Module I: Part 1

Friday, 1 September 2023 11:46 pm

Learning Outcomes After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the nature of mores and values in ethics;
- Mores are the set customs of a society based on folkways while values are
2. Explain the difference between values and moral values;

3. Differentiate between a moral judgment and a moral decision; and

4. Explore the difference between intellectual choice and practical choice.

Ethics and Mores

Ethics - a branch of philosophy that studies morality, or right and wrong behavior
- root word "ethos" (Greek) refers to the sum of characteristics of a culture that
differentiates them from other groups
- What is right or wrong?
Morality - the core of the attitudes and beliefs (customary behavior) of a particular group
- Root word "mores" (Latin) which refers to customs in the broadest and richest sense of
the word
○ What should or shouldn't be done?

➢ Normative Ethics - refers to the standard rightness or wrongness of an act or

behavior; it tries to give a moral framework to determine what is bad or good
➢ Meta-ethics - examines meanings, and justifications of ethical concepts and
principles
○ It wonders the nature of morality and asks whether it is truly objective or
subjective like a preference, an opinion, or cultural conventions?

Activity 1: Read Sumner's "The Case for Ethical Relativism"

1. How do you develop your notion of ‘what is the right thing to do’ in society?
➢ My beliefs of "what is right or wrong to do" in society comes from what I was taught and what I
have learned. Societal influence comes in those two forms.
➢ Firstly, from what I was taught by my parents and family. This is best illustrated by parenting.
Growing up we would often hear the words "no, don't do that" or "good job". And in return, we
would ask the question "why?". (Diba when we watch over our nieces, nephews or younger
siblings that is a question we hear so much that our ears physically hurt). The answer would
always be variations of "Because you're supposed or not supposed to do that". If asked the
question "why?" to that answer. We say "Because that's how it is" just to end the conversation.
This is how we are educated of the ideas of customs.
➢ Additionally, experience is another factor. Basic socialization will tell me what is right or wrong.
Through peers or groups we are members of and associated with, we learn the consequences
of our actions and behaviors and promptly compare them to the feeling of pain or pleasure. For

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 of our actions and behaviors and promptly compare them to the feeling of pain or pleasure. For
example, I was once told I was ugly because of having dark skin, which deeply affected my self-
esteem. Thus, if I say the same thing to someone else it would also hurt them which would not
be right, seeing as to how it affected me deeply.
➢ In conclusion, being part of and functioning in society itself naturally educates me of "what is
the right thing to do".

2. What is the connection between your choices as an individual and that of your society?
- My choices as an individual are influenced or guided by that of my society to a certain extent. It
does so in a way that it controls my behavior through social controls (such as tradition and
culture), and sanctions (such as jail time). My decisions are guided by how society chooses what
is appropriate and acceptable during this age.
- However, it is ultimately still my own moral decisions being made, with my own values based on
what I think is best.
3. To what extent do the mores of your society shape your notion of “good/bad” or “right/wrong”?
- By definition, mores refers to customary or moral norms. As mentioned in the readings, it
provides a framework within which we conform to. This influences behavior, and shape moral
values. To explain further, mores dictate what should or should not be done in the common
way of life. Through socialization we percept what is collectively desirable or condemned. The
socializing process educates us of what is acceptable or not, and we conform to these general
ideas of what is good/bad, or right/wrong for the reason that being part of society, intrinsically
makes us want or need for approval and acceptance as well as the sense of belonging.
- However, the extent of its influence ends with my personal standards. It is because I have my
own experiences, beliefs and values that I cherish and I am capable of thinking critically as well
as evaluate what is best.
4. Do mores change? How? Cite an example.
- They present themselves as final and unchangeable, because they provide answers to the
problem of life which are offered as "the truth". But the goodness or badness of mores consist
entirely in their adjustment to the life conditions and interest of the time and place.
- Mores adapt to new conditions of the time and place. Mores can evolve over time in response
to societal changes, new information, or shifts in values. This evolution can lead to changes in
what is considered morally acceptable or unacceptable within a society. This happens gradually
over time.
- We can see that this is true through how society is opening up to the queer community. More
respect and acceptance to their gender identity is being generated, with the use of preferred
pronouns, more media representations emerging, and, at least in other states, re-establishing
their rights to marriage. This shows how the mores of society change with time and new
conditions.

WILLIAM SUMNER
- According to Sumner, our notion of what is 'right' stems from our basic instinct to
survive
○ We formed groups to meet the tasks of survival and observed the best practices
and ways of doing things (e.g. Primitive: The best way to Hunters, Gatherers,
Nurturers)
○ As Aristotle said "Man is by nature a social animal"

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 ○ The group as a whole develops social rules and sanctions, which may be implicit
or explicit, in order to preserve the group practices and to control the behavior of
the individual for the purpose of maintaining order in society.

➢ Folkways - what Sumner refers to notions of 'right' and 'true'

○ He says that mores come from folkways plus the element of societal welfare
○ The tradition is its own warrant. Whatever is, is right because they are traditional.
It is not brought to test and verify them with experience
○ Focuses on first efforts to satisfy needs without reflection and thought of
consequences
○ Pleasure and pain became the navigation for what is ought to be done
- Folkways can be due to false inference
○ Folkways have been formed by accident. It is the ancestors custom to reason that,
if one thing follows another, it is due to it.
○ For example: Because some island natives in Nicobar who had just begun pottery
died, the art was given up and never attempted thinking that it is what has caused
the deaths of those natives.
- Folkways can be harmful
○ Often these are just the ones for which a definite reason can be given
○ For instance, a religion prohibits taking medicine prescribed by doctors. This
prevents proper nourishment and recovery that causes many to perish of diseases
and sicknesses. The taboo overrules the need for appropriate healing.

➢ Ethnocentrism - the view of one's own culture, group, or ethnicity is superior to

others
○ Folkways correspond to it, as each group subscribe to such a way of thinking.
That its folkways are the only right ones.
○ Ethnocentrism causes a people to exaggerate and intensify everything about their
own folkways that is unique and distinguishes them from others. As a result, it
strengthens the folkways.

➢ Mores - are folkways that are philosophically and ethically generalized as to societal
welfare (customs or usual practices)
○ Mores are a directive force.
○ Institutions and laws are produced out of mores.
▪ Institutions - consists of a concept and a structure; the structure holds the
concept and provides the means for it to be brought into the world of facts
□ Institutions are established with a purpose to serve the interests of
society. They are either crescive or enacted
 Crescive - they first appear as mores and grow by instinctive
efforts that solidify and become definite through long use of
efforts (e.g. property, marriage, and religion)
 Enacted - products of rational invention and intention (e.g.
banks)
▪ Laws - a system of rules recognized as regulating the actions of its

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 ▪ Laws - a system of rules recognized as regulating the actions of its
members which is characterized by its enforcement by the imposition of
penalties
□ Acts of legislation come from the mores. It has to seek standing
ground on the existing mores so that the public will not think of them
too lax or too strict (In legislation, it is important to consider voluntary
compliance of its subjects)
□ Mores and laws differ in a way that mores are customary or moral
norms, defying them is considered a taboo, while laws are norms
enforced by the government. Breaking or disobeying them results to
legislated sanctions.

LAWS & INTITUTIONS VS MORES

➢ Faith and sentiment permanently exists in mores while Laws & institutions have a
rational and practical character, and are more mechanical and utilitarian.
➢ The mores cover the great field of common life where there are no laws or police-
regulations

Activity 2: "Saving Face" Documentary

1. Explain these incidents of acid attack on women in terms of the mores of their culture.
- These incidents of acid attacks can be explained, in terms of the mores of their culture, by
severe gender inequality. Their patriarchic culture gives men more power and higher status
than women whom are seen as inferior and treated as their ornaments or slaves. Women have
lesser rights. This is apparent in their traditional way of thinking that in a marriage, the woman
is to serve the man's family and leave behind her own.
- Because of this, men feel that they have every right to do what they want with women or their
wives. They get this sense of ownership and they justify their acid attacks with the reason of not
getting what they want from those women.
2. Do you think women should be freed from this bondage? Do you agree with Zakia’s pursuit of
justice? Explain your answer.
- Yes, I think that women should be freed from the bondage of violence, discrimination and any
form of abuse, including acid attacks. Women are as human as men. Every individual has the
inherent right to live a life free from harm and violence.
- Zakia's pursuit of justice shows her fight for this right. Her courage to speak up as a
representation of the abuse women in their culture suffer from opens up the discussion of their
basic rights. This pushed women in politics to fight for legal reform
- John Locke (father of liberalism) argues that "all individuals are equal in the same sense that
they are born with certain inalienable natural rights" and these are rights to life, liberty, and
property. He reasoned that individuals have both a right and duty to preserve their own lives.
3. Is it your obligation as a moral being to enlighten and empower women and other marginalized
sectors from their own culture by educating them about their rights in order that they could assert
and enjoy freedom in their own culture? Why/Why not?
- A moral obligation is defined as the requirement to pursue what we believe is right and act
accordingly. In my own discernment, to say that it is my moral obligation to enlighten and
empower women by educating them about their rights for them to assert and enjoy their
freedom in their own culture would not quite be true.
- It is not my place to decide that their culture is wrong compared to mine. We hold different

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 - It is not my place to decide that their culture is wrong compared to mine. We hold different
beliefs, values and morals. I can only share what it is that I believe is right and simply leave it up
to them to agree or not. However,

Activity 3: Anthropology and the Abnormal

1. Explain Benedict’s concept of the “normal/abnormal” and relate it with Sumner’s discussion of the
mores of society.
- Benedict explains the cultural relativity of what is normal or abnormal. What is normal in one
culture may be considered abnormal to another. Benedict explains that the concept of the
moral is a variant of the concept of normal. Which means, morality is a convenient term for
socially approved norms. This relates to Sumner's discussion of the mores of society in a way
that what is considered normal is determined by the mores. What is perceived normal or
abnormal will differ in different societies that may have radically different mores.

2. Explain and analyze the normal practices or norms in the cultures of the tribes described by
Benedict in terms of the discussion about mores and social sanctions to maintain, preserve, and
protect the welfare of one’s society.
- Benedict emphasized that different cultures have different sets of social norms or what is
referred to as mores. These mores guide the behavior and shape the values of member of its
society. They are moral customs meant to maintain, preserve and protect the welfare of one's
society.
- This stays true with the normal practices in the cultures of the tribes Benedict had described.
Their way of living is what they have concluded best for their tribes.
- For example: The Melanesian culture cultivates skepticism towards one's kindness. They thrive
in distrust of one another. It is normal for them to expect poison, especially when food is
shared, so they never leave their cooking pots even for a second. We can perceive this extreme
distrust as their way of protecting themselves from others. It is their practice of survival.
3. Compare the norms described by Benedict to our own standard of what is “normal/ abnormal” in
our culture. How will you justify these ‘abnormal’ practices?
- Melanesian Culture:
○ Normal: Distrust among people. It is normal for them to expect poison when food is
shared.
○ Abnormal: Having a kind disposition, being friendly, likes to work and be helpful. --- These
are all that we find normal. In fact, we see it as pleasant and preferrable in a person.
➢ If I were to justify these 'abnormal' practices, relative to our own standards, I would
say that this kind of social practice of distrust may have stemmed from their belief
that humans are inherently evil.
➢ We could relate this to Hobbes idea, which he argues that people are inherently
wicked and selfish.
- Among Kwakiutl (kwakiyoodle):
○ Normal: Any death is affront and should be wiped out by the death of another.
○ With our standards, this is abnormal. We cannot just decide to kill someone else who is
entirely unrelated or even remotely connected to the death of our loved one just because
we are sad
➢ However, if I were to justify this practice, then it could be explained as a way of
grief. To them, a death in any case is offensive or an insult (this is how they

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 grief. To them, a death in any case is offensive or an insult (this is how they
perceive grief). Thus, not being able to accept the pain of grief they must pass it on
to another.

Activity 4: Mothershead's "The Problem of the Scope of

Morality -
1. When does a value become a moral value?
○ A value becomes a moral value when it becomes an unlimited priority. Meaning that it
supersedes other kinds of values and these other values have to be set aside.
A. Is money a value? Can money become a moral value? Why/Why not?
- Money is valuable. Valuable in a way that it serves a purpose. It possesses value of utility.
Now, can money become a moral value. As mentioned earlier, a value becomes a moral
value when it becomes an unlimited priority. Meaning that it supersedes other kinds of
values and these other values have to be set aside. Therefore, using this logic, money
CAN be a moral value if you place it as the highest priority. This goes the same for any
class of values you please by attributing moral value in addition to any other value it may
have.
B. Can you think of other examples?
- Another example of a value is kindness. A value we attribute to the act of being friendly,
generous, and considerate. This can be
2. Why do we have this tendency to render moral judgements on others so easily? Explain your
answer.
- This is because we find it easier to comprehend others if we categorize them as being bad or
good rather than acknowledging that a person is a complex being who is capable of both.
3. Is your practical choice always in consonance with your intellectual choice? Why/ Why not?
- No. Most of the time intellectual and practical choices clash. Eating for example, logically it is
consuming another life that does not belong to you. So the intellectual choice would be, if you
do not allow other life to eat you, you shouldn't eat other life. However, we also know that we
cannot live or survive if we do not eat. Thus, we defer from the intellectual choice and eat
knowing that it is not technically fair.

CONCEPT OF VALUE
➢ Ethics, or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy. It is the study of one of the
fundamental problems of philosophy---morals. Morality or moral is the subject matter
being studied.
○ Value Experience - side-taking (when we are for or against some things) part of
human experience
➢ Values or disvalues - the goods (value) or bads (disvalue) that appear in it
□ Good is used as a moral term, which supposes that all values are
moral. However, upon reflection, not all values are moral. Thus, not all
goods have moral values
□ Therefore, it is important to determine what is being referred to as
good.
➢ Values of Utility - attributed to anything that fulfills or is likely to fulfill a
purpose
➢ Value theory concerns itself with considerations about value and valuation in general

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 ➢ Value theory concerns itself with considerations about value and valuation in general
➢ A value becomes a moral value when it becomes an unlimited priority. Meaning that
it supersedes whatever other kinds of values which have to be set aside.
○ Moral values take precedence over all other values.
• Very loosely, a judgement is simply a thought. Sentences or statements themselves
are not true or false but rather expresses what is true or false. These expressions are
called propositions and the act of thought that affirms or denies a proposition is called
a judgement.
➢ A moral decision is a moral judgement pertaining to the judger's own actions that
reflects our choices as to what we include or exclude in our life, but not all moral
judgements are moral decisions.
○ Moral judgements can be directed or referenced to other people or groups of
people
➢ Conduct - deliberate human action (such as attitudes, traits, and organizations or
institutions)
○ Calling things morally bad or morally good is from the thought of the result of
good or bad deliberate action, or conduct.
○ Morality centers around conduct and the budgeting of these actions.
➢ Morality
○ Its minimum requirements are freedom and obligation
○ Limited Morality - living creatures other than men are not capable of moral
judgement.
○ Pre-reflective Morality - morality that occurs prior to deliberation and
reflection
According to Mothershead, only humans are moral as they are capable of deliberate
human action

Activity 5: Hachiko
1. Do you think the dog Hachi has the capacity to make moral decisions and choices? Why/ Why
not?
- According to Mothershead, there would be no morality if we could see a perfect future all laid
out before us or if were unable to consider the future (as is true in the case of the lower
animals). Living creatures other than men are not capable of moral judgement. They cannot
decide what is right or what is wrong. As defined earlier, a moral decision is a moral judgement.
Therefore, the dog Hachi does not have the capacity to make moral decisions and choices. It
only seems apparent that Hachi displays significant moral behavior. But, studies show that it is
because we attribute human behavior to the dog's actions. There is no question to whether
Hachi is waiting for his owner, but it is a matter of the intention. Hachi may not be waiting at
the train station because of moral judgement but because of how Hachi was conditioned and
how Hachi's actions follow similar acts of his in the past with similar conditions.

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Module I: Part 2
Friday, 1 September 2023 11:47 pm

Activity 1: Williams "Socrates' Question" & Russel "The Value

of Philosophy"
1. What questions are encountered in the study of ethics?
What is our duty? How may we be good? How can we be happy? What is the right thing to do?
How should I live?
2. Which of these is the most important and why?
Williams argues that it is best to begin with what is referred to as Socrates' Question---How
should one live?
This question invites us to reflect about one's life as a whole.

Activity 2
Policy/Legal (what Psychological (what Ethical (what is right
sanctions were they were thinking) or wrong)
made)
Why did the judge Why would the mother Was killing Tracy the
and jury find him feel relieved of her best thing that the
guilty only of daughter's death? parents could have
second-degree done?
murder?
Why did the judge Why would they want Was the judge and
ignore the her dead? jury right to find him
mandatory 10-year guilty only of second-
sentence? degree murder and
ignore the
mandatory sentence?
No matter what, Did they find their Was it right to end
murder is a crime daughter a heavy Tracy's suffering by
that should be burden they could not killing her?
punished. In fact, a handle and wanted her
heavy punishment dead?
should've been
imposed to think
that she was his own
daughter.
1. As you go through your list, reflect on the following questions:
a) What could serve as bases for the divisions between and among the three sets of ques-
tions or views that you drew up?
b) What makes ethics distinct from the two other sets of considerations?
c) Are there areas of similarity and continuity among the three sets of questions or views?
2. How should this case inform our understanding of ethical questions?
3. In the reading material, Russell tells us that “as soon as a definite knowledge concerning
any subject becomes possible, this subject ceases to be called philosophy, and becomes a
separate science.” How do your answers to the first question above reflect this?

Note: See Reference (Module 2: NATURE OF ETHICS AND MORAL REASONING)

From <https://classroom.google.com/c/NTIzNDM0MzMyNDUw/a/NjIxMjM2NzE2MDA5/details>

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From <https://classroom.google.com/c/NTIzNDM0MzMyNDUw/a/NjIxMjM2NzE2MDA5/details>

Activity 3: Plato's "Ring of Gyges" & Korsgaard's Excellence

and Obligation
Imagine yourself in a similar situation as the shepherd in the story (i.e. any instance of wrongdoing, or
unfair dealing, that is done in secrecy). Provide brief answers to the following questions:
1. Why, in this case, should you be moral?
- In the story the shepherd discovers a ring that makes him invisible and allows him to do
whatever he pleases without fear of consequences.
- To be in a similar situation, being able to do whatever one pleases without punishment, it is still
important to be moral. Plato argues that morality is not merely a set of rules imposed by society
but is intrinsic to the nature of a just and well-ordered soul. Immorality, even in secret, corrupts
the soul and leads to inner turmoil and unhappiness. So, being moral is crucial both for the well-
being of society, and for our own inner harmony.
2. Will you do what is good, fair, and right, or the contrary? What are your reasons for your choice?
- Immorality, even in secret, corrupts the soul and leads to inner turmoil and unhappiness.
In the story, Plato also invites the reader to compare the prosperity of a man who acts unfairly with a
reputation for virtue, with the misery of a man who does good but has reputation for vice. Share with
the class your answers to the following questions:
3. Why are we usually repulsed by someone who is unfair to us and/or to others? (Think, for
example, of a person who gains advantages by breaking his/her promises or by breaching a
contract.)
4. If wrongdoing gains a person benefits, or if treating others unfairly means we get more, or
ahead of others, why not act wrongly?
5. Is it really better to be good rather than bad (or right rather than wrong, just rather than
unjust, virtuous rather than vicious)? How so?

B. Read Christine Korsgaard's “Excellence and obligation: a very concise history of western
metaphysics 387 BC to 1887 AD” in The Sources of Normativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1996, pp 1-5. Answer the study questions below.
1. What is the relationship between value (such as goodness and rightness) and our duties and
obligations?
2. How does this relationship reflect morality’s overriding authority in telling us to do (or not
do) certain things?

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Module 2
Friday, 3 November 2023 2:01 pm

PANTAYONG PANANAW
Pangkaming pananaw – about us to outsiders; “Kami ang mga Pilipino.”
Pansilang pananaw – about them among insiders; “Sila ang sumakop sa amin.”
Pangkayong pananaw – about them to them (outsiders); “Kayong mga Amerikano ang mananakop.”

Pantayong Pananaw – about us among us; “Tayong mga Pilipino ang sinakop.”

➢ Zeus Salazar
○ Closed circuit - nakapinid na pag-uugnayan/pakikipag-ugnayan; a closed group or
community
○ The "Pantayong Pananaw" is achieved only when all the members understands and uses
and agrees on the same meanings, way of thinking, and acting. Supposedly having one
shared language is fundamental.
○ This perspective is crucial as it gives importance to the epistemology (theory of
knowledge) of the insider's perspective from their own experience and in their own
language.
The Importance of Language in promoting "Pantayong Pananaw"
• Sharing and using one language allows the community to express and understand their shared
reality
• Hence, using Filipino is the most important and essential part in "Pantayong Pananaw"
because without it there would be no proper discourse and deliberation among the Filipinos.
Filipino Psychology "Sikolohiyang Pilipino": Meaning and Purpose
• According to Virgilio Enriquez Filipino Psychology is "psychology resulting from Filipino
experience, thought, and orientation"
• Ang sikolohiyang Pilipino ay "bunga ng karanasan, kaisipan, at oryentasyong Pilipino."
• Enriquez: Cultural revalidation - the strategy in which historical and socio-cultural realities
were assessed, understanding the local language, unraveling Filipino characteristics and
explaining them through the eyes of a native Filipino.

Kapwa at Pakikipagkapwa
• The concept of "kapwa" is central to Sikolohiyang Pilipino
• Kapwa - concept of sharing yourself with others or what Enriquez calls "shared inner self"
○ Having kapwa results from the awareness of shared identity and recognizing that the
"ako" and "iba-sa-akin" (others) are the same
• According to Enriquez, since Filipinos care about their relationships with others and with each
other, it is important to study this to determine the basic concepts Filipino personality, their
social psychology, view of the world, and philosophy.
• 2 types of interactions (both are still within the concept of "kapwa")

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• 2 types of interactions (both are still within the concept of "kapwa")
1. "Ibang-tao" (outsider)
Types of interactions with outsiders
i. Pakikitungo or Civility
ii. Pakikisalamuha or Mixing
iii. Pakikilahok or Joining/Participating
iv. Pakikibagay or Conforming
v. Pakikisama (Adjusting)
2. "Hindi ibang-tao" (insider)
i. Pakikipagpalagayang-loob or Establishing mutual trust
ii. Pakikisangkot or Getting involved
iii. Pakikiisa or Fusion, Oneness and Full trust

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Module 3
Friday, 3 November 2023 3:33 pm

DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS - focuses in the inherent rightness of the act rather than the consequence
of the action (THE ACT IS MORALLY RIGHT IF THE ACT IS RIGHT IN ITSELF)
TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS or Consequentialist ethics - morality has a purpose
- Also loosely called UTILITARIAN ETHICS
○ An action is moral depending on its consequence alone
○ The relevance of the consequence depends on whether it provides the greater or lesser
happiness of people
○ An action is morally right depending on the measured degree of happiness (everyone's
happiness must be considered equally)
VIRTUE ETHICS - emphasizes on the moral character of the individual as the center point of tis
ethical theory. (The action is moral if it is done by a moral person)

EGOISM - "I", self-interest and personal advantage

- Differentiated from selfishness since egoism is a philosophical doctrine with the idea that
practical reasons have to be grounded in what matters to oneself in a way that can't matter to
other people
- Example: the way I dress should not matter to you as much as it matters to me and vice versa
- The motivations to acts must be reasons that matter to oneself (so to consider acting in the
interests of others, they should be people that matter to oneself)
Psychological Egoism - human action rest upon a certain state of mind, namely wanting or desiring,
because of human nature to act egoistically.
Rational Egoism - acting in pursuit of one's own desires than any other is a rational decision
(rationalizes doing whatever you want to do)
ALTRUISM - obligations to others

Ethics as a Quest for Spiritual Liberation

HINDUISM
• Samsara - cycle of transmigration; the movement of the soul into another body after death
• Canonical texts: Vedas and the Upanishads
• Indian Epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata
• Hinduism's most fundamental ethical concept - Dharma (moral end, duty, law, nature)
• Aside from being a religion, Hinduism is also considered a philosophy.

➢ Sat-Cit-Ananda (Absolute Being-Consciousness-Bliss)

○ Brahman - the name of the absolute being, it is creation itself and the principle of reality
▪ Hinduism refers to it as Atman -- inner self, inmost soul, or breath of life
○ Life is a transitory stage and when the consciousness realizes that the world is an illusion
(maya) the goal is to be released from this illusions through carrying out one's dharma
or duty.
Maya signifies "magic", "illusion", or "the power to distort"

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 ○ Maya signifies "magic", "illusion", or "the power to distort"
➢ Niskamakarma (No-pleasure-action)
○ Avidya - a positive-wrong knowledge; knowledge of reality therefore is false; ignorance
○ Hinduism has 3 kinds of Acts:
1. Obligatory - an act one must always perform precisely
2. Prohibited - an act that must be refrained from performing
3. Optional - one is free to perform or not perform an act
○ This ethical code gains following because of the fear of punishment in the form of
"karmic particles"
▪ Karmic particles - stand for 'fruits of Karma', serve as weights that bind the spirit
to the world of phenomena (the world of illusion) and the longer they are bound
to Samsara
▪ Goal of Hinduism: to detach from 'fruits of action' through performing acts purely
for their own sake and not for some reward. Thus, no-pleasure-action.
➢ Purusharthas (The Four Ends of Life)
1. Artha or Material Wealth - material needs as entities entrapped in bodies
2. Kama or Pleasure - natural desire for pleasure and happiness
3. Dharma or Moral End/Duty/Nature - every entity has a role to play and a duty to
perform
4. Moksha or Blissful Spiritual Liberation - the ultimate end; the liberation of the soul from
the cycle of transmigration
➢ The 4 Castes: The Caste System
1. Brahmin (head)- priests and gurus
2. Kshatriya (arms) - rulers, administrators, warriors, landowners
3. Vaishya (thighs) - producers, farmers, merchants
4. Shudra (feet) - servants

BUDDHISM
➢ Middle Way - the understanding of the 4 noble truths & the practice of the Eight-fold Path
➢ 4 Noble Truths:
1. Noble truth of Suffering (Dukkha)
2. Noble truth of the origin of Suffering (Dukkha Samudaya)
3. Noble truth of the Cessation of Suffering (Dukkha Nirodha)
4. Noble truth of the Path (Dukkha Nirodhagaminipratipat)
➢ Eight-fold Path (VISALEMC) - the aim is to achieve wisdom, virtue, and peace (thru
meditation). Living mindfully that leads to concentration and understanding which liberates
you from every pain and sorrow and leads to peace and joy
○ Consists of: Right view, Right intention (2- wisdom), Right Speech, Right action, right
livelihood (3- virtue), right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration (3- meditation).
HINDUISM & BUDDHISM

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HINDUISM & BUDDHISM
➢ Similarities: Both believe that the different entities, life forms, and levels of existence are
products of Samsara (transmigration)
➢ Differences:
○ Hinduism's ultimate end of life: the realization of one's absolute divinity
○ Buddhism's ultimate end of life: realization of one's absolute nothingness
○ Hinduism's drive to follow its ethical codes: the punishment of Karmic particles
○ Buddhism's drive to live the moral virtuous life: the end of suffering

ETHICS AS A WAY OF LIFE

➢ Daoism and Confucianism - ethics is anchored on a certain understanding of the fundamental
role human beings must play in the cosmos
Daoism (Dao De Jing)
• "School of the Way"
• Jing - the Book of
• Dao - the Way
○ Absolute Dao - The governing force that permeates everything that exists and does not
exist
• De - Virtue
• Ultimate goal is to find peace and tranquility by finding the Dao (reconciliation with the
seeming contradiction that governs reality and to be one with it) within oneself and being like
the Dao
Confucianism
• School of Literati
• Goal of human life and society is to achieve harmony (political and anthropocentric).

HEAVEN-EARTH-MAN
➢ "All under heaven" expresses the vision for an egalitarian society
○ But this imposes the demand for human beings to be of such moral rectitude
➢ Meng Zi: "The voice of the people is what reflects the voice of Heaven in a benevolent
government"
➢ Xun Zi: Heaven: Seasons::Earth: Wealth::Man: Morality
5 Core Moral Virtues in Confucianism
1. Consciousness-of-human-other or (Ren) - first moral awakening; realization of the fact that
one is not alone and it is with others that one is called into becoming moral and ethical human
beings.
2. Consciousness of one's moral imperative (Yi) - one's moral obligation is attached to one's
social appellation or role in the five-relationships
○ Ruler-Subject, Father-Son, Husband-Wife, Senior Brother-Junior Brother, and Senior
Friend-Junior Friend

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 Friend-Junior Friend
3. Propriety (Li) - a moral virtue; the refined external expression of a morally cultivated individual
(politeness, good manners, ceremony, civility, ritual)
4. Spoken Wisdom (Zhi) - "the act of knowing"; transmittable knowledge of morals and
consciousness of the moral value of actions
5. Faithfulness to one's word (Xin) - virtue of moral consistency; what you think must be what
you speak and what you speak must be what you act.
In summary: The virtuous person is not only conscious of his fellow human beings (Ren), nor is he
simply carrying out his moral responsibilities (Yi) and acting well (Li) with full knowledge of what he
must do (Zhi).
➢ Zhong: Doing unto others what you want other do unto you.
➢ Thus, Confucianism contains the highest articulation of an anthropocentric ethics where
goodness, virtuousness, righteousness, or humaneness is within the immediate reach of the
human individual. The moral obligation does not come from some transcendent beyond.
Instead, one must look within oneself to know what one must do. As one of the sayings of
Kong Zi asserts: “Is Goodness really so far away? If I simply desire Goodness, I will find that it is
already here.”

THE NATURE OF HUMAN MORAL CHARACTER AS GOOD OR EVIL

➢ Meng Zhi - humans are born with seeds of a good moral character that must be cultivated
➢ Xun Zi - goodness is only acquired training and the nature of humans moral character is
inherently evil that only seeks gain with the natural inclination to be selfish, thus, must NOT
cultivate our moral character and MUST overcome our nature

RELIGIOUS CONCEPTIONS OF ETHICS

- The beliefs and way of living that is inspired in the religions of Christians and Islam provide
ethical frameworks wherein which their teachings are considered the paragon of virtue.
➢ CHRISTIAN ETHICS
○ System of values based on scriptures and teachings of the Bible.
○ Christ's teachings are reflected in the way he lived his life and the way he interacted
with people
○ The commandment to love one another - this ethical virtue of unconditional love comes
from the admonition to love one another as God has loved humanity
▪ This love in Greek is Agape (loving God and your neighbor as yourself)---the way to
salvation
○ Teaches that one should not be quick to judge others but should focus on one's own
moral cultivation instead.
➢ ISLAM ETHICS
○ Islam ethics is referred to as the science of human soul which focuses in defining the
characteristics and qualities of the soul and the methods for controlling/moderating
them
○ Islamic ethics or Ilm al-akhlaq is the way to acquire the well-being of the soul and guard
it against vices
The Islamic religion asserts that a life of peace is achieved through submission of one's

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○ The Islamic religion asserts that a life of peace is achieved through submission of one's
life to Allah
○ 2 primary sources of Islamic ethics: Qur'an & Sunnah (or Life of the Prophet Muhammad)
▪ Both provide Islam with a clearly defined sense of moral authority
○ The Prophet Muhammad is believed to be the last messenger of Allah and serves as the
model for human conduct
○ (Religion) human beings are compose of 2 aspects: khalq material aspect, and a khuluq
or akhlaq the spiritual aspect
○ The basis for human action and decision in Islamic ethics consists of (a) the word of
Allah; (b) the human projection of a life inspired by Allah — the life of Muhammad; and
(c) human reasoning, which serves as a tool in understanding these two
○ Taqwa (Consciousness of Allah)
▪ The key to a virtuous life is a strong relationship with Allah. Restraining oneself
from disobeying the commands of Allah
▪ Ethical framework: good character begets good action
▪ Kinds of action: obligatory, recommended, permitted, discouraged, reprehensible,
and forbidden
▪ Moral responsibility to overcome individual differences and find ways through
which can establish form of unity
○ Jihad (Striving by peaceful means)
▪ 'holy war'
▪ Goal of ethical life in Islam: achieve happiness through taqwa but also thru the
attainment of balance within oneself (between the 2 aspects of human life:
material and spiritual)
○ Zakat (Giving)
▪ Fundamental truth of injustice in the world (Islamic tradition). Thus, imposes the
responsibility to be nurturing and compassionate through the duty of Zakat (form
of alms-giving).

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Ethics 1 Page 19
Class Notes
Monday, 4 September 2023 11:22 am

Mala in se = with malicious intent

Mala prohibitum or prohibitia = the act itself is prohibited

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Activities
Friday, 3 November 2023 12:37 pm

Activity 1:
1.How do you develop your notion of ‘what is the right thing to do’ in society?

Humans have an innate instinct to survive. So, to meet the task of survival, humans came up with
notions of what is right or what we call folkways. To ensure survival, humans formed groups and
observed best practices, and developed the most practical way of doing things. From these practices,
we came up with traditions and notions of the right thing to do. Although society has established
folkways or notions, it also depends on the individual who will decide whether to conform to the
notions. We develop our notion of "what is the right thing to do" in society through our needs that
need satisfying and how we can ensure our survival.

2.What is the connection between your choices as an individual and that of your society? By definition,
an individual choice is a choice that is based on internal stimuli and without any influence from the
external environment—these stimuli inside emotions, feelings, opinions, and ambitions. A person
makes a decision based on what he thinks is best for him or what he will be able to draw a maximum
benefit. When a person makes an individual choice, he examines the results of his decisions. On the
other hand, social choices are those choices based on external stimuli. When making these choices, we
consider our choice in society's opinion, and our decision becomes what the social groups agree.
However, in making decisions, individual choices and societal choices are interconnected with each
other. Our individual choices are influenced by society, together with its customs, social rules, and
social sanctions. Meanwhile, society and its social norms are affected by the individual choices of
actions and values for them to survive. In other words, this is in accordance with his/her moral and
rational capacity for knowing and discerning what is right and wrong.

3.To what extent do the mores of your society shape your notion of “good/bad” or “right/wrong”?
As mentioned, the notion of morality develops with the interplay between society and the individual.
Different groups compose society that directly or indirectly shapes the values of the individual. These
values serve as the individual's guide in his/her pursuit of what he/she believes to be the moral of the
'good' life. Note that the individual is assumed to be a free moral agent who can make choices and
deliberate or reflect before acting or making a decision. Moreover, as society grows and becomes
more complex, the different groups that comprise it could put forward competing values, including
other notions of 'what is good.' In this case, it is the rational individual who can decide for him/ herself
which moral principles to uphold, based on his/her upbringing and the influence of various groups in
his/her society. To a certain extent, society coerces its members to follow its rules to maintain order.
Society, as a whole, functions as a way of controlling the behavior of an individual. It becomes
necessary to impose social

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