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1 from 𝑥 = 1 to 𝑥 = 2, and 𝑦 > 1, when
rotate around the x-axis. The mass per unit area is 3 𝑘̂𝑔. 𝑚−2 .
Solution:
Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1. Next, solve for the moment of inertia of the function.

108
 Since we are rotating the function at the y-axis,
we need to express the function as a function of y.
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 1
𝑥2 = 𝑦 − 1
√𝑥 2 = √𝑦 − 1
𝑥 = √𝑦 − 1
Furthermore, the values we can use for the formula
are positive values since the function falls in the
first quadrant.
𝑥2 = 2
𝑥1 = √𝑦 − 1
a = 1, b = 5, and k = 3

First, find 𝐼𝑥 .
𝑏
𝐼𝑥 = 𝑘̂ ∫ 𝑦 2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑑𝑦
𝑎
5
= 3 ∫ 𝑦 2 (2 − √𝑦 − 1)𝑑𝑦
1
5
= 3 ∫ 2𝑦 2 − 𝑦 2 √𝑦 − 1𝑑𝑦
1
= 3(15.16190476)
= 45.48571428 𝑘̂𝑔. 𝑚2
𝑰𝒙 ≈ 𝟒𝟓. 𝟒𝟗 𝒌𝒈. 𝒎𝟐

1. Find the moment of inertia about the geometric center of the given structure made up
of one thin rod connecting two similar solid spheres as shown in the figure. Ans. 𝐼 =
1.27𝑘̂𝑔. 𝑚2 ,

109
2. Find the moment of inertia of a disc of mass 3 kg and radius 50 cm about the axis
passing through the center and perpendicular to the plane of the disc. Ans. 𝐼 =
0.375 𝑘̂𝑔 − 𝑚2

𝑏ℎ 3
3. Determine the moment of inertia of a triangle with respect to its base. Ans. 𝐼𝑥 = 12

4. Find the moment of inertia of the shaded area with respect to the x-axis.
Ans. 𝐼𝑥 = 906.19𝑖𝑛4

110
5. Determine the moment of inertia of the T-section shown in Fig. P-819 with respect to
its centroidal Xo axis. Ans. 𝐼 ̅ = 290.67𝑖𝑛4

111
112
113
 According to Alan Williams

Steel Sections

Various Steel Angles and Channels

Built-up columns are used when the height of the column is such that a rolled
section cannot provide a sufficiently large radius of gyration. Built-up columns consist
generally of around two to four shapes connect or welded together by cover plates
perforated at intervals with access holes.

LEARNING Objectives

1. Define a built-up section

2. Understand how to apply previous knowledge into problems involving built-up sections
3. Find the moment of inertia of built-up sections. 114
Moment of Inertia of Built-up Sections
Definition of Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia is a geometric property of a cross-section of a beam, this is represented by
the variable I. As beams bend, the top wrinkles through compression while the bottom stretches
through tension. In the middle part or the centroid of the cross section, known as the neutral axis
or centroidal axis, nothing occurs as this is the point where the beam changes from compression
to tension. The moment of inertia can be used to describe how prone a body is to bend.
Built-up Sections
In steel structures like bridges and buildings, steel beams and columns are used because of steel’s
strength and durability. Structural steel used in these projects came in various shapes that are
known as sections, as seen in the image.

Standard structural sections are welded together to form a built-up section. The moments of inertia
each of each section are easily found in a handbook or from the vendor themselves. However, we
cannot algebraically add moments of inertia.
Since built-up section is simply another term for composite section, then finding moment of inertia
for a built-up section is practically the same.
It is also of note that each angle, channel, plate, and beam have their own properties that must be
taken into consideration. The figures below are the properties of most steel sections.

115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
Below are a few examples for finding the moment of inertia of built-up sections and how they are
found.

EXAMPLE 1:
A column section is built-up using two channels ISJC200 and two plates 250mm x 10mm as shown
in the figure below. Find the moment of inertia at x and y axes.

Properties of ISJC200
A = 1777mm2
Ix = 1.16x10^7 mm4
Iy = 0.084x10^7 mm4
Cy = 19.7mm
Now let us see how the arrangement is done.
We know that this built-up section is given by the figure. We can see that the two channels are
pressed back-to-back with a distance of 100mm in between them. The plates then are given as
250x10mm. For the figure’s overall dimensions, we have an overall width of 250mm as seen in
the figure, an overall depth of 200mm, as given by the channel, plus the depth of the two plates
giving an overall depth of 220mm.

124
Now we can start to find the moment of inertia of this built-up section about the horizontal x axis
and the vertical y axis.
First, we will find Ix
Ix = 2(Ix of 1 channel) + 2(Ix of 1 plate)
Now the x axis of each channel and x axis of the built-up section are coinciding with each other,
therefore it can be substituted without the use of the parallel axis theorem. For the plates however,
they are different so the parallel axis theorem will be used
Ix = 2[(1.16x10^7) + ((250(10)^3)/12) + 2500(110-(10/2)^2]
Ix = 78.40x10^6mm^4
Now let us find the value of Iy
The plates are symmetrical about the y axis so it is not necessary to use the parallel axis theorem.
For the channel section however, it is necessary as we can see from the figure below.

Iy = 2[Iy of 1 channel + Iy of 1 plate]

125
Iy = 2[(0.084x10^7)+(1777(50+19.7)^2)+((10(250)^3)/12)]
Iy = 45x10^6mm^4
EXAMPLE 2:
Consider a built-up section comprised of an S12x50 standard section capped with an MC10x28.3
miscellaneous channel. Determine the centroidal moment of inertia.

126
In this case the centroid of the I-beam is not directly stated within the tables. It is assumed to be
half the depth of the section because of symmetry. For this case the centroid is located at Yc1 from
the arbitrary x-axis giving it a distance of 6.0”.
For the distance dy2 the centroid of a channel section is measured from the back of the web and
given as the distance Xc in the steel tables. This distance must then be measured from the same x-
axis as the S-section. This means that yc2 is equal to the depth of the S-section with the addition
of the width of the channel web minus the distance Xc.

With that in mind

127
yc2 = 12” + 0.477” – 0.933
yc2 = 11.544”
Next, we find the area. This can also be done through the steel tables.

Once the centroids and areas have been obtained it is now possible to obtain the location of the
centroid through calculations. This can be done through the parallel axis theorem.
dy1 = 8in – 6in = 2in
dy2 = 11.544in – 8in = 3.544in
The table below can be used to express the remaining calculations.
Section Area Ix dy1,2 d2 y1,2 (A) Ix + d2 y1,2
MC 8.32 8.21 11.54-8 104.26 112
S 14.7 305 8-6 58.80 364
Total 23.02 --- --- --- 476

EXAMPLE 3:
A built-up section is constructed by welding together two C12x20.7 channels with a distance of
4.75 in between them. The two channels are then sandwiched in-between two plates (12in x 1.5in)

128
Properties of channel
Area = 6.08 in2
D = 12 in
bf = 2.94 in
x = 0.698 in
Ix = 129 in4
Iy = 3.86 in4
For the channel, since the x-axis passes through the centroid
(Ix)C=Ix = 129 in⁴
For the plate, the x-axis does not pass through its centroid so the parallel axis theorem must be
used
(Ix)R = [I + Ad2] where,
𝑏ℎ3
I= 12

(12)(1.5)3
=
12
= 3.375 in4
A = bh
= (12)(1.5)
= 18 in2
𝐷 ℎ
d=2+2

12 1.5
= +
2 2

129
= 6.75 in
(Ix)R = 823.5 in4
For the composite shape,
A = 2[AC + AR]
= 48.16 in2
Ix = 2[(Ix)c + (Ix)R]
= 1905 in4

𝐼
kx = √ 𝐴𝑥

= 6.289 in
Determine moment of inertia with respect to the y-axis
For the rectangle, since the y-axis passes through its centroid
ℎ𝑏 3
(Ix)R = 12

(1.5)(12)3
=
12

= 216 in4
For the channel, the y-axis does not pass through its centroid so the use of the parallel axis theorem
will be necessary.
(Iy)C = [I + Ad2] where,
I = Iy
= 3.86 in4
A = AC
= 6.08 in2
𝑏
d=2+𝑥

4.75
= + 0.698
2
= 3.073 in
(Iy)C = 61.28 in4

130
For the composite shape,
A = 2[AC + AR]
= 48.16 in2
Iy = 2[(Iy)c + (Iy)R]
= 554.6 in4

𝐼𝑦
kx = √ 𝐴

= 3.393 in

PROBLEM 1:
Determine the moment of inertia with respect to an axis which is parallel to the place and passes
through the centroid of the section.

∑I = 617.5 𝒊𝒏𝟒

131
PROBLEM 2:
Find the moment of inertia the girder with respect to the centroidal x axis. The figure and its
properties are given in the figure below.

Area = 575 mm2

x = y = 16.8 mm
Iy = Ix = 199000 mm4
Moment of inertia for the web plate about XGXG
= 10817245.83 mm4
Moment of inertia for 2 flanges about XGXG
= 56280000 mm4
Moment of inertia for the entirety of the girder about XGXG
= 92.59 mm4

PROBLEM 3:
A built-up column is comprised of two MC12x35 channels. There is a distance, denoted by ‘d’,
between the two channels that must be determined such that the centroidal moment of inertia about
the x-axis and y-axis are equal to one another.

132
Area = 10.3 in2
xc = 1.05 in
tw = 0.467 in
Ix = 216 in4
Iy = 12.7 in4
d = 5.85 in

PROBLEM 4:
A built-up beam structure consists of an 8x1 plate with two L8x4x1/2 angles on the top as shown
in then figure. Find the moment of inertia, moment of inertia of the rectangle and one of the angles
about the x’-axis, and the moment of inertia of the built-up section about the neutral axis.

L8x4x12 angle
AL = 4.75 in2
yL = 1.98 in

133
IL = 13.3 in4
In the rectangle
b=8
h=1

Finding the moment of inertia

dR = 1.745 in
dL = 0.735 in
Moment of inertia of the rectangle about the x’-axis
Ix’ = 18.85 in4
Moment of inertia of one angle about the x’-axis
Ix’ = 19.87 in4
Moment of inertia of the built-up section about the neutral axis
Ix’ = 58.6 in4

PROBLEM 5:
A built-up beam is constructed by welding together two channels separated by a distance d=30mm
to two 120mm x 10mm plates.

Properties
C75x7.4
Area = 948 mm2

134
D = 76.2 mm
bf = 381.1 mm
x = 11.2 mm
Ix = 770000 mm4
Iy = 100000 mm4

Ix = 6018000 mm4
kx = 37.43 mm
Iy = 4381000 mm4
kx = 31.94 mm

135
136
137
 According to Freimans.com

Timber Roof Truss

Rabbit Farm’s Timber Roof Trusses

A truss is rigid structure composed of members arranged in a matter that will behave
like a single object. It is utilized in roof, bridges, cranes, and etc. It can be made from
various type of material ranging from metal to wood which depends on its purpose.
According to Freimans.com, wood can be considered as a sustainable building material
with a lot of function and beneficiary. It is also said as a modern and flexible solution
for building applications.

LEARNING Objectives

1. Understand structural analysis with the use of method of joints

2. Identify the steps to be followed in this using this method
3. Analyze structures, specifically trusses, using method of joints

138
Freimans. (2020, August 7). Timber roof trusses for agricultural plants and facilities, farms and animal auction houses. Retrieved December 1, 2021,
from https://freimans.com/timber-roof-trusses-for-agricultural-plants-and-facilities-farms-and-animal-auction-houses/
Truss. (n.d.). Designing Buildings. Retrieved December 1, 2021, from https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Truss
 Understanding Method of Joints
Man-made structures in horizontal or vertical manner are used in everyday basis where varying
loads are applied onto it. By the process of structural analysis, we can determine how these loads
of the applied forces is distributed throughout. Under such lesson there are various methods that
can be used, among them, the method of joints is usually the easiest way to solve for all the
unknown forces in a truss structure.
This method can be done in the following steps;
- Determine and label by arrows all the present forces in the whole structure. Always
remember to assume first the direction of these forces in the cut area, specifically indicate
compression (C) for the toward direction on the joint while tension (T) on the opposite
manner.
- The joint where it has the least number of unknowns should be the first to be solved for
easier analyzation of the proceeding one. Always remember to start from one side to the
opposite one in the structure.
- Utilize the equilibrium equations ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0, and ∑𝑀 = 0
- Draw the FBD of that specific joint and solve for the resulting equilibrium. Note that the
pre-assumed direction of forces is incorrect when the obtained answer is in negative.
- Select the next pin in connection or in adjacent with the solved joint while keeping in mind
that it should only have two unknowns. Whenever negative is acquired from the previous
analyzation, do not forget to modify the assumed tension or compression on each member.
Apply this procedure on all the given joint to complete method of joints.

Determine all the forces acting on the given symmetrical truss by the usage of method of joints.

139
Singer, F. (1970). Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated.

Problem 404 Roof Truss - Method of Joints | Engineering Mechanics Review at MATHalino. (n.d.). Mathalino. Retrieved December 1, 2021, from
https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-mechanics/problem-403-method-joints-0
 Labeling all the present forces in the problem and solving for the unknowns:

∑𝑀𝐷 = 0 ∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0

2𝑥𝐴𝑦 − 450𝑥 = 0 2𝑥𝐷𝑦 − 450𝑥 − (450 sin 30)(2𝑥) = 0 (450 cos 30) − 𝐷𝑋 = 0
450𝑥 450𝑥+(450 sin 30)(2𝑥)
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐷𝑦 = 𝐷𝑋 = 389.7114 𝑁
2𝑥 2𝑥
𝐴𝑦 = 225𝑁 𝐷𝑦 = 450𝑁

Draw the free body diagram on each joint and solve:

Start @ Joint A for it only contain two unknown variables
where: 𝐴𝑦 = 225𝑁
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0

(𝐴𝐵 sin 30) − 𝐴𝑦 = 0 𝐴𝐶 − (𝐴𝐵 cos 30) = 0

225 𝑁
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 = 450 cos 30
sin 30

𝐴𝐵 = 450 𝑁 [C] 𝐴𝐶 = 389.7114 𝑁 [T]

@Joint C initially have 3 unknowns but AC is solved from the previous joint leaving it down to 2
where 𝐴𝐶 = 389.7114 𝑁
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0

𝐵𝐶 − 450𝑁 = 0 𝐶𝐷 − 389.7114 𝑁 = 0
𝐵𝐶 = 450𝑁 [T] 𝐶𝐷 = 389.7114 𝑁 [T]

140

Problem 404 Roof Truss - Method of Joints | Engineering Mechanics Review at MATHalino. (n.d.). Mathalino. Retrieved December 1, 2021, from
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 Using the previous solved values, proceed @ Joint B
where 𝐴𝐵 = 450; 𝐵𝐶 = 450 𝑁;
𝐵𝑥 = 450 cos 30 389.7114 N;
𝐵𝑦 = 450 sin 30 = 225N

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐵𝐷 cos 30 − 389.7114 − 389.7114 = 0
389.7114+389.7114
𝐵𝐷 =
cos 30

𝐵𝐷 = 899.9999 𝑁 [C]

Since the given truss is symmetrical, we can solve for the other side to prove the accuracy of the previous
joints.
@ Joint B [right side]
FINAL ANSWERS:
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐴𝐵 = 450 𝑁 [𝐶]

𝐵𝐷 sin 30 + 225 − 225 − 450 = 0 𝐴𝐶 = 389.71 𝑁 [𝑇]

𝐵𝐷 =
225−225+450 𝐵𝐶 = 450 𝑁 [𝑇]
sin 30
𝐵𝐷 = 900 𝑁 [𝐶]
𝐵𝐷 = 900 𝑁 [C]
𝐶𝐷 = 389.71 𝑁[𝑇]

@ Joint D
where 𝐵𝐷 = 900𝑁; where 𝐵𝐷 = 900𝑁;
𝐷𝑥 = 𝐶𝐷 = 389.7114 𝑁 𝐷𝑦 = 450 𝑁

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝐵𝐷 cos 30 − 𝐷𝑥 − 𝐶𝐷 = 0 𝐵𝐷 sin 30 − 𝐷𝑦 = 0

900 cos 30 − 779.42 = 0 900 sin 30 − 450 = 0

779.42𝑁 = 779.42𝑁 450𝑁 = 450𝑁

After all the individual computation for each joint, always don’t forget to label the forces C for
“compression” and T for “tension”. If the figure is symmetrical, the other half can be used to check the
accuracy of the prior computations. The method has been completed, list down the final anwers.

141
Problem 404 Roof Truss - Method of Joints | Engineering Mechanics Review at MATHalino. (n.d.). Mathalino. Retrieved December 1, 2021, from
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 The next example deals with an asymmetrical truss and with reference to a slope.

Follow the procedure done in the first sample problem

∑𝑀𝐴 = 0 ∑𝑀𝐹 = 0
11𝐹𝑌 = 3(30) + 7(50) 11𝐴𝑦 = 8(30) + 4(50)

𝐹𝑌 = 40 𝑁 𝐴𝑦 = 40𝑁

@ Joint F
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0
5 4
𝐸𝐹 = 𝐹𝑦 𝐷𝐹 = 𝐸𝐹
√41 √41
5 4
𝐸𝐹 = 40 𝐷𝐹 = (51.22)
√41 √41

𝐸𝐹 = 51.22 𝑁 [𝐶] 𝐷𝐹 = 32𝑁 [𝑇]

@Joint E
∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0
4 4 5 1
𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐷 + 𝐸𝐹 + 𝐸𝐵 = 50
√17 √41 √41 √17
4 4 5 1
𝐸𝐵 = (51.22) 𝐸𝐷 + (51.22) + (32.98) = 50
√17 √41 √41 √17

𝐸𝐵 = 32.98 𝑁 [𝐶] 𝐸𝐷 = 2 𝑁 [𝐶]

142

Problem 005-mj | Method of Joints | Engineering Mechanics Review at MATHalino. (n.d.). Mathalino. Retrieved December 1, 2021, from
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 @Joint D
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0
1 1
𝐵𝐷 = 𝐸𝐷 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐵𝐷 = 𝐷𝐹
√2 √2
1 1
𝐵𝐷 =2𝑁 𝐶𝐷 + (2.83) = 32
√2 √2

𝐵𝐷 = 2.83 𝑁 [𝑇] 𝐶𝐷 = 30𝑁 [𝑇]

@Joint C
∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0

𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐵𝐶 = 0
𝐴𝐶 = 30 𝑁 [𝑇]

@Joint B
∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0
3 1 4 4 1 1
5
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐷 = 𝐸𝐵 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐸 + 𝐵𝐷 + 50
√2 √17 5 √17 √2
3 1 4 4 1 1
𝐴𝐵 + (2.83) = (32.98) (50) = (32.98) + (2.83) + 30
5 √2 √17 5 √17 √2

𝐴𝐵 = 50 𝑁 [𝐶] 40 = 40

FINAL ANSWERS:
𝐸𝐹 = 51.22 𝑁 [𝐶]
@Joint A 𝐷𝐹 = 32 𝑁 [𝑇]
𝐸𝐵 = 32. 98 𝑁 [𝐶]
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐸𝐷 = 2 𝑁 [𝐶]
4 3 𝐵𝐷 = 2.83 𝑁 [𝑇]
5
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝐶 = 5 𝐴𝐵
4 3 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷 = 30 𝑁 [𝑇]
5
(50) = 40 𝐴𝐶 = 5 (50)
𝐵𝐶 = 0 𝑁
40 = 40 30 = 30
𝐴𝐵 = 50 𝑁 [𝐶]

143

Problem 005-mj | Method of Joints | Engineering Mechanics Review at MATHalino. (n.d.). Mathalino. Retrieved December 1, 2021, from
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 Now, another example will be given. Identify the forces acting on the truss while it is lifting a
100N load at a constant velocity of 8m per sec.

First step is to solve for the forces acting upon the lifted load. Since it is mentioned that it has a
constant velocity, we can neglect the this since it is still under static equilibrium.

∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0
3 4
𝐶𝑦 = 100 + 100 (5) 𝐶𝑥 = 100 (5)

𝐶𝑦 = 160 𝑁 𝐶𝑥 = 80 𝑁

Substitute the solved forces in the main figure to further simplification of the problem. Proceed
with the same process on the prior
sample problems.
1
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐷𝑌 = 2 (160)

𝐴𝑦 = 𝐷𝑦 = 80 𝑁

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝐷𝑥 = 80 𝑁

144

Problem 005-mj | Method of Joints | Engineering Mechanics Review at MATHalino. (n.d.-b). Mathalino. Retrieved December 1, 2021, from
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 @Joint A

∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0
3 4
𝐴𝐵 (5) = Ay 𝐴𝐶 = (5) 𝐴𝐵

3 4
𝐴𝐵 (5) = 80 𝐴𝐶 = (5) (133.33)

𝐴𝐵 = 133.33𝑁 [𝐶] 𝐴𝐶 = 106.67 𝑁[𝑇]

@Joint C @Joint B

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0

4 4 3 3
𝐶𝐷 + 80 = 106.67 𝐵𝐷 ( ) = 𝐴𝐵 ( ) 𝐵𝐷 ( ) + 𝐴𝐵 ( ) = 192
5 5 5 5

4 4 3 3
𝐶𝐷 = 26.67 𝑁 𝐵𝐷 (5) = 133.33 (5) 133.33 ( ) + 133.33 ( ) = 192
5 5

∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐵𝐷 = 133.33𝑁 [𝐶] 192 = 192

𝐵𝐶 = 160 𝑁[𝑇]

@ Joint D
FINAL ANSWERS:
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝐴𝐵 = 160 𝑘̂𝑁 [𝐶]
3
80 = 133.33 (5) 𝐴𝐶 = 128 𝑘̂𝑁 [𝑇]

80 = 80 𝐵𝐶 = 192 𝑘̂𝑁 [𝑇]

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝐶𝐷 = 32 𝑘̂𝑁 [𝑇]

4 𝐵𝐷 = 160 𝑘̂𝑁 [𝐶]

26.67 + 80 = 133.33 (5)
𝐴𝐵 = 50 𝑁 [𝐶]
106.67 = 106.67

145

Problem 005-mj | Method of Joints | Engineering Mechanics Review at MATHalino. (n.d.-b). Mathalino. Retrieved December 1, 2021, from
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 5.4 The Method of Joints - Video Lecture - JPM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8SEG7xPI-o&t=332s

Solve for the following problem Exercises.

1. What are the forces found on each member of the truss with 20kN and 30 kN load.

146
2. Find the forces in each member in the given
cantilever truss.

3. Determine the forces found on the

truss.s

4. Given the truss, find the forces acting

on members CD, DG, FG, and CG .

5. Identify the force on the members of the Pratt

rood truss.

147
148
149
 According to JFE

Longest Truss Bridge

Quebec Bridge

Truss bridges are made up of uniformly distributed members forming triangles thus,
creating compressional and tensional stress. This type of bridge offers not only
simplistic design but also a large load capacity. There are a lot of types of truss bridges
and some of them obtained their name their patent holder, such as the Howe truss,
the Pratt truss, the Fink truss, and the Bollman truss. Nowadays, the Warren truss is
most widely used around the world. Truss bridges usually go to 50 to 110 meters.
However, the Quebec Bridge, in Canada, is considered the longest truss bridge in the
world, having 549 meters in length [1].

LEARNING Objectives

1. Analyze plane trusses using method of sections

2. Calculate for the values of unknown members using both ways of solving
3. Determine when to use method of sections 150
[1]
JFE Engineering Corporation. (n.d.). Truss bridges. Retrieved December 8, 2021, from https://www.jfe-
eng.co.jp/en/products/bridge/br04.html#:%7E:text=The%20applied%20span%20of%20truss,span%20length%20of%20549%20meters.
 Nowadays, the results of the rapid advancement of human civilizations in the field of
engineering and architecture have been profound and evident through uniquely patterned
infrastructures such as buildings and bridges. Despite its characteristics, the framework,
foundations, supports, and trusses used in each building have been calculated and analyzed to be
able to withstand its massive weight/load and other external factors.
Not only did the engineers and architects
designed the bridges to handle the gravitational
pull, but they also increased its load capacity so that
it would still stand strong after years of being under
constant stress and pressure. As future civil
engineers, it is important to start involving
yourselves on the creation and examination of these
trusses as it would be the primary focus of some
subject courses that are essential on understanding
the different concepts aligned in the field.
One of the examples of a bridge is a truss bridge. A truss bridge is a structural infrastructure
comprising of different members formed to create a rigid framework. These members are the
components that carry the loads of the structure. These members usually form a triangular shape
thus, carrying compression or tension loads. However, this kind of bridge is less likely to be seen
in the current century. Nevertheless, some structures, such as roofs, cranes, machines, etc., are still
characterized by these trusses [2].
In the previous chapter, the Method of Joints, and its significance on calculating the
unknown member forces (UMF) of trusses was thoroughly discussed. However, aside from using
the Method of Joints, another way to analyze plane trusses is through cutting the truss into sections
and taking advantage of the equilibrium of both concurrent and non-concurrent forces to identify
each member force. This method is called Method of Sections. Similar to method of joints, this
method makes great use of the three equilibrium equations:
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0,
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0,

𝛴𝑀𝑛 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The main difference of this method from the method of joints is that it solves at most three
(3) unknown member forces at the same time thus, speeding up the problem-solving process. This
is the reason why chosen section of a truss must not contain four (4) or more unknown member
forces.

151
[2]
Causey, D. (2018). Truss Bridges. What Is a Truss?, 1. http://www.darrellcausey.com/mrcausey/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Bridge-Type-
Handout.pdf
11. 1 Ways on Analyzing Plane Trusses Using Method of Sections
There are two ways to solve for unknown member forces using this method. The main
difference between these two is the use of angles and sides of the triangles formed inside the
trusses. This depends on the characteristics of the triangle. If the triangles are right-sided triangles,
it is a much convenient choice to solve for the unknown member using the side-based method of
sections. Otherwise, using the angle-based method of sections would yield the same result.

Side-based Method of Sections

Take the figure below as an example.

Try solving for BC, EC, and EF.

Figure 1. Example Figure

1. First, identify what reactions happen on each support of the truss and calculate their
values.
80 kN

Ax

50 kN
Ay Dy

𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 80𝑘̂𝑁 = 0 𝛴𝑀𝐴 = 80𝑘̂𝑁(2𝑚) + 50𝑘̂𝑁(2) − 𝐷𝑦 (3𝑚) = 0

𝐴𝑥 + 80𝑘̂𝑁 = 0 80𝑘̂𝑁(0.75m) + 50𝑘̂𝑁(2𝑚) − 𝐷𝑦 (3𝑚) = 0
𝑨𝒙 = −𝟖𝟎𝒌𝑵; 𝐷𝑦 (3𝑚) 80𝑘̂𝑁(0.75𝑚) + 50𝑘̂𝑁(2𝑚)
𝑨𝒙 = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝑵 [𝑻] =
3𝑚 3𝑚

𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐷𝑦 − 50𝑘̂𝑁 = 0 60𝑘̂𝑁. m + 100𝑘̂𝑁. m

𝐷𝑦 =
𝐴𝑦 = 50𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐷𝑦 3𝑚
𝐴𝑦 = 50𝑘̂𝑁 − 53.33𝑘̂𝑁 160𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
𝐷𝑦 =
𝑨𝒚 = −𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒌𝑵 3𝑚
𝑫𝒚 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒌𝑵 [𝑪]
𝑨𝒚 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒌𝑵 [𝑻]

152
The negative sign indicates that the assumed If the force that the member carries is going
direction of Ax is wrong. Fix this by turning the towards a join or a support, it is compression [C].
direction of the arrow to the opposite. If the direction is outward, it is tension [T].

1. Cut the truss into two (2) sections and pick the side that offers more given values.
Note: Remember to cut off through at most three member forces.

Dy = 53.33kN [C]

2. Identify the reactions in this

BBsection and assume their directions by using arrows.
Pythagorean Theorem 1.25
0.75
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 EE
𝑐 2 = 0.752 + 12 11
𝑐 = √0.752 + 12
𝑐 = 1.25
Dy = 53.33kN [C]

3. Use the equilibrium equations to identify the unknown member forces.

• Since EC is the only unknown member that has a y-component, it would be best to
start solving for it first using 𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0.
0.75
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 𝐷𝑦 − 50𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐸𝐶( )=0
1.25
0.75
EC = 53.33𝑘̂𝑁 − 50𝑘̂𝑁
1.25
0.75
EC = 3.33𝑘̂𝑁
1.25
(3.33𝑘̂𝑁)(1.25)
𝐸𝐶 =
0.75
𝑬𝑪 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟓𝒌𝑵 [𝑻]

• Next, solve EF using 𝛴𝑀𝑛 = 0; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝛴𝑀𝐶 = 𝐷𝑦 (1𝑚) − 𝐸𝐹(0.75𝑚) = 0
53.33𝑘̂𝑁(1𝑚) − 𝐸𝐹(0.75𝑚) = 0
𝐸𝐹(0.75𝑚) = 53.33𝑘̂𝑁(1𝑚)
𝐸𝐹(0.75𝑚) = 53.33𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
53.33𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
𝐸𝐹 =
0.75𝑚
𝑬𝑭 = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝒌𝑵 [𝑻]
• Lastly, solve for EF using 𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0.
1
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 80𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐸𝐶( )=0
1.25
1
80𝑘̂𝑁 − 71.11𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐵𝐶 − 5.55𝑘̂𝑁( )=0
1.25
𝐵𝐶 = 80𝑘̂𝑁 − 71.11𝑘̂𝑁 − 5.55𝑘̂𝑁(
1
) 153
1.25
𝐵𝐶 = 80𝑘̂𝑁 − 71.11𝑘̂𝑁 − 4.44𝑘̂𝑁
𝑩𝑪 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝒌𝑵 [𝑻]
 4. Lastly, input all the values to the section of the truss and correct the direction of each force.
Since all the computed values are positive, the assumed directions of the member forces
are correct.
BC= 4.45kN [T]

EC= 5.55kN [T]

EF= 71.11kN [T]

Dy = 53.33kN [C]

Using the side-based method of sections in solving for the unknown member forces, we
used Pythagorean Theorem (step 3) to find the hypothenuse or the triangle ECF formed in the
truss. By doing so, it became easier to find the y-component of member EC since we did not need
to find the angle formed by members EC and CF.
However, side-based method of sections is not always the appropriate way on solving for
the member forces in a plane truss. Since this method only works when the triangle formed by the
members is a right triangle. There are some instances that they would form acute or obtuse
triangles. Given those instances, it would be much preferred to use the angle-based method of
sections.

Angle-based Method of Sections

Using this method, follow the first few steps used on side-based method of sections. Take the
figure below as an example:

Try solving for BD, CD, and CE.

Figure 2. Example Figure

154
 1. First, identify what reactions happen on each support of the truss and calculate their
values.

Ax

Ay Hy
𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 = 0
𝛴𝑀𝐴 = 55𝑘̂𝑁(2𝑚) + 90𝑘̂𝑁(4𝑚) + 45𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) − 𝐻𝑦 (8𝑚) = 0
𝑨𝒙 = 𝟎𝒌𝑵
55𝑘̂𝑁(2𝑚) + 90𝑘̂𝑁(4𝑚) + 45𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) − 𝐻𝑦 (8𝑚) = 0
𝐻𝑦 (8𝑚) 55𝑘̂𝑁(2𝑚) + 90𝑘̂𝑁(4𝑚) + 45𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚)
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐻𝑦 − 55𝑘̂𝑁 − 45𝑘̂𝑁 − 90𝑘̂𝑁 = 0 =
𝐴𝑦 = 55𝑘̂𝑁 + 45𝑘̂𝑁 + 90𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐻𝑦 8𝑚 8𝑚
𝐻𝑦 (8𝑚) 740𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
𝐴𝑦 = 190𝑘̂𝑁 − 92.5𝑘̂𝑁 =
8𝑚 8𝑚
𝑨𝒚 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟓𝒌𝑵 [𝑪] 𝐻𝑦 (8𝑚) 740𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
=
8𝑚 8𝑚
𝑯𝒚 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝑵 [𝑪]

2. Cut the truss into two (2) sections and pick the side that offers more given values.
Note: Remember to cut off through at most three member forces.

Ax=0 kN

Ay=97.5 kN [C]

3. Identify the reactions in this section and assume their directions by using arrows.
BD
CD Pythagorean Theorem
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑐 2 = 2.52 + 22
𝑐 = √2.52 + 22
Ax=0 kN CE 𝑐 = 3.20

Ay=97.5 kN [C]

155
4. Find the angles using Sine Law.
B 𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝐴 𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝐵 𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝐶 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 180˚
c = = 51.3752˚ + 𝐵 + 90˚ = 180˚
a 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝐴 𝑆𝐼𝑁 90˚ 𝐵 = 180˚ − 51.3752˚ − 90˚
A C = 𝐵 = 38.6248˚
b 2.5𝑚 3.20𝑚
𝑆𝐼𝑁 90˚(2.5𝑚)
𝑆𝐼𝑁 𝐴 = 𝐴 + 𝐴′ = 90˚
3.20𝑚
𝑆𝐼𝑁 90˚(2.5𝑚) 51.3752˚ + 𝐴′ = 90˚
𝐴 = sin−1 𝐴′ = 90˚ − 51.3752˚
3.20𝑚
𝐴 = 51.3752 ˚ 𝐴′ = 38.6248˚

5. Use the equilibrium equations to identify the unknown member forces.

• Since CD and CE is connected to the same joint (joint C), solve for BD first using
𝛴𝑀𝑐 = 0.
𝛴𝑀𝐶 = 𝐴𝑦 (2𝑚) − 𝐵𝐷(1.5𝑚)(cos 118.4122˚ − 90˚) 0
97.5𝑘̂𝑁(2𝑚) − 𝐵𝐷(1.5𝑚)(cos 28.4122˚) = 0
𝐵𝐷(1.5𝑚)(cos 28.4122˚) = 97.5𝑘̂𝑁(2𝑚)
𝐵𝐷(1.5𝑚)(cos 28.4122˚) = 195𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
195𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
𝐵𝐷 =
(1.5𝑚)(cos 28.4122˚)
𝑩𝑫 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝑵 [𝑻]

• Since CD is the only unknown member that has a y-component, solve for it using
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0.
𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 − 55𝑘̂𝑁 + 147.80𝑘̂𝑁(sin 28.4122˚) + 𝐶𝐷 = 0
97.5𝑘̂𝑁 − 55𝑘̂𝑁 + 70.32𝑘̂𝑁 + 𝐶𝐷 = 0
𝐶𝐷 = 55𝑘̂𝑁 − 70.32𝑘̂𝑁 − 97.5𝑘̂𝑁
𝑪𝑫 = −𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟐 [𝑪]

• Lastly, solve for CE using 𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 0.

𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐶𝐸 + 𝐵𝐷(𝑐𝑜𝑠 28.4122˚) − 𝐶𝐷 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 51.3752˚) = 0
0𝑘̂𝑁 + 𝐶𝐸 + 147.80𝑘̂𝑁(𝑐𝑜𝑠 28.4122˚) − 112.82 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 51.3752˚) = 0
𝐶𝐸 = 0𝑘̂𝑁 − 147.80𝑘̂𝑁(𝑐𝑜𝑠 28.4122˚) + 112.82 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 51.3752˚)
𝑪𝑬 = −𝟓𝟗. 𝟓𝟕 [𝑪]

156
 6. Lastly, input all the values to the section of the truss and correct the direction of each force.
CD=147.8 kN [T]
CD=112.82 kN [C]

Ax=0 kN CE=59.57 kN [C]

Ay=97.5 kN [C]

Angle-based method of sections used two mathematical concepts: Pythagorean Theorem

and Sine Law. These concepts were used to identify the sides and angles formed by the members
on a section of a truss. Nevertheless, it is important to note that angle-based method of sections
might look long and complicated but, it is preferably the more convenient way of solving trusses
involving triangles other than right triangles.

4.2 Online Tools for Calculating Truss-based Problems

Aside from the abovementioned ways of analyzing trusses using method of section, there
is a much easier way to solve similar problems. This is through the utilization of online tools such
as SkyCiv, a powerful cloud-based structural engineering software and API technology. The site
offers a wide range of services aligned in the field of structural engineering.

157
 Moreover, this site allows its users to create their own type of truss with specific numbers
of nodes, members, supports, and loads. It automatically calculates the reactions on each assigned
support in the created truss. It can also calculate the unknown member force on your truss using
either method of joints or method of sections.

However, a user account needs an upgrade to access these services. It involves a monthly
payment to continue using the site. This site can only solve for the reactions on the supports of the
truss for free.

The Warren truss loaded as shown in Fig. P-418 is supported by a roller at C and a hinge
at G. By the method of sections, compute the force in the members BC, DF, and CE.

Identify the supports on both sides of the truss and calculate the reactions on each.

158
 Calculate the values of the unknown reactions
using the equilibrium equations.

Gx

Cy Gy

𝛴𝑀𝐺 = 100𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) + 80𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) − 𝐶𝑦 (12𝑚) − 60𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) + 40𝑘̂𝑁(18𝑚) = 0 𝛴𝐹𝑥 = 60𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐺𝑥 = 0

100𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) + 80𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) − 𝐶𝑦 (12𝑚) − 60𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) + 40𝑘̂𝑁(18𝑚) = 0 60𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐺𝑥 = 0
𝐶𝑦 (12𝑚) = 100𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) + 80𝑘̂𝑁(9𝑚) − 60𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) + 40𝑘̂𝑁(18𝑚) 𝑮𝒙 = 𝟔𝟎𝒌𝑵 [𝑪]
𝐶𝑦 (12𝑚) = 1680𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
1680𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
𝐶𝑦 =
12𝑚
𝑪𝒚 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝒌𝑵 [𝑪]

𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 𝐺𝑦 + 140𝑘̂𝑁 − 40𝑘̂𝑁 − 80𝑘̂𝑁 − 100𝑘̂𝑁 = 0

𝐺𝑦 + 140𝑘̂𝑁 − 40𝑘̂𝑁 − 80𝑘̂𝑁 − 100𝑘̂𝑁 = 0
𝐺𝑦 = 100𝑘̂𝑁 + 80𝑘̂𝑁 + 40𝑘̂𝑁 − 140𝑘̂𝑁
𝑮𝒚 = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝑵 [𝑪]

6.71
Cut a section in the truss as shown in the figure.
6 BD Solve for BD using 𝛴𝐹𝑦 = 0.

6
Pythagorean Theorem 𝛴𝐹𝑦 = −40𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐵𝐷 ( )=0
6.71
𝑐2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 6
−40𝑘̂𝑁 − 𝐵𝐷 ( )=0
𝑐 2 = 62 + 32 6.71
6
𝑐 = √6 2 + 4 2 𝐵𝐷 ( ) = −40𝑘̂𝑁
𝑐 = 6.71 6.71
𝑩𝑫 = −𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑵 [𝑪]

159
 DF

Solve for the value of CE using 𝛴𝑀𝑛 = 0 at node

or joint D. Then, solve for the value of DF using the
same equilibrium equation at node or joint E.

CE

Cy=140kN

𝛴𝑀𝐷 = 𝐶𝐸(6𝑚) − 140𝑘̂𝑁(3𝑚) + 40𝑘̂𝑁(9𝑚) = 0 𝛴𝑀𝐸 = 𝐷𝐹(6𝑚) + 80𝑘̂𝑁(3𝑚) − 140𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) − 60𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) + 40𝑘̂𝑁(12𝑚) = 0
𝐶𝐸(6𝑚) − 140𝑘̂𝑁(3𝑚) + 40𝑘̂𝑁(9𝑚) = 0 𝐷𝐹(6𝑚) = 140𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) + 60𝑘̂𝑁(6𝑚) − 80𝑘̂𝑁(3𝑚) − 40𝑘̂𝑁(12𝑚) = 0
𝐶𝐸(6𝑚) = 140𝑘̂𝑁(3𝑚) − 40𝑘̂𝑁(9𝑚) 𝐷𝐹(6𝑚) = 660𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
𝐶𝐸(6𝑚) = 60𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚 480𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚
60𝑘̂𝑁. 𝑚 𝐷𝐹 =
6𝑚
𝐶𝐸 = 𝑫𝑭 = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝑵 [𝑻]
6𝑚
𝑪𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌𝑵 [𝑻]

1. Using the method of sections, determine the force in member BD, CD, and CE of the
roof truss shown in Fig. P-417. Ans. BD = 160lb [C]; CD = 200lb [C]; CE = 320lb
[T]

160
2. Determine the force in the members DF, DG, and EG of the Howe Truss shown in the
figure below. Ans. DF = 2800lb [C]; DG = 1500lb [C]; EG = 4000lb [T]

3. For the truss shown in the figure, determine the force in BF by the method of joints
and check the result using the method of sections. Ans. BF = 2500lb [C]

161
4. Show that the method of joints cannot determine the forces in all bars of the Fan Fink
Truss. Then, use the method of joints to compute the force in bars FH, GH, and EK.
Ans. FH = 1100lb [C]; GH = 520lb [T]; EK = 693lb [T]

5. Use the method of sections to determine the force in members DF, FG, and GI of the
triangular Howe Truss shown. Ans. DF = 2.51 kips [C]; FG = 2.24 kips [T]; GI =
0.455 kips [T]

162
163
164
 According to PinoyCADCoin

AutoCAD

Workspaces in AutoCAD

One of the company's first products was a filing program called "Cardfile". First shown
at the 6th West Coast Computer Faire, it was renamed "the Autodesk". By then, the
company was calling itself Desktop Solutions, but when the founders filed paperwork
to become a California corporation, they changed the company name to Autodesk.

LEARNING Objectives
1. Develop the skill of arriving of the graphical presentation of trusses
2. Understand the use of application of AutoCAD for faster graphing
3. Evaluate the learning strategies on solving by answering various problems 165
The customary approach on each problem requires every solver to envision, imagine, and illustrate
the ways on how to deal with the given situation. On most cases, students solve their problems
more efficient with the aid of illustrations. Illustrations could come in diagrams, drawings, plot-
analysis, and even charts.

For Statics of Rigid Bodies, we are open with various

illustrations which would be able to demonstrate how
equilibrium and forces work together. In the previous
lessons, we have been introduced with some basic plotting
and diagrams which could represent the concerns of each
problem. Graphical statics, as defined by the Institution of
Structural Engineers, is a powerful method for the design and
analysis of structures, using force polygons and simple
geometric construction techniques, which could provide
intuitive visual information about the relation between form
and forces of a certain structural system.

Since the latter discussions already dealt with some

basic force diagrams, this chapter shall now focus on a much
higher attainable correspondence, and we are going to talk
about the Cremona diagram. A little brief of history, an
Italian mathematician named as Luigi Cremona managed to
develop this method. However, these diagrams were seen as
early as 1725, with Pierre Varignon’s published work
named to be Nouvelle Méchanique ou Statique. Figure 12.1 Cremona-Maxwell
Diagram
The Cremona Method deals mainly with the graphical representation of equilibrium
concerning each joint. Using this method allows any person to unify all the force polygons,
resulting from graphical equilibrium of each joint, into only one force polygon – the Cremona’s
diagram. Although the approach is graphical, what makes this way convenient is that it already
leads to a quick determination of the member forces and is useful specifically in the cases where
the external loads and/or the truss members form random angles.

Let’s say we were given with a case of graphically analyzing the equilibrium of a point
acted upon three (3) forces, one of which is completely known while the other two (2) forces are
with directions only. For this undertaking, we must do the following procedure:
➢ Draw a vector of the completely known force, in the proper direction, scale, magnitude,
and sense.
➢ From one end of the drawn vector, draw a line parallel to the direction of one of the two
forces, while the other end, draw a second line parallel to the other direction.
➢ The vector and the point of section of the two lines define a triangle.

166
 ➢ Now, following the path of the vector by laying out the 2 unknown forces tip to tail, thus
closing the force triangle, we may be able to find both the magnitudes of the other two
forces.

With this demonstration, the completely known force can be considered as the resultant of other
known forces, through the force polygon. From this procedure, we realize that the basic
characteristic, which appears to be common in the method of joints and Cremona’s diagram, lies
in the main strategic.

Keeping in mind this similarity for the new method, we can also start and continue with the
equilibrium of a joint, where at least one known load exists, while not more than two unknown
forces are present.

Compared to the analytical method of joints, the graphical method of Cremona’s diagram is less
precise. However, the ‘loss of precision’ is unimportant and theoretical. Nevertheless, the speed
and the elegance of the method are the main characteristics that make it popular and attractive by
many designers.

EXAMPLE 1: Given with the diagram, determine graphically the force in each of the eleven
members of the following truss by the method of Cremona’s diagram.

SOLUTION
Determine the support reactions:
∑ 𝑋 = 0 𝐇𝐀 = 𝟎

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝑽𝑨 = (𝟒𝑵 ∙ 𝟒 + 𝟒𝑵 ∙ 𝟐 + 𝟐𝑵 ∙ 𝟔)/𝟒
= 𝟗𝑵
𝑽𝑩 = 𝟐𝑵 + 𝟒𝑵 + 𝟒𝑵 + 𝟐𝑵 − 𝟗 = 𝟑𝑵

Figure 12.2 Example 1 Truss

Following the diagram, we must cover the

whole area of the free body diagram. We may use
numbers (1,2, 3,…) in both the triangles formed by the
members and by the external loads so that each
member of load separates two areas.

Up next, find an appropriate scale (1N=1cm)

Figure 12.3 Example 1 Truss and draw the force polygon of the external loadings.
Each region can be represented by a point at the force

167
polygon. The intersection of the parallel lines drawn from one region (point) to the adjacent
region gives the point corresponding to the adjacent region.

We define a clockwise sequence of forces around a joint. If we start drawing the force
triangle for equilibrium of joint B, from the calculated force of 3N, the next force considered will
be that of matter S11 and not of S8.

The illustration shows how the problem shall go.

Tension Compression
S1 -1.00
S2 -1.00
S3 2.83
S4 -9.00
S5 4.24
S6 -4.00
S7 1.41
S8 -3.00
S9 -2.00
S10 -2.00
S11 0.00

Figure 12.3 Example 1 Graphical

168
 EXAMPLE 2: Solve the following truss and
graphically represent the forces situated.

SOLUTION
↓ ∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎:
10𝑁 − 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑅𝑅 = 0
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑅 = 10𝑁
+↷∑ 𝑴𝑳 = 𝟎:
10𝑁 − 𝑅𝐿 − 𝑅𝑅 = 0 Figure 12.4 Example 2 Truss

10𝑁(7′ ) − 𝑅𝑅 (11′ ) = 0
10𝑁(7′ )
𝑅𝑅 = = 6.36𝑁
11′
𝑅𝐿 = 10𝑁 − 𝑅𝑅
= 10𝑁 − 6.36𝑁
= 𝟑. 𝟔𝟒 𝑵

Scale : 1:1

Figure 12.5 Example 2 Truss

The figure beside shows how the forces can be represented

using the Cremona (Cremona-Maxwell) method of graphical
analysis of trusses.

Figure 12.6 Example 2 Graphical

EXAMPLE 3: Using the Cremona diagram,

graphically solve the given truss.

Figure 12.7 Example 3 Truss

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Having the moments solved and quantified, we
may proceed to our graphing. We can use 1:1
ratio for our graphical representations.

Figure 12.8 Example 3 Graphical

PROBLEM ONE: Determine the bar forces of the given

truss using the Cremona (Cremona-Maxwell) method. Solve
for AB, BC, CD, DE, EH, HG, GF, and AF. (Ans: AB=10kN
[c]; BC=6.67kN [c]; CD=6.67 [c]; DE=10kN [c]; EH=8kN
[t]; HG=8kn [t]; GF=8kN [t]; AF=8kN [t])

PROBLEM TWO: A famous bridge featured a simulation

problem featuring a snippet of their trusses. The figure
beside is the captured photo of the concerned. Determine the
bar forces and cite whether there is a present compression
[c] or tension [t]. (Answer: AB=11.08 [C]; AC=10.13 [T];
BD=9.23 [C]; BC=2.81 [C]; CD=2.815 [T]; CE=6.75 [T];
DE=2.81 [T]; GF=11.08 [C]; GE=10.13 [T]; FD=9.23
[C]; FE=2.81 [C])

PROBLEM THREE: Determine the value of reactions

at the supports of the given truss. (Answers:AB=12.80
[C]; AC=13.30[T]; BC=14.70 [C]; CD=8.60 [C];
BD=4.76 [T])

170
PROBLEM FOUR:
With the supplied figure, find the bar forces using graphical
method. (Answer: AB=72.11 [C]; BC=90.14 [C];
CD=90.14 [C]; AF=67.08 [T]; BE=25 [T]; BF=40 [C];
CE=20 [C])

PROBLEM FIVE:
Performing the necessary steps with the Cremona Diagram
(graphical method), determine the forces in the truss
graphically. (Answers: AE=7.07, CE=7.07, DE=5)

Maxwell-Cremona Diagram
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XyvZbV2pU1Y&t=46s

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172
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 According to Presidio
Suspension Bridge

The Golden Gate Bridge

Considered to be one of the seven wonders of the modern world, the golden gate
bridge spans 1.7 miles linking San Francisco and Marin. When the prior design of the
bridge was presented by engineer Joseph Strauss, many had doubted it to not be
structurally robust but the opening of the bridge to the public was continued and later
became one of the most prominent sites in the country. The supporting cables of the
bridge enable it to support such a wide span of road and is one of the applications of the
topic in this chapter.

LEARNING Objectives

1. Identify the distinguishable features of parabolic cables

2. Determine the equations used for solving problems involving parabolic cables
3. Apply the equations in solving problems involving parabolic cables.
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 Parabolic Cables
There is a time where one is able to witness and even drive along a suspension bridge. The
ability of this bridge to be as it is called is because of the cables that serve as the main supporting
component. Apart from supporting a bridge, there are other various applications of cables such as
for cable carts, tramways, transmission lines, and many more. Categorically there are two types of
cables in accordance with the loadings which are cables that support concentrated loads and cables
that support distributed loads. The content of this lesson will focus on parabolic cables which is
under the category of cables supporting distributed loads.

Figure 13.0 Figure 13.1

Cables that are suspended and forming the shape of curve, is one of the properties that
considers it to be cables that support distributed loads. From the given
illustration, Figure 13.0, it is seen that that cable is connected by A
and B which are fixed points. The distribution of downward forces can
also be seen in the diagram represented by a yellow arrow. Point C is
the lowest point of the parabola where a tension force T0 acting on the
left and up to point D is where another tension force T is acting that is
tangent to the curve as shown in Figure 13.1. And from this diagram
a right triangle can be drawn from the following forces T0, W, and T.
The tension force T with an angle of θ will be the hypotenuse, the
downward weight force W will be the opposite side and the leftward tension force T0 will be the
adjacent side. From this triangle, the following equations are formulated,[1]

𝑇0 = 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑊 = 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

175

[1][2] Beer, F. P., Johnston, Jr., E. R., & Eisenberg, E. R. (2007). Vector Mechanics for Engineers Statics (8th Edition). Suzanne Jeans.
 For the first equation, it indicates that at any point of the curve the horizontal component
at the tension force T will be equal. For the next equation, this shows that the weight force W of
the load measured at point C or also known as the lowest point of the curve is the same as the
vertical component of the tension force T.[2]

𝑊
𝑇 = √𝑇0 2 + 𝑊 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = (𝑇 )
0

After establishing the conditions and some of the equations of the cables with distributed
loads, it would help to easily and further understand parabolic cables. Beginning the discussion
proper for parabolic cables is with the given
diagram, Figure 13.2. Having the assumption that
the cable connected by points A and B supports a
load that is distributed uniformly across the
horizontal. From the figure, w is the load per unit
length x that is measured horizontally with units of
either Newton per meter (N/m) or pounds per feet
(lb/ft). Then from point C to D with specified
coordinates of (x,y), the downward weight force W
of the overall load is supported by a part of the
cable which would give the equation of,
Figure 13.2
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑥
Since these is the given equation for W, the formulas
for solving the tension force T and the angle θ will be,

𝑤𝑥
𝑇 = √𝑇0 2 + (𝑤𝑥)2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = ( 𝑇 )
0

Additionally, the distance from the weight force W to

D will be acquired by dividing the horizontal distance
from point C to point D by two. Thus, having the Figure 13.3
following equations,
𝑥
⃔ + 𝛴𝑀𝐷 = 0; 𝑤𝑥(2) − 𝑇0 𝑦 = 0

And from this formula, y can be solved by using the equation which will have the vertex at the
origin,
𝑤𝑥 2
𝑦=( )
2𝑇0

176
 Length from the Support to the lowest point of the Curve

For the length of the cable denoted by sB , which

is distance measured from point C or the lowest point of
the curve to point B which is one of the supports of the
cable can be obtained by this formula,

𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑑𝑥

Differentiating this formula will reduce it to the

Figure 13.4
following, [3]
2 𝑦 2 2 𝑦 4
𝑠 = 𝑥 [1 + ( ) − ( ) +. . . ]
3 𝑥 5 𝑥

EXAMPLE 1: A cable of 8 kN/m is supporting a load that is uniformly distributed at the

horizontal. Determine the total length of the cable with reference to the illustrated diagram below.

SOLUTION:
a) First, it is necessary to establish the origin. For this problem, the origin can be
placed at the vertex of the parabola. The points where the cable is attached have
coordinates that correspond to the distance given in the horizontal and vertical
distances given on the illustration. Then using the equation of the parabola, then

177

[3] Beer, F. P., Johnston, Jr., E. R., & Eisenberg, E. R. (2007). Vector Mechanics for Engineers Statics (8th Edition). Suzanne Jeans.
applying the formula for finding the length of the curve that uses derivation and integration. The
parabola is opening upward which would make 4ay positive.

𝑥 2 = +4𝑎𝑦 at (4,2.4)
𝑥 2 = +4𝑎𝑦
(4)2 = 4𝑎(2.4)
16 = 9.6𝑎
5
𝑎=
3
After getting the value of a, it will be substituted back to the main equation to
complete the equation for the parabola.
𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦
5
𝑥 2 = 4( )𝑦
3
20
𝑥2 = 𝑦
3
For the formula of the length of the parabolic cable,

𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥1 𝑑𝑥

For this formula, dy/dx is needed which could be solve by finding first the derivative
of the calculated equation of the parabola and then integrating after,
𝑑𝑦 2 20
(𝑥 = 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 3
20 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 =
3 𝑑𝑥

178
 𝑑𝑦 3𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 10

Then substituting this for finding the length of the parabola,

4
3𝑥 2
𝑠 = ∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥
−4 10

𝑠 = 9.635 𝑚

EXAMPLE 2: A cylindrical object is attached to a cable that runs through the pulley at point B in
which the end of this cable is at point A. With the cable weighing 20 N/m, determine the mass m
of the cylindrical object that will have a sag of 7.2 m.

SOLUTION:
a) For this problem the cable formed is attached to a pulley B and a fixed point at A. The
cylindrical object that is attached to the other end of the cable would compel the cable to
form a sag of 7.2 meters. To solve for the mass of the cylindrical object, the tension force
TB at B should be determined first and this can be used to solve for the mass by the use of
the formula for finding the downward weight force W that is equal to TB in this problem.
Finding the tension force TB will be done by solving for the horizontal and vertical
components of this tension force. Using the formula to solve for y for parabolic
cables and using this formula to solve for the horizontal tension force. Here we have
the horizontal component of the tension force on the cable where the the load w and
the unit of length is xC,

179
 𝑤𝑥𝐶 2
𝑦= 2𝑇𝐻

20𝑥𝐶 2
7.2 = 2𝑇𝐻

20𝑥𝐶 2
𝑇𝐻 = 14.4

Then determining the other equation for the horizontal force wherein the length
now is xB,
𝑤𝑥𝐵 2
𝑦= ;𝑥𝐵 = (80 − 𝑥𝐶 )
2𝑇𝐻

20𝑥𝐵 2
𝑇𝐻 = 33.6

20𝑥𝐵 2
7.2 + 9.6 = 2𝑇𝐻

20
𝑇𝐻 = (80 − 𝑥𝐶 )2
33.6

Equating TH to each other to solve for xC,

𝑇𝐻 = 𝑇𝐻
20𝑥𝐶 2 20
= 33.6 (80 − 𝑥𝐶 )2
14.4

(33.6)20𝑥𝐶 2 = 14.4(20)(80 − 𝑥𝐶 )2

672𝑥𝐶 2 = 288(80 − 𝑥𝐶 )2

672𝑥𝐶 2 = 288(6400 − 160𝑥𝐶 + 𝑥𝐶 2 )

672𝑥𝐶 2 = 288(6400 − 160𝑥𝐶 + 𝑥𝐶 2 )

96
7𝑥𝐶 2 = 3(6400 − 160𝑥𝐶 + 𝑥𝐶 2 )

7𝑥𝐶 2 = 19200 − 480𝑥𝐶 + 3𝑥𝐶 2

7𝑥𝐶 2 − 3𝑥𝐶 2 + 480𝑥𝐶 − 19200 = 0

4𝑥𝐶 2 + 480𝑥𝐶 − 19200 = 0

180
 4𝑥𝐶 2 + 480𝑥𝐶 − 19200 = 0
4
𝑥𝐶 2 + 120𝑥𝐶 − 4800 = 0

Using the quadratic formula to solve for the value of xC,

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥𝐶 =
2𝑎
−(120) ± √(120)2 − 4(1)(−4800)
𝑥𝐶 =
2(1)

−(120) ± √14400 + 19200

𝑥𝐶 =
2
−(120)+40√21 −(120)−40√21
𝑥𝐶 = 𝑥𝐶 =
2 2

𝑥𝐶 = 31.6515 𝑚 𝑥𝐶 = −151.6515 𝑚
𝑥𝐶 = 31.6515 𝑚

Then substituting the value xC to the equation of the component of the tension
force,
20𝑥𝐶 2
𝑇𝐻 = 14.4

20(31.6515)2
𝑇𝐻 = 14.4

𝑇𝐻 = 𝑁

𝑇𝑉 = 20(80 − 𝑥𝐶 )
𝑇𝑉 = 20(80 − 31.6515)
𝑇𝑉 = 966.97 𝑁
Since the computed values for the horizontal and vertical component of the
tension force TB, it can now be determined by using the Pythagorean theorem.

𝑇𝐵 = √𝑇𝐻 2 + 𝑇𝑉 2

181
 𝑇𝐵 = √(1391.413128)2 + (966.97)2
𝑇𝐵 = 1694.42069 𝑁
There is a tension force TB acting on the rope that is attached to the cylindrical
object that passes through the pulley at B and the cylindrical object has also a
downward weight force W that is equal to TB, and since solving for the W is mass
times the gravitational constant will determine the mass of the object.
𝑇𝐵 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑇𝐵
𝑚= 𝑔

1694.42069
𝑚= 9.81

𝑚 = 172.72 𝑘̂𝑔

The mass of the cylindrical object is 𝑚 = 172.72 𝑘̂𝑔

EXAMPLE 3: A cable is attached to the fixed points A and C as shown below. This cable is
supporting a girder of 14 kN/m. Solve for the tension forces acting on points A, B, and C given the
information in the diagram.

SOLUTION:
a) Analyzing first the given figure and the problem, then drawing the free body
diagram for the tension forces acting on points A and C. From this illustration, x is
set as the distance from point B to point C where there is a tension force TC acting
on it at angle θC. And for point A it has a tension force TA and it is seen here that

182
 the distance of point A from point B is the total distance from A to C denoted by
(32-x).

b) For efficiency in solving, the diagram can be divided into two free body diagrams
which would help in determining the tension forces. First is drawing a free body
diagram for the right side of the parabola. Here, there is a leftward tension force TB
at point B and the downward weight force which is equal to the product of the load
14 kN/m and the length which is x. And from these three forces, a force triangle
can be formed in solving for the equation.

Using the formula derived from the force triangle in solving for tension force T0.
Setting the derivative equal to tan θ and then equating it to the value of tangent
which is opposite over the hypotenuse. Here we have 14x as the opposite side
divided by the adjacent side which is T0.
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 14𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑇0

183
Taking the integral will result to,
𝑥
14𝑥
𝑦=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑇0
14𝑥 2 𝑥
7= | + 𝐶1
2𝑇0 0
14𝑥 2 𝑥
7= | +0
2𝑇0 0
14𝑥 2
7=
2𝑇0
𝑥2
7=7
𝑇0
𝑇0 = 𝑥 2

For the left side of the parabola, the procedure will be the same as the previous but
this time the downward weight force will be different since w is equal to (32-x).

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 14𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑇0

(32−𝑥)
14𝑥
𝑦=∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑇0

14𝑥 2 𝑥
7= | + 𝐶1
2𝑇0 0

184
 14𝑥 2 𝑥
7= | +0
2𝑇0 0
14(32 − 𝑥)2
7=
2𝑇0
(32 − 𝑥)2
7=7
2𝑇0
(32 − 𝑥)2
𝑇0 =
2

c) Having these two equations the value for T0 and the value of x by using the
equation of T0 through equating them to each other
𝑇0 = 𝑇0

2
(32 − 𝑥)2
𝑥 =
2
2𝑥 2 = (32 − 𝑥)2

√2𝑥2 = √(32 − 𝑥)2

1.4142𝑥 = 32 − 𝑥
1.4142𝑥 + 𝑥 = 32
2.4142𝑥 = 32
𝑥 = 13.255 𝑚
Solving for T0,
𝑇0 = 𝑥 2
𝑇0 = (13.255)2
𝑇0 = 175.695 𝑘̂𝑁
𝑇0 = 𝑇𝐵
𝑇𝐵 = 175.695 𝑘̂𝑁
d) Using this information to solve for the tension force TA at A and the tension force
TC at C with reference to the force triangle drawn before.
For the tension force TC at C,

185
 𝑇𝐶 = √𝑇0 2 + (14𝑥)2

𝑇𝐶 = √(175.695)2 + (14 ⋅ 13.255)2

𝑇𝐶 = 255.548 𝑘̂𝑁
For the tension force TA at A,

𝑇𝐴 = √𝑇0 2 + [12(32 − 𝑥)]2

𝑇𝐴 = √(175.695)2 + [12(32 − 13.255)]2

𝑇𝐴 = 285.424 𝑘̂𝑁
Therefore the tension forces acting on the points are,𝑇𝐴 = 285.424 𝑘̂𝑁, 𝑇𝐵 =
175.695 𝑘̂𝑁and 𝑇𝐶 = 255.548 𝑘̂𝑁.

PROBLEM 1: A cable is attached to two fixed points

wherein one is higher than the other, forming a curve
upon its suspension. This cable is supporting a unit
load that varies when it is at x=0 it is 120 N/m and
decreases to 48 N/m at x=36 to which the lowering of
this is proportional to x2. Find the expression that
applies to the curved.
5𝑥 2 𝑥4
(Answer: 𝑦 = 486 − 1259712)

PROBLEM 2: A suspension bridge is hung with a

cable that is forming a parabola connected by points
A and B. Vertical wires are attached to the cable
wherein 40 m is the highest length and the smallest
length of these vertical wires is 8 m which supports
the horizontal roadway of 120 m. Considering the
distribution of load is uniform, determine the length
of the vertical wire attached to the roadway that is
24 m from the origin.
(Answer: 𝑦 = 13.12 𝑚 )
186
PROBLEM 3: The parabolic cable has a height h and
a length l measured from the points where it is
attached in which the curve has a slope of zero at the
lowest point where it is attached. The uniform load
supported at the highest point has a linear variation of
x starting from w0 to w1. Find the equation of the
tension force TH located at the origin of the graph.
𝑤0 𝑙2 (𝑤1 −𝑤0 )
(Answer: 𝑇𝐻 = [1 + ])
2ℎ 𝑤0 3

PROBLEM 4: The Cable AB is supporting a load that is uniformly distributed along the
horizontal, referring to the given diagram. At point B, it forms an angle of θB = 35°. With this
information, calculate the maximum tension that acts on the cable and the vertical distance a that
is measured from the lowest point of the cable up to point A.
(Answer: 𝑇 = 7520.457 𝑁; 𝑎 = 1.0789)

PROBLEM 5: A cable is suspended on two fixed points that are labeled as point A and point B,
having a load uniformly distributed on a cable tand has a distance of 150 meters, find the minimum
tension force T0, maximum tension force T and the length of the cable with the use of the
information provided by the illustration.
(Answers: 𝑇0 = 22500 𝑁; 𝑇 = 22945.589 𝑁; 𝑠 = 150.994 𝑚)

187
What is a suspension bridge? | How does it work? | APSEd
https://youtu.be/J_7AcAkle_4

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189
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 According to Primecabindia

Power Cables

Thomas Edison with Electrical Power Cables

The first ever ‘wire’ was developed by Thomas Edison in 1882. It wasn’t even a proper
wire; it was basically made of copper tubes wrapped in jute! It was filled with asphalt,
which provided insulation, because of its bituminous properties. This is because
Rubber insulation was not used until 1897, and that too in the Niagara Falls power
project.

LEARNING Objectives
1. Observe real-life problems involving Catenary Cable Analysis
2. Identify the significance of the formulae involved in the analysis for cables
3. Evaluate the learning strategies on solving by answering various problems
191
There are some similar cables which require different approach and solutions. Some of which may
be inclusive of the exact methods yet would require the tactile computations and trial-and-errors.
Before we proceed to the main discussion, let us first define what a catenary is.

A catenary, in mathematics, is a curve that describes the shape of a flexible hanging chain or cable
– name derived from the Latin word catenaria (“chain”). Any freely hanging cable or string
assumes this shape, also called a chainette, if the body is of uniform mass per unit length and is
acted upon solely by gravity.

As we go a little back to our history, we may look back early in the 17th century. A famed German
astronomer Johannes Kepler applied the ellipse to the description of our planetary orbits, which
made the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei employ the parabola to describe the projectile motion in
the absence of air resistance. Going further on the later parts of the 17th century, a Dutch
mathematician Christiaan Huygens showed that the chain curve cannot be given by an algebraic
equation (which involves only arithmetic operations together with powers and roots); he also
coined the term which plays a pivotal role in our current chapter, catenary. As time continued, the
definition and description of the equation a catenary was accomplished by a Swiss mathematician
Jakob Bernoulli and the German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz.

Yet the catenary fails to be described by a parabola, since it is of interest to consider that it is
related to parabola. The curve traced in the plane by focus of a parabola as it rolls along a straight
line is a catenary. The surface of revolution generated when an upward-opening catenary is
revolved around the horizontal axis is called a catenoid. The catenoid was discovered in 1744 by
the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler and it is the only minimal surface, other than the plane,
that can be obtained as a surface of revolution.

Dealing with Catenary Cables

Consideration will now be given to the problem in which the ratio of span to sag is too large to
permit the use of the approximate
method.

Let ALB in Figure 13.1 (a) represents a

cable loaded with 5 pounds per foot
distributed uniformly along its length
and suspended from points A and B on
the same horizontal level and at distance
Figure 14.1 Catenary cables
l apart.
diagram

Let L represent the lowest point on the cable, P any other point, and s as the distance along the
cable from Q to P. This portion of the cable is shown as a free body in the figure, where H
represents the horizontal tension at Q, T the tension at P, and ws the resultant of the vertical loads.
The equilibrium triangle of forces for the free body is shown in the figure, from which
192
 𝑤𝑠 𝑎 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = = =
𝐻 𝑐 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝐻
where 𝑐 = 𝑤 is a constant. Let us have O, at c below L be taken as the origin of coordinates, as
supported by the second figure in Figure 13.1.

𝑑𝑦 𝑎 (1)
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑐
𝑑𝑠 2 = 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑦 = √(𝑑𝑠)2 − (𝑑𝑥)2 (2)

Eliminating dy from equations (1) and (2),

𝑠 𝑠
𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫
2
√𝑐 + 𝑠 2 2 2
0 0 √𝑐 + 𝑠

By performing differentiation,
𝑠 + √𝑐 2 + 𝑠 2
𝑥 = 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠 (3)
𝑐
Reducing to exponential form,
𝑥 𝑠 + √𝑐 2 + 𝑠 2 (4)
𝑒𝑐 =
𝑐
Solving for s,
𝑐 𝑥 𝑥 (5)
𝑠= (𝑒 𝑐 − 𝑒 − 𝑐 )
2
Substituting (5) in (1) we have,
1 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = (𝑒 𝑐 − 𝑒 − 𝑐 ) 𝑑𝑥
2
𝑑𝑦 𝑠
From 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎, we may get to attribute the arc length

With and From here, the second of these equations

can be integrated to give,
𝑦 = √𝑎2 + 𝑠 2 + 𝛽

And by shifting the position of the x-axis, 𝛽 can be taken as 0. Then placed as,
𝑦 = √𝑎2 + 𝑠 2 , 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑠 2
The x-axis thus chosen is called the directrix of the catenary.

193
It follows that the magnitude of the tension at a point (x, y) is T = λgy, which is proportional to
the distance between the point and the directrix.
𝑑𝑥
Moreover, the integral expression for can be found by applying the standard techniques of
𝑑𝑠
differentiation, making way for
𝑠
𝑥 = 𝛼 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( ) + 𝛼
𝑎
Again, by shifting the position of the y-axis, 𝛼 can be taken as 0. Then,
𝑠 𝑠
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( ) , 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( )
𝑎 𝑎
The y-axis thus chosen passes through the vertex and is called the axis of the catenary. These
results can be used to eliminate s giving
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( )
𝑎
To provide some insights about the catenary cables, here are some relationships shown in figure
from the CAU School of Mechanical Engineering:

Figure 14.2 cables for catenary

For this type of method, within the span of l changing to 2x in the garnered equations of s and y,
the length becomes 2s, and the sag denoted by d becomes y-c. Due to this, many problems can
only be solved within this form through trial and errors. A table of hyperbolic functions may
facilitate a solution wherein the equations of s and y can be utilized efficiently.

194
EXAMPLE 1: A given hanging cable with a span of 100 m with a length of a cable s is situated
in the figure. Using the given dimensions, find 𝑆, 𝑇𝑜 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

Let us solve the given problem by supporting it with the previous equations garnered.
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( )
𝑐
𝑥
20 + 𝑐 = 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( )
𝑐
20 𝑥
+ 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( )
𝑐 𝑐
To continue, let us make a table which would make us allot a trial-and-error solving methodology.

c 𝒙 𝟐𝟎 65.55 1.3051 1.3052

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 ( ) +𝟏
𝒄 𝒄

20 6.132 2 65.58 1.3050 1.3050

40 1.888 1.500

60 1.368 1.333

65 1.311 1.308

65.5 1.306 1.305

65.51 1.3056 1.3052

In this case, therefore, we may say that the value of c is 65.58

For solving:
𝑦 = ℎ + 𝑐 = 20𝑚 + 65.58𝑚 = 85.58𝑚

195
 𝑠 2 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑠 = √𝑦 2 − 𝑐 2

𝑠 = √(85.58)2 − (65.58)2 = 54.98 ≈ 𝟓𝟓𝒎

𝑺𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = 𝟐𝒔 = 𝟐(𝟓𝟓𝒎) = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝒎
𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝑻𝒐 = 𝒄𝒘 = (𝟔𝟓. 𝟓𝟖𝒎) ( ) = 𝟑𝟕𝟐𝟗𝑵
𝒎
𝟓𝟎𝑵
𝑻𝑩 = 𝒘𝒚𝑩 = ( ) (𝟖𝟓. 𝟓𝟖𝒎) = 𝟒𝟕𝟐𝟗𝑵
𝒎

EXAMPLE 2: Rosalynn is uncertain of how much distance

was covered by the cable connected between the poles that
her neighbor has. These two 50-meter-high poles have the
lowest point of 90-meter catenary cable is 30 meters above
the ground.
SOLUTION:
By using the same formula, we may get to solve and
find the missing given.
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( )
𝑐
𝑦 = ℎ = 𝑐 + 20
𝑥1
𝑐 + 20 = 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( )
𝑐
𝑥1 𝑐 + 20
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( ) = (𝑒𝑞. 1)
𝑐 𝑐
𝑥1
𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( )
𝑐
Splitting the 90-meter cable into half, we may get 45 m.
45 𝑥1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( ) (𝑒𝑞. 2)
𝑐 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 (𝑥) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 (𝑥) = 1
𝑐 + 20 2 45 2
( ) −( ) =1
𝑐 𝑐
𝑐 2 + 400 + 40𝑐 − 2025 = 𝑐 2

40𝑐 2025 − 400

=
40 40

325
𝑐= ≈ 40.625
8

Plugging the value of c with the equation 2

196
 45 𝑥1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( )
325 325
8 8
360 8𝑥1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( )
325 325
72 8𝑥1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( )
65 325
72 8𝑥1
sinh−1 =( )
65 325
325 72
sinh−1 = 𝑥1
8 65
38.81765245 = 𝑥1
𝑥 = 2𝑥1 = 2(38.82) = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟔𝟒𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

EXAMPLE 3: A catenary cable was hanged on one

side of a structure and was pulled to the other side.
With a given force of 400N and the mass per unit
length of 3kg, determine the amount of sag (h) of the
cable.

SOLUTION
Let us first determine the distribution work done affected by the distribution of weight and
considering gravity.
𝑚𝑔
𝑤= = (6𝑘̂𝑔)(9.8𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ) = 29.4𝑁/𝑚
𝑙
𝑇𝑜 400𝑁
𝑐= = = 13.61𝑚
𝑤 29.4𝑁/𝑚
𝑤𝑠
𝑡𝑎𝑛 55° =
𝐹
𝐹(𝑡𝑎𝑛55°) 400𝑁(𝑡𝑎𝑛55°)
𝑠= = = 19.43𝑚
𝑤 29.4𝑁/𝑚

𝑦 = √𝑠 2 + 𝑐 2 = √19.43𝑚2 + 13.61𝑚2 = 23.72𝑚

ℎ = 𝑦 − 𝑐 = 23.72𝑚 − 13.61 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝒎

197
PROBLEM ONE: Solve for the total length S of the cable
that is suspended from two fixed points that are 20m apart,
forming a sag of 4 m. (Ans: 𝑆𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 22𝑚)

PROBLEM TWO: A certain street in Villegas Avenue

contains two poles with distinct cables. One of which includes
poles with a cable which is 250ft apart from each other.
Having same heights and elevations for each pole, the sag then
measures 20ft and sustains 6lb/ft. Determine the length of the
cable. (Ans: l=253.92ft,)

PROBLEM THREE: ELECTRIC CITY showed two electric

towers with a catenary cable whose length is 300m and sustains
a mass per unit of 8 kg/m/ The cables were suspended between
two towers 260 m apart. Given that the tower were erected at
the same height, determine the height of the cable and the
maximum tension in the cable. (Ans: h=62.45m,
Tmax=2652645.3N)

PROBLEM FOUR: A 42 m cable is presented in the

figure, weighing 1.5 kN/m. Determine the sag h and the
maximum tension of the cable. (Ans: h=9.0219m, 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
41.68)

PROBLEM FIVE:
A housewife decided to hang a cable for their household’s
laundry line between a utility pole and the back of their
house. For this situation, the mass per unit length of the
cable is 2.7kg/m. Determine the distance from the back of
the house to the lowest point N of the laundry line and the
maximum tension in the cable. (Ans. d=8.11m, Tmax=26.29N)

198
 (The Catenary: Definition and Derivation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16JI6JzOzeI

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