CHAPTER

PRINCIPLES OF EDM/
2 TOTAL STATION
4.0 Introduction

• The distance measurements nowadays are more accurate and faster, especially for long
distances which are done by using an electronic device that use electromagnetic waves
also known as EDM.
• Principles of EDM are have EDM instrument and reflector.
• Lines of sight between two instruments are not blocked and must see each other.
• Electromagnetic waves are sent from the transmitter to the reflector in which part of it is
returned to the transmitter.
• With the waves are sent and received, it can calculate the distance required.

EDM/TS
Reflector/Transmitter/PRISM

Wave transmitted and returns

Stn B

Stn A

Figure 1.1: Basic Principles of Distance Measurement

4.1 Principles of Distance Measurement by Electronic Method

• EDM is based on the idea that light travel at a finite velocity and by measuring how long
signal takes travel back and forth between two points and with knowing the speed of
light and the the distance can be measured.
• Light travels through space in the form of electromagnetic waves.
• The earth receives maximum amount of electromagnetic energy from the sun. This
energy reaches the earth through a vacuum.
• Electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum, i.e., they do not require a medium
for transmission.
• Electromagnetic waves are two dimensional transverse waves, i.e. the transfer of energy
is perpendicular to the oscillations.

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 1

4.1.1 The characteristics of electromagnetic wave

• All types of electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light and at the same speed in
vacuum.
• Electromagnetic waves have no mass
• Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, similar to water waves in the ocean or the
waves seen on a guitar string.

Wavelength
Figure 1.2.1:
Electromagnetic Wave

• Wavelength – travels along x-axis at velocity of 299,792.5 ± 0.4 km/s (c assume 3×108
m/s)
• Frequency – time taken for one complete wavelength
• Relationship:

𝒄 λ = wavelength in meters
𝒇= c = velocity, in km/s
𝛌
f = frequency, in hertz (one cycle per second)
=1/T

Figure 1.2.2: Principles of Distance Measurement by Electronic

Method

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 2

 • As for example in Figure 1.2.2 Principles of electronic distance measurement using a
modulation infrared wave (IR) which is known frequency was sent to the reflector
(reflector) at station B and reflector will return the frequency to the transmitter
(EDM/station A).
• With this it can calculate the number of waves 'n' with an accuracy of 1/1000 part from
the length of the wave.
• The value of n/f (n = number of waves, f = frequency) was calculated manually or
automatically by the EDM and multiplied by the standard velocity (v) through the
atmosphere. With those value the slope distance D from station A to station B can be
obtained.
• Relationship:

Slope Distance, D = v × n / f t= time taken for one complete wave length

=v×t

EXAMPLE 4.1

The waves travel from station X to station Y with a frequency of 5Hz and the velocity of 2.5 m/s
respectively. The display counter showed that 10.5 numbers of waves detected approached the
station B. Calculate the horizontal/slope distance from A to B.

Solution
Given; Numbers of wave (n) = 10.5, Frequency (f) = 5Hz, Velocity (v) = 2.5 m/s

Time (t);
Therefore Distance; D = v × t
t =n/f = 2.5 m/s × 2.1s
= 10 / 5
= 5.25 m
= 2.1 s

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 3

 EXAMPLE 4.2

Given below information:

Numbers of wave (n) = 12, Frequency (f) = 7 Hz, Velocity (v) = 3.5 m/s
Calculate the distance

Solution

Slope Distance (D);

D =v×t
= v × (n / f)
= 3.5 × (12 / 7)
= 6.0 m

4.2 Evolution of EDM Instrument System

• First introduced by Swedish physicist Erik Bergstrand (Geodimeter- an acronym for

geodetic distance meter) in 1948. Used visible light at night to accurately measure
distances of up to 40km at night.

Figure 1.3.1: First EDM model by Geodimeter

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 4

• In 1957, the first Tellurometer, designed by South African, Dr. T.L. Wadley, was
launched. The Tellurometer used microwaves to measure distances up to 80km day or
night.

Figure 1.3.2: Microwave EDM Tellurometer MRA101

• Infra-red (IR) wave and laser devices with combination microwaves system are common
use today.

Figure 1.3.3: Infra-red (IR) wave and laser devices

• EDM equipment is easily to be classified by type of carrier waves use such microwave,
infra-red and laser.

Figure 1.3.4: Chart of carrier wave

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 5

4.2.1 Microwave System

• The microwave distance measuring device is an electronic instrument that transmits

precisely controlled radio waves between two units.
• It capable to transmit distance until 100km.
• These systems have transmitter (EDM) and receiver (Prism).
• Passive receiver - low signal and Active receiver – high signal
• It needs two instruments and two operators.
• Max range for this instrument around 25 – 50 km
• Accuracy ± 10 mm/ ± 3mm per km
• Types of EDM microwave – Tellumat, Tellurometer,Geodimeter and Makometer.

4.2.2 Electro Optical System

• The majority of EDM instruments manufactured today are electro optical and transmit
infra-red or laser light as a carrier signal.
• Most likely to be used by civil engineer because it is cheap and easy equipment
• Many of EDM tools use Electro Optic System because the source of carrier wave is diode
that transmits infra-red gallium arsenid (GaAs).
• This diode can easier directly modulated the amplitude at high frequencies as EDM need.
• Range of measurement not going far like the Microwave. It can measure short distance
compare to micro wave system because power sent by using infra-red carrier wave will
decline quickly when the distance increased. (Because > distance m = < carrier wave of
infra-red)
• Measure from a few meters to 1km or more and some in fact can measure up to 60km.
• Required reflecting mirror where infra-red carrier wave will be reversed again to
transmitter. Single prism- 1km, three or more prism – 2 until 3 km.
• Accuracy + 10 mm
• Types:Wild,Geodimeter,Kern,Sokkia,Topcon, Leica etc.
4.3 Total Station

• Next development in computer technology created Total Station.

• Total Station is a type of theodolite that can measure the angle and distance together. It
is a combination theodolite electronically with the EDM.
• This device is equipped with the system microprocessor, which allows calculation
continue to be performed automatically (include coordinate measurement).
• Total Station also features with specific survey software (programs) and the memory
card for the purpose of collecting and storing data.
• It can be connected to the computer for data processing to produce a plan.

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 6

• “From field to finish” concept.

Figure 1.4: From field to finish

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 7

4.3.1 Advantages of Total Station
• Measurements can be performed fully automated.
• Does not involve a large labour force.
• Mistakes and error can be avoided because of booking records done electronically.
• Measurements can be performed in humid weather because there is water resistance
Total Station (waterproof).
• Some of total station is now equipped with Bluetooth and WiFi for easy data transfer.

Topcon GTS 239

Figure 1.4.1: Most Common Total Station Brands in Marketplace

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 8

4.3.2 Main components of Total Station and its function

4.3.3 Robotic Total Station

• These types of TS are more convenient and sophisticated where it could observe the
horizontal angle in robotics (servo-driven).
• Some devices can be connected with a remote control (remote) to facilitate the
measurement process.
• This tool is most suitable for work in dangerous areas such as radioactive areas, coal
mines, swampy land and etc.

Figure 1.4.2: Robotic Total Station

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 9

4.3.4 Reflectorless Total Station
• This device can measure the distance without the use of reflectors.
• Measurements are transmitted by the source device and the distance will appear if it
bounces on any hard and rough surface.
• This method is used if the station or the point to be observed it is difficult to set up
reflector.
• However, the precision and accuracy obtained is less than using a reflector.

Figure 1.4.3: Reflectorless Total Station

4.4 Error in EDM

4.4.1 Personal Error

• Personal errors are error came from human factor include

i. Inaccurate setups of EDM instruments and reflectors over station
ii. Faulty measurements of instrument and reflector heights
iii. Mistakes in manually reading and recording displayed distances and bearing.
iv. Failing to set the atmospheric temperature and pressure.

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 10

4.4.2 Instrumental Error

All EDM instruments exposed with following instrumental error: -

a) Zero constant (index error)
b) Scale Error (frequency shifted)
c) Cyclic Error

a) Zero Constant

• All distances measured by a particular EDM instrument and reflector combination are
subject to a constant error; caused by three factors: -
i. Electrical delays, geometrical detours and eccentricities in the instruments
ii. Differences between the electronic centre and the mechanical centre of the
instrument;
iii. Differences between the optical and mechanical centres of the reflector.
• The constant error is most significant on short distance; with an instrument having a
constant error of ± 2mm, a measurement of 20m is good to only 2/20000 = 1/10000
(100ppm)
• For a long distance, say 2km the constant error becomes negligible and the proportional
part more important (scale error).

b) Scale Error
• Scale error is proportional to the length of the distance measured and is caused by:
i. Internal frequency errors, including those caused by external temperature and
instrument "warm up" effects;
ii. Errors of measured temperature, pressure and humidity which affect the index of
refraction and modify the wavelength of electromagnetic energy.
iii. Effects more clearly apparent in long distance.

Figure 1.5: The magnitude of error in EDM due to

errors in measuring atmospheric pressure and
temperature

• Note that a 10°C temperature error or a

pressure difference of 25mm of mercury,
each produce a distance error about 10 ppm

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 11

 • This error may vary with changes of reflector or can be detected and corrected with
calibration on the instrument.

c) Cyclic Error
• The precision of an EDM instrument is dependent on the precision of the internal phase
measurement.
• Unwanted interference either through electronic/optical cross talk or multi-path effects
of the transmitted signal onto the received signal causes cyclic error.
• Systematic errors (cyclic) in the phase comparison appear as cyclic errors in the zero
constant with a wavelength of λ/2 of the fine pattern frequency

Figure 1.5.1: Cyclic errors in the phase comparison

• The error can be detected (and hence modelled and corrected) by moving the reflector
along a precisely calibrated base of at least λ/2 in length as shown in figure 1.5.2 below
:-

Figure 1.5.2: Calibration of cyclic error

4.4.3 Natural Error

• Natural error came from external and environment factor include atmospheric
temperature, pressure and humidity which affect the index of refraction and modify the
wavelength of electromagnetic energy.
• Can caused the disruption in internal frequency to instrument (scale error)
• All of these variables must be set and measured to get correct observed distance
• Humidity can generally be neglected when using electro optical instruments but this
variable was important when microwave instrument was employed.

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 12

4.4.4 Instrument Tests
• To determine whether the instrument is always in good condition, it must be tested
according following survey stages:

a) Calibration
b) Different Field Test
c) Daily Checking

a) Calibration

• Need to calibrate EDM and prism at the calibrate test site within not less 3 month.

Figure 1.5.3 EDM Calibration Site

b) Differential Field Test
• To do before start new job.
• For make sure the instrument in good condition.
• If > 10 mm the instrument must send to repair.

c) Daily Checking
• Check the last line on previous day.
• If > 10mm, surveyor need to do differential field test.
• If still have > 10mm this instrument must send to repair.

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 13

4.5 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distance Accuracies and Correction

• During measurement, an electromagnetic wave is continuously transmitted from EDM

towards receiver where it is reflected back to EDM and the slope distance, D between
those two stations can be determined.
• However, when the slope distance measurements are made by using EDM, there are
atmospheric effects and instrument errors can cause a difference in the distance display
and therefore the correction needed.
• Furthermore, it is common to create geometric correction to the slope distances measured
so that the horizontal distance can be obtained. See figure 1.6 on how the slope correction
is done.

Slope correction = D (1 – cos ) D

V


H
Figure 1.6 Distance Measurement

• Where: Horizontal Distance (H) = D – slope correction

D = Slope distance
H = Horizontal Distance
V = Vertical Distance
 = Vertical Angle
EXAMPLE 1.3
A measurement has been made from A to B with distance of 200m and vertical angle of 3°10'05".
B located at hilly slopes. Calculate the Slope Correction and then Horizontal distance

Solution

Given; Slope distance (D) = 200m, θ = 3°10'05"

Slope Correction; Horizontal Distance;

= D (1 – cos) H = D – slope correction

= 200 (1 – cos 3°10'05") = 200 – 0.3057m
= 0.3057m = 199.694m

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 14

 Slope Correction; Vertical Distance;

= D (1 – sin) V = D – slope correction

= 200 (1 – sin 3°10'05") = 200 – 188.947m
= 188.947m = 11.053m

4.6 Latest Development in Electronic Distance Measurement

4.6.1 Laser Distance Meter

• Laser distance meters are used for accurately determining the distance of an object from
another object without contact, this task is completed using a laser.
• The basic measuring principle is based on measuring the transit time of laser pulses between
the laser distance meter and the object to be measured. Considering the speed of light,
distances can be determined precisely with a laser distance meter.
• Moreover, allows this principle the determination of very large distances in the kilometre
range. Additionally, the laser distance meter can accumulate independently to calculate
surfaces and volumes.
• The laser distance meter is the ideal device for a civil engineer, and any other large scale
operations in which distance measurement accuracy is paramount. The laser distance meter
is frequently used in the industrial sector and especially with professions relating to
construction, such as carpentry, masonry, electrical, landscapers, developers, locksmiths,
etc.
• This laser distance meter is attractive due to its ease of use and its high level of accuracy in
the results recorded.
• The laser distance meter can measure and store the readings to a memory and determine the
surface, the volume or height showing these on its display.

Figure 1.7.1 Laser Distance Measurement at construction site

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 15

 Figure 1.7.2 Leica Laser Disto with sketch apps

4.6.2 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) – GPS

• Generally used for navigation purposes and also find applications in surveying.
• The GPS enables the users to locate their position in three dimensions as well as with
respect to time.
• The system is run with the help of satellites launched for this purpose.
• Since GPS provides a means to locate positions. It is evident that it can be used for
surveys, as surveying is the process of locating points on the surface of the earth.
• Since GPS receivers need to receive signals from satellites, it is clear that the ground
equipment should be placed such that it is possible to receive signals from satellites.
• Due to many problems in receiving signals, the position determined might not be
accurate.
• A differential GPS technique is used in such a case.
• In this technique, the GPS can be used for base line measurement.
• With two receivers placed at either ends of the line, their coordinates can be worked
out and the distance can be calculated.
• One receiver, known as the reference receiver, is placed on a point of known
coordinates.
• The second receiver is placed at other positions and the distance between the points
can be calculated.
• The signals are sent from the reference receiver through any communication mode
such as mobile, radio, or internet.
• The examples of brand that provide GPS for surveying are Trimble, Garmin, etc.
• It is easy to use, smaller, faster, lightweight, ergonomic, cable-free, and the most
important is the reading accuracy is better than other EDM.

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 16

 Figure 1.7.3 Trimble GPS Receiver

Figure 1.7.4 Trimble GPS Hand-held Figure 1.7.5 Garmin GPS Hand-held

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 17

4.6.3 Tablet PC

• Tablet PC is a lightweight, rugged and highly mobile field computer that can operate
with suite of receivers and total stations to provide a complete surveying solution.
• Tablet PC aids the flow of information between the field and office, while also
allowing surveyors to perform office work directly from the field.
• Cellular data modem enables manageable and efficient workflows so surveyors can
remain connected wherever networks are available.
• The large display features new technology created specifically to enhance sunlight
readability.
• Viewing data, maps and applications is also easier.
• Tablet PC is an ideal solution that provides even more capability to surveyors—more
memory, computing power, connectivity, data visualization, increased documentation
and more.

Figure 1.7.4 Trimble Tablet PC

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 18

 TUTORIAL CHAPTER 4

1. Describe the basic principle of Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) with the aid of
illustration.

2. Explain TWO systems of Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

3. Interpret EDM/Total Station errors below;

i. Personal Error
ii. Instrumental Error
iii. Natural Error

4. Describe clearly about THREE instrumental errors occurred on EDM.

5. Describe briefly TWO instrument test for Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

6. Calculate the slope correction and horizontal distance if below data given:
i. Slope distance = 150 m
ii. Vertical angle = 10°
(Ans: slope correction = 2.279, H=147.721m)

Chapter 2 – PRINCIPLES OF EDM/TOTAL STATION 19