Chapter 3.

THERMAL HISTORY

equilibrium
>
freeze-out
Γ =
decoupling
H
interaction rate expansion rate

<
non-equilibrium

3.1. EQUILIBRIUM

3.1.1. Equilibrium Thermodynamics

Consider a particle in a volume V = L3 :

• In QM, the momentum eigenstates have a discrete spectrum

L3 V
• The density of states in momentum space is 3 = 3 .
h h
1
• —— ” —— ” —— in phase space is 3 .
h
 • Including g internal degrees of freedom (e.g. spin), we get
g g
density of states = = .
h3 x
 (2π)
3

~ ≡ h/2π ≡ 1

Now, consider a gas of particles :

• The probability of a state being occupied is given by the

(phase space) distribution function f (x, p, t) = f (p, t) ≡ f (p) .
↑
homogeneity + isotropy

• Integrating over momentum, we find:

Z
g
− number density n = 3
d3 p f (p)
(2π)
Z
g
− energy density ρ= 3
d3 p f (p)E(p)
(2π)
p2
Z
g 3
− pressure P = d p f (p)
(2π)3 3E(p)
p
where E(p) = m2 + p2 for a weakly interacting gas of particles.

For particles in equilibrium, the following holds:

• Their distribution functions take the maximum entropy form

1 + fermions T (t) : temperature (kB ≡ 1)

f (p) =
e(E(p)−µ)/T ± 1 − bosons µ(T ) : chemical potential

dU + P dV − µdN
dS =
T
Each particle species i (with mi , µi , Ti ) has its own fi ⇒ ni , ρi , Pi .

2
• Their chemical potentials are related:

1+2 ↔ 3+4 implies µ1 + µ2 = µ3 + µ4 .

− photons : µγ = 0 ,
because photon number is not conserved: e + p ↔ e + p + γ .
− antiparticles : µX̄ = −µX ,
because X + X̄ ↔ γ + γ .

• Their temperatures are equal Ti = T .

3.1.2. Densities and Pressure

Goal: find n(T ), ρ(T ), P (T ).

At early times, µ/T  1 for all particles, so we set µ ≡ 0 (for now):

Z ∞
g p2
n = dp
2π 2 0
p
exp[ p2 + m2 /T ] ± 1
Z ∞ p
g p2 p2 + m2
ρ = dp
2π 2 0
p
exp[ p2 + m2 /T ] ± 1

Define x ≡ m/T and ξ ≡ p/T , to write this as

Z ∞
g 3 ξ2
n = 2 T I± (x) I± (x) ≡ dξ p
2π 0 exp[ ξ 2 + x2 ] ± 1
where Z ∞
g 4
p
2
ρ = 2 T J± (x) ξ ξ 2 + x2
2π J ± (x) ≡ dξ p
0 exp[ ξ 2 + x2 ] ± 1

The functions I± (x) and J± (x) have analytic expressions in certain limits.

3
1) Relativistic Limit (x = m/T → 0)
Z ∞
ξ2
Consider I± (0) = dξ ξ .
0 e ± 1

• For bosons, this is a standard integral: I− (0) = 2ζ(3) = 2.4 . . .

3 
1 1 2

• For fermions, we get I+ (0) = I− (0). Trick : = −
4 eξ + 1 eξ − 1 e2ξ − 1

Hence,
(
ζ(3) 1 bosons
n = 2 gT 3 3
.
π 4 fermions

Ex: Show that (

π2 1 bosons
ρ= gT4 7
.
30 8 fermions

1
and P = ρ (“radiation”).
3

Ex: Using that the temperature of the CMB is T0 = 2.73 K, show that

2ζ(3) 3
nγ,0 = 2
T0 ≈ 410 photons cm−3 ,
π
2
π
ργ,0 = T04 ≈ 4.6 × 10−34 g cm−3 ⇒ Ωγ h2 ≈ 2.5 × 10−5 .
15

4
2) Non-Relativistic Limit (x = m/T  1)
Z ∞
ξ2
Consider I± (x  1) = dξ √ 2 2 (same for bosons and fermions).
0 e ξ +x

Most of the contribution to the integral comes from ξ  x,

p
2 2
ξ2
so we can use ξ + x ≈ x + to write
2x
Z ∞ Z ∞
−x 2 −ξ 2 /(2x) 3/2 −x 2
I± (x) ≈ e dξ ξ e = (2x) e dξ ξ 2 e−ξ
0 0
r
π 3/2 −x
= x e .
2
 3/2
mT
Hence, n=g e−m/T
2π
Since E(p) ≈ m, the energy density is ρ ≈ mn .

Ex: Show that P = nT  ρ = mn (“matter”).

Relativistic particles (“radiation”) dominate the early universe:

X π2
ρr = ρi ≡ g? (T ) T 4 ,
i
30

where g? (T ) is the effective number of relativistic degrees of freedom:

X  Ti 4 7 X  Ti 4
g? (T ) = gi + gi .
T 8 T
i=b i=f

5
In the Standard Model, we have:

Above 105 MeV, all particles are relativistic:

gb = 28 photons (2), W ± , Z 0 (3 · 3), gluons (8 · 2), Higgs (1)

gf = 90 quarks (6 · 2 · 3 · 2), charged leptons (3 · 2 · 2), neutrinos (3 · 1 · 2)

and hence
7
g? = gb + gf = 106.75 .
8

When T ∼ mi , a species becomes non-relativistic and isn’t counted in g? .

6
3.1.3. Entropy

Claim: Entropy is conserved in equilibrium.

Proof:
For µ = 0, the distribution function depends only on E/T . This implies
∂P ρ+P
= (?)
∂T T
Now, consider the 2nd law of thermodynamics:
dU + P dV U =ρV 1    
dS = −−−−→ d (ρ + P )V − V dP
T T
1   V
= d (ρ + P )V − 2 (ρ + P ) dT [using (?)]
T T
 
ρ+P
=d V .
T
The time derivative of the entropy is
 
dS d ρ+P
= V
dt dt T
   
V dρ 1 dV V dP ρ + P dT
= + (ρ + P ) + − = 0.
T dt V dt T dt T dt
| {z } | {z }
= 0 by continuity eqn. = 0 by (?)

ρ+P
It will be convenient to work with the entropy density s ≡ .
T
For a collection of different species, we have
X ρ i + Pi 2π 2
s= ≡ g?S (T ) T 3 ,
i
Ti 45

where g?S (T ) are the effective no. of degrees of freedom in entropy :

 3  3
X Ti 7X Ti
g?S (T ) = gi + gi .
T 8 T
i=b i=f

7
The conservation of entropy implies
−1/3
• s ∝ a−3 ⇒ T ∝ g?S a−1 (∝ a−1 , when g?S = const.)

⇒ ρr ∝ T 4 ∝ a−4 (as expected for radiation)

3.1.4. Neutrinos

Neutrinos are coupled to the thermal bath by weak interactions:

e.g. ν + e+ ↔ ν + e+

with interaction rate dimensional

analysis
2 ↓
Γ = ∼ G2F × T 5
↑
Fermi’s
GF ≈ 10−5 GeV−2
constant
Decoupling occurs when
3
G2F T 5

Γ T
∼ 2 ∼ ∼ 1 ⇒ Tdec ∼ 1 MeV ⇒ tdec ∼ 1 sec .
H T /Mpl 1 MeV

8
• Shortly after neutrino decoupling, electrons and positrons annihilate.
• This transfers energy to the photons, but not to the decoupled neutrinos.
• Photons are heated (relative to neutrinos).

neutrino decoupling

photon heating

electron-positron
annihilation

• To compute the photon heating, we consider conserved quantities before and

after e+ e− annihilation:

(Tν a)before = (Tν a)after [free streaming]

g?S (Tγ a)3 before = g?S (Tγ a)3 after

   
[conservation of entropy]

• Hence, we find
(
2 + 87 (2 · 2) = 11 1/3
T & me

2 4
g?S = ⇒ Tν = Tγ
2 T < me 11

9
Ex: Show that
3 4
nν,0 = ×3× × nγ,0 ≈ 335 neutrinos cm−3
4 11
and
  4/3
7 4
×3× ⇒ Ων h2 ≈ 1.7 × 10−5


 ργ,0 (mν = 0)
 8
 11
ρν,0 =
 P
mν


 P m n ⇒ Ων h2 ≈ (mν 6= 0)

ν ν ν,0
94 eV

P
Observational constraints on neutrino masses, 0.05 eV ≤ mν ≤ 1 eV, imply

0.001 < Ων < 0.02 .

10
3.2. BEYOND EQUILIBRIUM

3.2.1. Boltzmann Equation

dni ȧ
In the absence of interactions: + 3 ni = 0 ⇔ ni ∝ a−3
dt a

1 d(a3 ni ) BOLTZMANN
With interactions: = Ci [{nj }]
a3 dt ↑ EQUATION
COLLISION TERM

Let us guess the form of the RHS for

1 + 2 ↔ 3 + 4

We focus on species 1:

1 d(a3 n1 )
= − α n1 n2 + β n3 n4 (?)
a3 dt
DESTROY CREATE

where α ≡ hσvi is the thermally averaged cross section.

The interaction rate of species 1 is

Γ1 ≡ n2 × hσvi .
↑ ↑
cosmology particle physics

We relate β to α by noting that the collision term has to vanish in equilibrium:

 
n1 n2
β = α.
n3 n4 eq

Eq. (?) can therefore be written as

" #
3
 
1 d(a n1 ) n1 n2
= −hσvi n1 n2 − n3 n4 ,
a3 dt n3 n4 eq

11
or, in terms of Ni ≡ ni /s ∝ ni a3 ,
"   #
d ln N1 Γ1 N1 N2 N3 N4
= − × 1− .
d ln a H N3 N4 eq N1 N2

interaction
deviation from equilibrium
efficiency

• Γ1  H : System is quickly driven towards equilibrium.

n1
• Γ1 . H : Species 1 freezes out : N1 = ∝ n1 a3 → const.
s

A typical evolution looks like this:

relativistic non-relativistic

freeze-out

relic density

equilibrium

1 10 100

12
3.2.2. Dark Matter Relics

Consider Weakly Interacting Massive Particles:

X + X̄ ↔ ` + `¯
↑
strongly interacting particles
n` ≈ neq
`
(e.g. charged leptons)
Assume: no initial asymmetry, i.e. nX = nX̄ .

The Boltzmann equation for NX ≡ nX /s can then be written as

dNX h
2 eq 2
i
= −shσvi NX − (NX ) (?)
dt

Defining x ≡ MX /T and using H = H(MX )/x2 (RD), we can write (?) as

dNX λh 2 eq 2
i RICCATI
= − 2 NX − (NX )
dx x EQUATION

2π 2 MX3 hσvi particle physics

where λ ≡ g?S ∼ .
45 H(MX ) cosmology

For λ ≈ const., the solution looks like this:

1 10 100

13
The relic density can be estimated analytically:

• For x ≥ xf , we have NXeq  NX and hence

dNX λNX2
≈− 2 .
dx x
• Integrating from xf to x = +∞, we get

1 1 λ
− = .
NX∞ NXf xf

• For NX∞  NXf , this becomes

xf
NX∞ ≈ ,
λ

where we could estimate xf from Γ(xf ) ∼ H(xf ).

For the dark matter density today, we find

1/2
2
x  
f 10 10−8 GeV−2
ΩX h ∼ 0.1 ,
10 g? (MX ) hσvi

which reproduces the observed DM density if

p p
−4 −1
hσvi ∼ 10 GeV ∼ 0.1 GF ⇔ WIMP miracle .

14
3.2.3. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Light elements (H, He, Li) were synthesised in the Big Bang:
Step 0: Step 2:
Equilibrium Step 1: Neutron Decay Step 3:
Neutron Freeze-Out Helium Fusion
Fractional Abundance

equilibrium

Temperature [MeV]

1. Neutron freeze-out : n + νe ↔ p + e ⇒ n∞ 1 ∞
n ∼ 6 np .

2. Neutron decay : nn (t) = n∞

n e
−t/τn
, where τn ≈ 900 sec.
3. Helium fusion :
Helium can only form after deuterium is produced = deuterium bottleneck

n+p → D+γ
↓
D + p → 3 He + γ
D + 3 He → 4 He + p

The predicted mass fraction of helium is

4nHe 1
∼ ⇔ Consistent with observations.
nH 4

15
3.2.4. Recombination

The first atoms were formed 380 000 years after the Big Bang:

recombination

decoupling

CMB

electron freeze-out
plasma neutral hydrogen

Recombination : Trec ≈ 0.3 eV  BH

zrec ≈ 1320  zeq
t0
trec ≈ ∼ 290 000 yrs
(1 + zrec )3/2

Photon decoupling : Tdec ≈ 0.27 eV

zdec ≈ 1100
tdec ≈ 380 000 yrs

Electron freeze-out : n∞ −3
e ≈ 10 nb

16