Week 12

Topic 1. General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions (Stewart,

pp. 468 – 478)
Definition 1. For a > 0 and x ∈ R, we define ax as

ax = ex ln a = exp(x ln a)

Remark. It now follows that ln ax = x ln a. This, together with eln y = y, allows us to remember
this formula for ax in a compact manner as
x
ax = eln a = ex ln a
d x
Further, remember that dx e = ex . So, with the Chain Rule it follows that

d f (x)
e = ef (x) f ′ (x)
dx

Now that we have a definition for xn , wheren ∈ R, it is possible to prove the general Power Rule
for differentiation.
Theorem 2. For x > 0 and n ∈ R,
d n
x = nxn−1
dx
Proof:
d n d n ln x d n
x = e = en ln x (n ln x) = xn · = nxn−1
dx dx dx x

Theorem 3. For a > 0 and x ∈ R, we have

ax
Z
d x x
a = a ln a and ax dx = +C
dx ln a

Proof:
d x d x ln a d
a = e = ex ln a (x ln a) = ax ln a
dx dx dx
By dividing with ln a, we get an anti-derivative of ax , and thus the integral is also true.

Example 4. Determine the derivative of the following functions.

2 +1 √
(a) y = 7x + x7 (b) f (x) = 5− ln(x ) (c) g(x) = x x

(d) r(t) = (sin t)cos t

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Solution:
dy
(a) = 7x ln 7 + 7x6
dx
Note the difference between the derivatives of 7x and x7 !

(b) f ′ (x) = 5− ln(x ) ln(5) · d − ln x2 + 1

2 +1

dx
− ln(x2 +1) 2x
= −5 ln(5) · 2
x +1
d √ √
d √
(c) g ′ (x) =



exp x ln x = exp x ln x · x ln x
dx dx
√ √ 1 √
   

1 x ln x 1
= exp x ln x · √ · ln x + x · =x √ +√
2 x x 2 x x

d d
(d) r′ (t) = exp ln (sin t)cos t =




exp cos(t) ln(sin t)
dt dt  

d
cos t cos t
= exp cos(t) ln(sin t) · cos(t) ln(sin t) = (sin t) − sin(t) ln(sin t) + cos(t) ·
dt sin t

Example 5. Determine the following integrals:

Z Z
(a) 2−x dx (b) 3tan x sec2 x dx

Solution:
1 x


2−x
Z
1 x 2


(a) 2 dx = +C =− +C
ln 12 ln 2
(b) Set u = tan x. Then
du
= sec2 x =⇒ du = sec2 x dx
dx
Thus
3u 3tan x
Z Z
tan x 2
3 sec x dx = 3u du = +C = +C
ln 3 ln 3

Theorem 6. For any a > 0 and r ∈ R (not just for r ∈ Q) is

ln ar = r ln a

Further, the exponential laws is also true for ax

ax
(a) ax+y = ax · ay (b) = ax−y (c) (ax )y = axy (d) (ab)x = ax bx
ay

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From the definition of the general exponential powers, together with the suitable properties of exp,
the theorem could be proved.
Remark (Graphs). The graph of y = bx is dependent of whether b ∈ (0, 1) or b ∈ (1, ∞):

Definition 7. For any real number a ∈ (0, ∞) \ {1}, we define

loga x = y ⇐⇒ x = ay

Equivalently,
 
∀x∈(0,∞) aloga x = x and ∀x∈R (loga ax = x)

Remark. Just like for the general exponential function, the graph of logb is dependant on whether
0 < b < 1 or b > 1. For b > 1, the graph is given below.

Theorem 8. For all a ∈ (0, ∞) \ {1},

ln x
loga x =
ln a

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Proof: We have
ln x
loga x = y =⇒ x = ay = ey ln a =⇒ ln x = y ln a =⇒ y=
ln a

With this theorem, we could quickly deduce the results.

Theorem 9. For a ∈ (0, ∞) \ {1}, we have

d 1
loga x =
dx x ln a
Further, all the logarithmic laws is true for loga x:
 
(a) loga (xy) = loga x + loga y (b) loga xy = loga x − loga y
loga x
(c) loga (xr ) = r loga x (d) = logb x
loga b

Example 10. Determine

p !
d d sin(x)
log10 4x2 + 1


(a) (b) log2
dx dx x2x

Solution:
d 1 8x
log10 4x2 + 1 =


(a) 2
· 8x = 2
dx (4x + 1) ln 10 (4x + 1) ln 10
(b) First apply the logarithmic laws!
√ !
sin x √
log2 x
= log2 sin x−log2 (x2x ) = 1
2 log2 (sin x)−log2 x−log2 2x = 1
2 log2 (sin x)−log2 x−x
x2

Now differentiate and simplify the expressions.

√ !
d sin x cos x 1
log2 = − −1
dx x2x 2 sin(x) ln 2 x ln 2

Example 11. Determine

2x
Z Z Z
log3 x sin2 x
(a) dx (b) sin(2x)2 dx (c) dx
x 2x + 1

Solution:
Z Z Z
log3 x ln x 1 ln x
(a) dx = dx = dx
x x ln 3 ln 3 x
Now, let u = ln x
du 1 1
= =⇒ du = dx
dx x x

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 Thus, the integral becomes

1 u2 (ln x)2
Z Z
log3 x 1
dx = u du = · +C = +C
x ln 3 ln 3 2 2 ln 3

(b) Let u = sin2 x. Then

du = 2 sin(x) cos(x) dx = sin(2x) dx

Thus
2
2n 2sin x
Z Z
sin2 x u
sin(2x)2 dx = 2 du = +C = +C
ln 2 ln 2

(c) Let u = 2x + 1. Then

1
2x ln(2) dx = du =⇒ 2x dx = du
ln 2
Thus
2x ln (2x + 1)
Z Z
1 1 1
x
dx = du = ln |u| + C = +C
2 +1 ln 2 u ln 2 ln 2

Exercise 12.
(a) Prove by differentiating the anti-derivative, that
Z
xex dx = xex − ex + C

(b) What would be the following integral?

Z
xax dx

(c) Determine the following integrals, with the helep of (a)

Z Z
loga (x) dx and ln(x) dx

Answer:
xax ax x
(a) − (b) x loga x − +C and x ln x − x + C
ln a (ln a)2 ln a