Biopsychology – Unit 2.

The Specification:
 The divisions of the nervous system: central
and peripheral (somatic and autonomic).

 The structure and function of sensory, relay

and motor neurons. The process of synaptic
transmission, including reference to
neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition.

 The function of the endocrine system: glands

and hormones.

 The fight or flight response including the role

of adrenaline.

 Localisation of function in the brain and

hemispheric lateralisation: motor,
somatosensory, visual, auditory and language
centres; Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas, split
brain research. Plasticity and functional
recovery of the brain after trauma.

 Ways of studying the brain: scanning

techniques, including functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI);
electroencephalogram (EEGs) and event-
related potentials (ERPs); post-mortem
examinations.

 Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the

difference between these rhythms. The effect of endogenous
pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/wake
cycle.
 The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral

Part A The Central Nervous System (CNS)

The Brain:
 The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and the
spinal cord. The brain’s outer layer, the Cerebral Cortex, is
highly developed in humans than in any other animal. It is
what we see when we picture a human brain, the gray
matter with a multitude of folds making up the outer layer of
the brain. It is involved in a variety of higher cognitive
(conscious thought), emotional, sensory (5 senses), and
motor (movement) functions.
 The brain is divided into two symmetrical hemispheres: left
(language, the ‘rational’ half of the brain, associated with
analytical thinking and logical abilities) and right (involved
with musical and artistic abilities). These are further divided up into four distinct lobes,
which you will learn more about later. Under the cerebral cortex is the area of the brain
which is more primitive and are concerned with vital functioning and instinctive behaviour.

The Spinal Cord:

 The spinal cord is a white bundle of nerves, which runs from your brain along a canal in
your backbone. It's roughly 40cm long and about as wide as your thumb for most of its
length. Like the brain, your spinal cord is part of your central nervous system. Its main
function is to pass messages to and from the brain. It is also involved in reflex actions, such
as the startle response, i.e. pulling your hand away from a hot plate.
 Part B The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The PNS consists of nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. It is divided into two major
systems, the Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) The Autonomic Nervous

is part of the PNS that is concerned System (ANS) Is the part of the
with the interaction of the outside PNS that controls involuntary
world. It controls the voluntary (without conscious control)
movement of skeletal muscles. (i.e. movement from non-skeletal
the biceps; moving an arm, typing muscles, for example, the
on a keyboard). It also consists of ‘smooth muscles’ that control
the nerves that carry messages to the intestines, digestion,
the eyes, ears, skeletal muscles and bladder, pupil size and the
the skin to give the CNS experience cardiac muscle (the heart).
of its environment.

Are there any other differences between the SNS and ANS?
 SNS functions include posture and movement; ANS functions
include secretion and control of metabolism (converting
food into energy).
 SNS –in vertebrates - includes excitatory neurotransmitters
ANS – in vertebrates has both excitatory & inhibitory
neurotransmitters (we’ll consider these types of neurotransmitters
later when we look at synaptic transmission).

The ANS is split into two further systems: The Sympathetic and the Parasympathetic nervous
systems.
The Sympathetic Nervous System is activated in situations requiring arousal and energy. When
we feel threatened or under stress, the sympathetic branch of the ANS is activated which starts
the instinctive reaction of ‘fight or flight’, aiding survival (we will review in more detail later). It
produces increased heart and respiratory (breathing) rate, increasing blood flow to the muscles
and pupil dilation (bigger pupils).
The Parasympathetic Nervous System is activated soon after the threat of danger has passed.
This has the opposite effect of the Sympathetic Nervous System and allows for the body to return
to homeostasis (balance). Here the person’s heart and respiratory rate decrease to normal levels
and blood flow decreases. The pupils return to normal size. This system is vital for the individual to
conserve energy and not to become exhausted.

Just to summarise…

 The Nervous System consists of the Central Nervous System

–the brain and spinal cord.
 The brain has a left and right hemisphere. Left associated
with language; right associated with music/artistic abilities.
 The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves running along the
brain along the backbone. It passes messages to and from
the brain.
 The Nervous System also consists of the Peripheral Nervous
System – the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System
which are quite distinct in function.
 The SNS controls voluntary skeletal muscles.
 The ANS controls involuntary movement from non-skeletal
muscles.
 The ANS is further divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems.
 The sympathetic system activates when the body requires
arousal/energy, i.e. under threat. This is the fight/flight
response.
 The parasympathetic system kicks in soon after the threat
has passed and it aims to restore the body back to
homeostasis.

Notes
 The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons

What are neurons?

Neurons are nerve cells in the brain, spinal cord, PNS etc. and there are approximately 100 billion
in the nervous system. Neurons receive information and transmit it to other neurons. This
‘communication’ is done electrically and chemically.

Neurons are microscopic in size and can be one of three types: sensory, motor and relay. They
typically consist of a cell body, dendrites and an axon but each type of neuron has a unique
structure related to its function within the nervous system. The cell body consists of a number of
short branching extensions called dendrites and one long extension called an axon. They vary in
size from four micrometres (0.004 mm) to 100 micrometres (0.1 mm) in diameter. Their length varies
from a few millimetres up to one metre.

How do they work?

Electrochemical messages or nerve impulses are conducted into the cell body by the Dendrites,
whilst the axon conducts these impulses away from the cell body. Some neurons have
myelinated axons. Myelin is a fatty insulative substance surrounding the axon cable. Its function is
to help speed up the rate at which the nerve impulses are passed along the axon. When an
impulse reaches the end of the axon it is passed onto another neuron, gland or organ via the
axon terminals – short extensions found at the end of the axon. Neurotransmitters are the
chemicals (some you may know, serotonin, dopamine etc.) that pass from one neuron to
another to pass the signal being transmitted.
Now, we will explore in more depth how neurons communicate with each other - synaptic
transmission.

Exam hint: You have considered the biological approach in your Approaches unit. It’s
worth mentioning again the difference between genotype and phenotype because you could
be asked a question on them. The genotype is a person’s unique genetic make-up that is coded
in their chromosomes and fixed. However, the phenotype is the expression of a person’s genetic
make-up (genotype) that can be influenced by the environment.

Notes
 The process of Synaptic transmission

The following diagram explains the process of synaptic transmission.

Note :( Ca²+ = calcium)

Electrical impulses are passed through the axon of a neuron to the synaptic terminal (1). The
electrical impulse cannot go through the gap between neurons, the synaptic gap/cleft.

Instead the electrical impulse causes calcium to be released (2) and trigger vesicles (little sacs) that
contain neurotransmitters to be released (3). The released neurotransmitters cross the synapse
(gap) (4).

They then bind to the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (5)

This triggers a signal in the post-synaptic neuron (6). Neurotransmitters can have an excitatory
effect on the receiving neuron (making them more likely to fire) or an inhibitory effect (making them
less likely to fire).

Excitation and Inhibition

As mentioned in the last point, neurotransmitters have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on
the post synaptic neuron. For example, the neurotransmitter GABA causes an inhibition in the
receiving neuron, resulting in the neuron becoming more negatively charged and less likely to fire.
In contrast, acetylcholine has an excitatory effect on the neighbouring neuron by increasing its
positive charge, therefore making it more likely to fire an impulse. A good analogy is to think of
excitation as an accelerator on a car, and inhibition as the brake.

So, don’t forget excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed, if the net effect on the post
synaptic neuron is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to ‘fire’ and if the net effect is excitatory,
the neuron will be more likely to fire.

Notes
 Sensory, motor and relay neurons

Sensory neurons, located in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) respond to stimulation in sensory
receptors. They send signals to the spinal cord and brain about this sensory experience. There are
sensory neurons for all senses (vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch). Most sensory neurons have
long dendrites and short axons. Sensory neurons carry signals away from the organ to the brain
and spinal cord (afferent).

Motor neurons are cells in the PNS that send messages from the brain and the spinal cord
to the muscles and glands (efferent). These usually have long axons and short dendrites.

Relay Neurons (interneurons) form

connections between other neurons. They
can send signals to other relay neurons, or
form links between sensory and motor
neurons. All neurons in the CNS are relay
neurons, and there are over 100 billion relay
neurons
Let’s review neurons in a little more depth…

Sensory neurons are also known as afferent neurons, meaning moving towards a central organ or
point, that is they move impulses towards the CNS. This type of neuron receives information or
stimuli from sensory receptors found in various locations in the body, for example the eyes, ears,
tongue, skin. This information enters sensory neurons through the dendrites and passes it to the cell
body – the control centre of the cell. From here it is sent through the axon, until it reaches the end
of the neuron (axon terminals). Electrical impulses flow in one direction only through a neuron. So
just like a series of electrical power lines that pass electricity through the suburbs of a city, so too
do electrical impulses flow through the body along thousands of tiny neurons.
In sensory neurons, the cell body and dendrites are located outside the spinal cord in the torso,
arms and legs. The dendrites (also known as dendrons) are usually long and the axons short.

Motor neurons are also known as efferent neurons meaning 'moving away from a central organ or
point', that is they move impulses away from the CNS. This type of neuron takes information or
responses from the brain to muscles or organs, which are referred to as effectors. The information
enters a motor neuron through the dendrites, which then passes it into the cell body. From here it
is sent down through the axon until it reaches the end of the neuron (axon terminals). If a motor
neuron connects with a muscle, the axon terminals are called motor end plates. In a motor
neuron, the dendrites are usually short and the axons are typically long. Information about a
response required has been formulated in the brain and sent through motor neurons in the form of
a series of electrical impulses, similar to the impulses sent along sensory fibres.

Relay (interneuron) are smaller neurons found only within the brain and spinal cord, and are
responsible for linking sensory and motor neurons. They have short dendrites and axons.

Myelin sheath

Many neurons outside the CNS are myelinated. Myelin is rich in lipid (fat) and creates an
electrically insulative layer around the axon that helps to increase
the speed at which impulses travel. Specialised Schwann cells
produce a tightly wrapped myelin sheath around the axon of a
neuron. The outer-most membrane that covers the myelin is
called the neurilemma. Small gaps between the myelin on the
axon are called nodes of Ranvier. These help the electrical
impulse 'jump' from section to section to increase the speed of
the electrical impulse.

Axon terminals and the synapse

Axon terminals are found at the end of an axon. This structure allows electrical impulses to be
passed from one neuron to the next without the neurons physically touching. The gap between
two neurons is called a synapse. The axon terminals are short extensions that terminate in tiny
knobs in the pre-synaptic neuron that contain chemicals called neurotransmitters. When an
electrical impulse arrives at the end of the axon, it causes neurotransmitter chemicals to be
released from tiny storage vesicles. These move across the synaptic gap between the axon and
the dendrite of the closest post-synaptic neuron.

Notes
 The Endocrine System

It’s important that you can outline the function of the endocrine system including the different
glands and hormones in the body. Therefore, you need to understand what hormones are
released by the various glands in the body and what effects they have on the body.

The endocrine system is a network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messengers
called hormones.

Gland Hormones Action

Hypothalamus This is connected to the pituitary gland and it
stimulates and controls the release of hormones from
the pituitary gland.
The ‘Master gland’ as it controls all other glands, for
Pituitary gland Oxytocin example, TSH signals action in the thyroid, ACTH
Thyroid Stimulation signals action in the adrenal glands.
Hormone (TSH)
ACTH
Primarily involved with the regulation of metabolism,
Thyroid gland Thyroxine such as the conversion of food into energy for the
muscles.
PTH essentially acts to increase the concentration of
Parathyroid gland Parathormone calcium in the blood from kidneys and bone.

Promotes the absorption of glucose from the blood

Pancreas Insulin into fat, liver and skeletal muscle cells.

Responsible for reacting to threat via the fight or flight

Adrenal glands Adrenaline & response.
Noradrenaline

Responsible for the development and regulation of

Ovaries (female) Oestrogen and the female reproductive system and secondary sex
progesterone characteristics.
A key role in the development of male reproductive
Testes (male) Testosterone system such as the testes and prostate, as well as
promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as
increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of
body hair.
Pineal gland Melatonin Regulates the Sleep-wake cycle
 Just to summarise…

 Neurons are nerve cells in the brain, spinal cord, PNS etc.
They receive information and transmit it to other neurons
 Neurons communicate via neurotransmitters that bind
onto receptors on the post synaptic neuron (synaptic
transmission).
 Neurotransmitters can have an excitatory or inhibitory
effect on post synaptic neurons.
 There are sensory, motor and relay neurons
 Neurons outside the CNS are covered in myelin a fatty
layer that helps increase the speed at which impulses
travel.
 The endocrine system is a network of glands that secrete
chemical messengers called hormones.
 Hormones have various effects on the body

Notes
How does the ANS react to threat? – Fight or flight and the role of adrenaline

Threat

detected by sensors (eye)

and passed to….

Heart rate increases to

Pituitary gland
pump blood to vital organs

Stomach to divert blood to the

muscles to increase strength
Releases adrenocorticotrophic
hormone (ACTH)

Adrenaline

Detected by cells in the adrenal

glands (adrenal medulla)
Pupils dilate for increased
vision

Lungs to increase breathing

rate for more oxygen

Don’t forget the parasympathetic response: After a few minutes, the parasympathetic branch of
the ANS is activated, and the body returns to normal by establishing homeostasis. Heart rate and
respiratory rates decrease, adrenaline secretion slows down, the feeling of butterflies subside and
sweating stops.
Pause… Personal Notes so far. Use this page for anything you feel you need to review again.
Make a list of areas you’re unsure about. (Nervous system, Structure and Function of Neurons,
Endocrine system, Fight/Flight response).

My List

What I need to do to review those topics (flash cards, mind maps, quizlet, go to a subject
extension etc)

Give yourself a realistic deadline to meet for you to review your list and feel a sense of
accomplishment!
 Localisation and Function of the Brain

The human brain is one of the most complex and fascinating biological systems. Discovering how
the brain functions is an on-going scientific journey, however there is sufficient evidence
suggesting certain parts of the brain perform particular activities. This topic will consider
localisation, hemispheres and the cerebral cortex, the four lobes, language centers and finally
evaluation.

Localisation of function theory

Localisation suggests that different functions of the brain are localised in specific areas and are
responsible for different behaviours, processes or activities. You need to know the localisation of
the following areas:-

 Motor area - A region in the frontal lobe involved in regulating movement

 Somatosensory area - An area of the parietal lobe that processes sensory information (e.g.
touch)
 Visual area - A part of the occipital lobe that receives and processes visual information
 Auditory area – Located in the temporal lobe and concerned with analysis of speech.
 Language centres
 Broca’s area – An area of the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere (in most people)
responsible for speech production
 Wernicke’s area- An area of the temporal lobe (encircling the auditory cortex) in the left
hemisphere (in most people) responsible for language comprehension

Motor area
Somatosensory area

Visual area

Broca’s area

Auditory area Wernicke’s

area

Hemispheres of the Brain and the Cerebral Cortex

The Brain is divided into two symmetrical halves called left and right hemispheres. Some of our
physical and psychological functions are controlled or dominated by a particular hemisphere. The
outer layer of both hemispheres is called the Cerebral Cortex.

The Cerebral cortex sits like a tea cosy covering all the inner parts of the brain. It is 3mm thick and
appears grey due to the location of cell bodies (grey matter).
The Motor, Somatosensory, visual and auditory centres

The Cortex is subdivided into four lobes. The lobes are named after the bones beneath which they
lie; frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe.

Area Functions
Motor area Situated at the back of the frontal lobe in both hemispheres which controls
voluntary movement in the opposite side of the body. Damage may result in a
loss of control over fine movements.
Somatosensory Situated at the front of the parietal
lobes. This is where sensory
information from the skin is
presented (e.g. heat) The amount
of somatosensory area devoted to
a particular body part denotes its
sensitivity. For example receptors in
our face and hands occupy over
half of the somatosensory area.

Visual In the Occipital lobe at the back of the brain is

the visual area (or cortex).

The eye sends information from the right visual

field to the left visual cortex and from the left
visual field to the right visual cortex.

This means that damage to the left hemisphere

for example can produce blindness in the right
eye.

Auditory The Temporal lobes house the auditory area which has speech based
information. Damage here may produce partial hearing loss.
Damage specifically to Wernicke’s area may affect an individual’s ability to
comprehend language.

Notes
Language centers of the brain

In most individuals the Broca and Wernicke area is located in the left hemisphere, and that is
where most language processing is situated.

Broca’s area- The work of Broca identified the area responsible for
speech production. Damage to this area can cause Broca’s Aphasia
which is characterised by speech which is slow and lacking in fluency.
Not all words are affected equally for example nouns and verbs seem
relatively unaffected in patients with damage to Broca’s area but other
classes of words such as conjunctions cannot be spoken.

Paul Broca, (French neurologist)

Wernicke’s area- Carl Wernicke worked at a hospital in Germany and found patients who had
damage in an area close to the auditory cortex in the left temporal lobe had specific language
impairments including the inability to comprehend language and a struggle to locate the word
they need.

Carl Wernicke (German neurologist)

Notes
 Localisation of the brain

Evaluation

 Arguments for localisation:

Brain scan evidence of Localisation

Petersen et al (1988) used brain scans to demonstrate how Wenicke’s area was active during a
listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task. These
findings support a theory of localisation as the findings evidence specific
areas of the brain having specific and different functions.

Neurosurgical evidence

Surgically removing or destroying areas of the brain to control behaviour was developed in the
1950s. Controversially neurosurgery is still used today to treat extreme cases of psychological
disorders.

Dougherty et al (2002) reported on 44 OCD patients who had undergone a cingulotomy which is
a procedure that cuts the cingulate gyrus. Findings showed a third of patients significantly
improved and a further 14% showed partial improvement. The success of these procedures
strongly supports that the symptoms and behaviours of mental disorders are localised.

Case study evidence

The Case of Clive Wearing- An individual with brain damage as of a result of a viral infection had
damage to his semantic long term memory however little damage to his procedural memory. This
suggests localisation because if the function was spread throughout the entire brain there would
not be specific deficits in this way. However, a case study only provides evidence, not proof.

 Arguments against localisation:

Challenging theory and research

Lashley (1950) the work of Karl Lashley suggests higher cognitive

process such as learning are not localised but distributed holistically

Lashley removed between 10-50% of areas of the cortex in rats. The

rats were learning a maze. No particular area was shown to be more important in terms of
the rats’ ability to complete the maze. This suggests the process of learning required every
part of the cortex. This seems to suggest learning is too complex to be localised,
supporting a more holistic and multifunctional theory in regards to the function of the
brain.
Criticisms of Lashley’s study however relate to the fact that the research was conducted on
animals. This means we should be cautious in drawing conclusions related to human learning as
we know the human brain is much more complex.

Plasticity

The notion of cognitive mapping or plasticity is a compelling

argument against localisation.

Evidence shows that when the brain has become damaged

through illness or accident and a particular function has been
compromised or lost, the rest of the brain appears to be able
to reorganise itself to recover the function. An example of this
is in stroke victims many of whom seem to able to recover
abilities that were seemingly lost as a result of illness (E.g.
speech)

Just to summarise…

 Localisation is the notion that certain areas of the brain

are responsible for certain functions.
 Motor area- back of frontal lobe in both hemispheres;
controls voluntary movement
 Somatosensory – at the front of the parietal lobe
 Visual – The occipital lobe (at the back of the brain)
 Auditory – located in the temporal lobe
 Broca’s area is in the frontal lobe. This area is responsible
for speech production. Wernicke’s area is in the temporal
lobe and responsible for language comprehension.
 Broca and Wernicke’s areas are located in the left
hemisphere
 Evidence for localisation; brain scans, neurological
evidence and Clive Wearing
 Evidence challenging localisation; Lashley’s rat study and
plasticity.

Notes
 Plasticity and Functional Recovery of the Brain after Trauma

What is Brain Plasticity?

This refers to the fact that the brain can change and develop as a result of our experience and
learning, and also that it can recover after trauma.
The brain changes throughout the lifespan. During infancy, the brain experiences a rapid growth
in the number of synaptic connections there are to other neurons, peaking at around 15,000 at
age 2-3 years. This is around twice as many as there are in the adult brain. As we age,
connections that we don’t use are deleted and connections that we use a lot are strengthened.
This process is known as synaptic pruning.
Even though the majority of changes in neural connections happen during childhood, adult
brains still change and develop, on a smaller scale, as a result of learning and experience.

Research into Brain Plasticity

Maguire et al (2000) studied the brains of London taxi drivers and found that there was a
significantly greater volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus than in a matched
control group. This part of the brain is associated with spatial and navigational skills in humans
and other animals. Part of a London taxi driver’s training involves taking a test known as ‘the
knowledge’, which assesses their ability to recall the names and locations of the streets in the city.
The results of the study suggest that the learning the drivers undertake as part of their training
alters the structure of their brains. It was also noted that there was a positive correlation between
how great the volume of grey matter was and how long they had been in the job. (The longer the
participant had been driving the taxi, the larger his hippocampus). This suggests evidence
(correlational) for structural differences in the brain due to extensive experience of spatial
navigation.

…such a fascinating study, but Maguire’s research is correlational so we

cannot conclude causality, i.e. the longer they worked as taxi drivers
CAUSED them to develop a larger posterior hippocampus.

Kuhn et al (2013) found a significant increase in grey matter in various regions of the brain after
participants played video games (Super Mario 64) over a period of 2 months for 30 minutes per
day. (Comparison to a control group). This shows evidence for brain plasticity and shows how
experience (playing games) can result in structural changes in the brain.

Draganski et al (2006) imaged the brains of medical students three months before and after their
final exams. Learning induced changes were seen to have occurred in the posterior
hippocampus and parietal cortex, presumably as a result of the exam.

Mechelli et al (2004) found a larger parietal cortex in the brains of bilingual people, compared to
non-bilingual people.

Notes
Functional Recovery of the Brain after Trauma

The brain is often able to recover from trauma that is caused by physical injury or illness (e.g.
stroke). This is another example of neural plasticity. Unaffected areas of the brain are often able
to adapt and compensate for the areas that have been lost or damaged. Healthy brain areas
may take over the functions of the areas that have been affected. Neuroscientists suggest that
this process can occur quickly after the trauma, but then slow down after several weeks or
months. The person may then require rehabilitative therapy to assist their recovery.

How Does Brain Recovery Work?

The brain is able to reorganise and rewire itself by forming new synaptic connections close to the
area of damage. Secondary neural pathways that would not usually be used to carry out certain
functions are activated to enable functioning to continue, often in the same way as before.
Support for this comes from structural changes that are known to take place in the brain.
Examples are:

 Axonal sprouting: The growth of new nerve endings which connect with other
undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways
 Reformation of blood vessels
 Recruitment of homologous (similar) areas on the other side of the brain to take over
specific tasks

These new connections are activated and compensate for nearby damage areas of the brain,
therefore recovering any damage occurring in specific regions.

Research:

Laura Danelli et al (2013) investigated EB, a 17yr old Italian boy who had his entire left brain
hemisphere removed at 2yrs old. (Due to non-cancerous tumour).
By 5ys, his language fluency improved due to intensive rehabilitation and by 17, using various
brain scans, although there were minor problems with his grammar, in his everyday life, EB’s
language appeared virtually normal.
Suggesting language abilities can still function even after severe trauma, such as the removal of
the left hemisphere.
 Evaluation of Plasticity and Functional Recovery of the Brain following Trauma

Practical application Our increased understanding in this area has contributed to the field of
neurorehabilitation. In other words, it has helped in the treatment of
those who have suffered brain trauma. The fact that we know that
spontaneous brain recovery slows down after a few weeks, means that
we are aware of when it may be necessary to start physical therapy to
maintain improvements in functioning. Also, electrical stimulation of
certain parts of the brain following particular damage following injury or
strokes. This suggests the brain has the ability to fix itself to a certain
extent, but some intervention is likely to be necessary if full recovery is to
be achieved.
Negative plasticity The brain’s ability to rewire itself does not always have positive
consequences. Some adaptations may be maladaptive (unhelpful).
Prolonged drug use, for example, has been shown to result in poorer
cognitive functioning as well as an increased risk of dementia in later life.
Also, 60-80% of amputees are known to develop phantom limb
syndrome. This is the continued experience of sensation in the missing
limb. These sensations are usually unpleasant and painful and are
thought to arise from cortical reorganisation in the somatosensory cortex
that results from the limb loss.

This shows that there can be a negative consequence of the brain

rewiring itself, although there are treatments that aim to help individuals
that have seen positive results.
Individual differences: Functional plasticity tends to reduce with age, and this therefore affects
Age & Gender the speed of recovery. Marquez de la Plata et al (2008) found that,
following brain trauma, older patients (40+ years old) regained less
function in treatment than younger patients and they were also more
likely to decline in terms of function for the first five years following the
trauma.
However, Bezzola et al (2012) found that 40 hours of golf training
produced changes in the neural representation of movement in
participants aged between 40 and 60. Using fMRI they found that motor
cortex activity was reduced for the novice golfers compared to a
control group. Suggesting more efficient neural representation after
training. This supports the view that neural plasticity does continue
throughout the lifespan. There is also evidence to suggest that women
recover better from brain injury because their function is not as
lateralised. (concentrated in one hemisphere)
Individual differences: Evidence suggests that the person’s level of educational attainment will
Education influence how well the brain recovers after trauma. Schneider (2014)
found that the more time brain injured patients had spent in education,
(known as their cognitive reserve) the greater their chances of a
disability-free recovery.

This suggests that the cognitive reserve could be an important factor in

brain recovery after trauma.

Notes
 Biopsychology: Split-brain research

Lateralisation

The ability to produce and understand language, for most people, is controlled
by the left hemisphere. This suggests that for the majority of us, language is
subject to hemispheric lateralisation. In other words, the specialised areas
associated with language are found in one of the hemispheres rather than
both.

In the late 1960’s, Roger Sperry and his colleagues began to conduct a number of
experiments investigating this, this collection of research became known as ‘split-brain
research’.

Sperry’s studies involved a unique group of individuals, all of whom had undergone
the same surgical procedure – an operation called a commissurotomy – in which
the corpus callosum and other tissues which connect the two hemispheres were cut
Fun fact: down the middle. This was done as a treatment for people who had frequent and
Sperry severe epileptic seizures, because separating the two hemispheres would help to
control seizures.
won the
Nobel This meant for the split brain patients the main communication line between the two
Prize in hemispheres was removed. This allowed Sperry and his colleagues to see the extent to
1981 for which the two hemispheres were specialised for certain functions and whether the
his work. hemispheres performed tasks independently of one another.

Sperry’s procedure

Sperry devised a way of being able to test hemispheric lateralisation using visual and tactile tasks.
This involved using a piece of equipment called a ‘T-scope’ (see below) which allowed each
hemisphere to be tested in isolation of the other.

The general procedure involved the participant being asked to focus on the ‘fixation point’ and
then an image or word was projected very quickly (1/10th of a second) to one or both visual fields.
For example, the word ‘key’ could be projected so that it only is processed by the participant’s
right visual field (processed by the left hemisphere) and then the same, or different, image could
be projected to the left visual field (processed by the right hemisphere).
To test for non-verbal processing, this equipment also enabled the participants to be able to pick
up or match objects that were out of the participant’s sight.

In a ‘normal’ brain, the corpus callosum would immediately share information between both
hemispheres giving a complete picture of the visual world. However, presenting the image to one
hemisphere of a split-brain patient meant that information could not be conveyed from that
hemisphere to the other.

Fixation
point
 Sperry’s findings

Sperry and his colleagues have conducted a large number of studies on split brain patients. Here
are some of the key findings from his original study.

1. When a picture/word was projected to the right visual field (information processed in left
hemisphere), the patient could easily describe what had been shown. However when the
picture/word was projected to the left visual field (information processed in right hemisphere), the
patient could not describe what had been shown and typically reported that there was nothing
there. This supports hemispheric lateralisation showing that language is processed in the left
hemisphere as the patients could only describe what they had seen when it was projected to the
right visual field

2. Although the patients could not describe what had been shown to their left visual field, they
were able to use their left hand to point to a matching object or picture. This shows that the right
hemisphere has processed the information but obviously cannot verbalise what was shown.

3. If two words/pictures were projected simultaneously, one on either side of the visual field (e.g.
‘a dollar sign’ on the left and ‘a question mark’ on the right), the patient would say that they saw
a question mark but when asked to draw (with their left hand) what they saw, they would draw a
dollar sign. The patients were not aware that they had drawn a different object or picture to the
one they said they had seen. This suggests the two hemispheres were working separately from
each other. It also suggests that
drawing ability is dominant in the
right hemisphere.

4. An object placed in the patients

right hand (the patient could not
see it just feel it) it could be easily
described or named in speech or
writing, whereas, if the same
objects were placed in the left
hand, the patient could only make
wild guesses. However, when this
object is taken from them and
placed in a grab-bag along with
other objects, the patient is able to search for and retrieve the object with their left hand. This also
supports hemispheric lateralisation as it shows the left hemisphere is dominant for speech and
writing. It also shows again that the right hemisphere is able to comprehend what the object is but
just cannot identify it verbally.
 Evaluation of Split Brain Research

Evaluation of Methodology:

Split brain research is experimental and involves the use of specialised equipment that
can objectively measure the lateralisation of function in each hemisphere. The use of
this equipment allows for the image or word to be projected extremely quickly (1/10th
of a second) to one or both visual fields. This meant that the split-brain patients would
not have time to move their eyes across the image and so the visual information would
only be processed by one visual field (and one hemisphere) at a time, therefore
increasing the internal validity of the research.

The standardised procedures used in the research, for example giving the same tasks to
each participant and using standardised equipment (the T-scope) have helped to
enable the research to be checked for reliability. The same procedure has been used
on a number of split-brain patients and the results on the left hemisphere being
dominate for language has been found to be consistent.

The control group used by Sperry were people with no history of epileptic seizures
therefore they could be seen as an inappropriate group to use as a comparison. As the
split brain patients suffered from epilepsy, it could be argued that it may have caused
unique changes in the brain which could have influenced the results, so a more
appropriate control group would have been people who had a history of epilepsy but
had not had the split-brain procedure.

Small sample sizes are used in split brain research meaning it is difficult for the results on
hemispheric lateralisation to be generalised to the wider population. However, as
commissurotomy is a rare procedure, there is a limited amount of ‘split brain’ patients
available for investigation therefore small sample sizes are unavoidable.

The data gathered from the split brain research came from the patients being testing
under artificial conditions. In real life a severed corpus callosum can be compensated
for by the unrestricted use of two eyes therefore the research findings cannot be
generalised to how split brain patients function in everyday tasks.

Usefulness and Theoretical value:

 Split brain research has been very useful for investigating and demonstrating lateralisation of
function. This has led to a significant improvement in our understanding of the role of each
hemisphere and brain processes associated with each hemisphere.

 Sperry’s work prompted a theoretical and philosophical debate about the degree of
communication between the two hemispheres in everyday functioning and the nature of
consciousness.
Some theorists have suggested that the 2 hemispheres are so functionally different that they
represent a form of ‘duality’ in the brain – that in effect we are all ‘two minds’ in contrast, other
researchers have argued that, far from working in isolation, the two hemispheres form a highly
integrated system and are both involved in most everyday tasks.

 Modern neuroscientists suggest that the differences in function may be overstated and that
the actual distinction between the each hemisphere is less clear and more complex. In a
‘normal’ brain the two hemispheres are in constant communication when performing
everyday tasks, and many of the behaviours typically associated with one hemisphere can be
effectively performed by the other when the situation requires it.
 Just to summarise…

 Plasticity refers to the brain changing and developing as

a result of experiences, learning and trauma.
 Maguire’s work on taxi drivers provides insight into
plasticity with structural changes to the brain due to
experiences of navigating through London streets.
 Functional recovery is an example of plasticity. It is when
healthy areas take over functions of damaged areas.
 Functional recovery happens due to a reorganisation of
synaptic connections close to damaged areas.
 Structural changes can occur due to axonal sprouting,
reformation of blood vessels and homologous areas
taking over.
 Lateralisation is the idea that the two halves of the brain
are functionally different, i.e. like language being
lateralised in the left hemisphere.
 Research by Sperry suggests language is lateralised in the
left hemisphere

Notes
 Ways of investigating the brain

Advances in science and technology have brought with them even more sophisticated and
precise methods of studying the brain. Ways of studying the brain include: functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalogram (EEG) and
event related potentials (ERPs), and post-mortem examinations.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

fMRI works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and

flow that occur as a result of neural (brain) activity in specific parts of the brain.

When a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand
blood flow is directed to the active area (known as the haemodynamic response).

fMRI produces 3-dimensional images (activation maps) showing which parts of the brain are
involved in particular mental processes and this has important implications for our understanding
of localisation of function.

This brain scan shows which areas of the

brain are more active (shaded areas)
during encoding, maintenance and
recognition (memory processes). As you
can see different areas of the brain are lit
up for different tasks.

Strengths Weaknesses
 Unlike other scanning techniques, fMRI  fMRI is expensive compared to other
does not rely on the use of radiation. neuroimaging techniques and can only
If administered correctly it is virtually risk- capture an image if the person stays
free, non-invasive and straightforward to perfectly still.
use. Therefore, it can be used to measure
activity in the brain without causing  It has poor temporal resolution (doesn’t
harm. show changes over time accurately). So
in the scan picture above the
 It produces images that have very high highlighted areas appear 4/5 seconds
spatial resolution, showing detail by the after the brain activity occurred. This
millimetre, and therefore providing a means findings could be misinterpreted.
clear picture of how brain activity is
localised.  fMRI can only measure blood flow in the
brain, it cannot tell us the exact activity
of individual neurons and so it can be
difficult to tell what kind of brain activity
is being represented on the screen.
Electroencephalogram (EEG)

EEGs measure electrical activity within the brain via electrodes

that are fixed to an individual’s scalp using a skull cap.

The scan recording represents the brainwave patterns that are

generated from the action of millions of neurons, providing an
overall account of brain activity.

The main 4 types of EEG waves are alpha, beta, theta and delta.

Scientists can also measure brain activity through amplitude and

frequency. Amplitude is the intensity or size of activity, frequency is
the speed or quantity of activity.

In the diagram above, the delta wave has the largest amplitude. The beta wave has the highest
frequency (14-30 Hz).

EEG is often used by clinicians as a diagnostic tool as unusual arrhythmic patterns of activity (i.e.
no particular rhythm) may indicate neurological abnormalities such as epilepsy, tumours or
disorders of sleep.

Strengths Weaknesses
 EEG is valuable at helping diagnose  EEG represents brainwave patterns and
conditions such as epilepsy and as such it cannot detect activity in
schizophrenia because the difference in deeper brain regions. Therefore, if there
brain activity can be detected on the were issues to a patient’s hippocampus,
screen i.e. schizophrenic patients may an EEG wouldn’t necessarily pick up this
display ‘unusual’ EEG wave patterns. This information. Suggesting the limitation of
is useful for clinical diagnosis. this technique.

 It has contributed to our understanding of  EEG is not useful in pinpointing the exact
the sleep stages and sleep problems. source of neural activity (the activity of
Strengthening the usefulness of EEG. many thousands of neurons) and
therefore it’s hard to work out which
area of the brain the waves originate
 It has extremely high temporal resolution from, highlighting a further limitation of
(unlike fMRI) it records brain activity in this technique.
real time. Therefore, researchers can
monitor responses to tasks.
Event-related potentials (ERPs)

ERP’s use similar equipment to EEG (electrodes attached to the scalp) however, a stimulus is
presented to a participant i.e. picture or sound, and the researcher looks for activity related to the
stimulus and investigate how an EEG wave pattern changes in response to the stimulus. This
change is an ERP. (Types of brainwaves triggered by particular events).

The stimulus is presented hundreds of times and an average response is graphed. This is a
statistical averaging technique, and it reduces any extraneous brain activity which makes the
specific response to the stimulus stand out.

Research has revealed many

different forms of ERP and how, for
example, they are linked to cognitive
processes such as attention and
perception.

For example, in the graph on the left

it shows the types of brain waves
triggered by an auditory (sound)
stimulus.

Strengths Weaknesses
 The limitations of EEGs being too general  There is a lack of standardisation in ERP
are partly addressed by ERPs- they are methodology between different
much more specific to the measurement research studies, which makes it difficult
of neural processes. to confirm findings.

 They provide a continuous measure of  It may not always be possible to

processing in response to a stimulus. completely eliminate background noise
Therefore, this provides quantitative and extraneous material needed to
experimental data. establish pure data in ERP studies,
therefore validity may be questionable.
 Researchers have also been able to
identify ERP’s of mental health issues like
phobias. It has been found that people
with phobias have ERP’s of a greater
amplitude (intensity of activity) in
response to images of the objects they
feared compared to non-phobic
individuals. This allows researchers more
of an understanding of complex mental
processes.
Post-mortem examinations

This is a technique involving the analysis of a

person’s brain following their death.

In psychological research, individuals whose

brains are subject to a post-mortem are likely
to be those who have a rare disorder and have
experienced unusual deficits in mental
processes or behaviour during their lifetime.

Areas of damage within the brain are

examined after death as a means of
establishing the likely cause of the affliction the
person suffered. This may also involve
comparison with a typical brain in order to
determine the extent of the difference between them.

Strengths Weaknesses
 Post-mortem evidence was vital in  Causation is an issue within these
providing a foundation for early investigations. Observed damage in the
understanding of key processes in the brain may not be linked to the deficits
brain e.g. Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas under review but to some other
were identified using post-mortem unrelated trauma or decay. (For
because neuroimaging did not exist at example drugs and age may affect
this time. brain tissue). Therefore, there are issues
with cause and effect being established.
 Post-mortem studies improve medical
knowledge and help generate  They raise ethical issues of consent from
hypotheses for further study. E.g. Zhou the patient BEFORE death. – A patient
analysed the brains of female-male may have significant brain abnormality
transsexuals and found an area of the when alive and are therefore too ill to
brain associated with gender to be give consent for their brains to be
larger in these individuals- more similar to investigated upon their death.
that of a male. This poses an ethical concern as a post-
mortem may still be carried out.
This demonstrates the beneficial nature
of post-mortems in our understanding of
gender development.

Just to summarise…

 fMRI scans show brain activity

 EEG’s show electrical activity
 ERP’s show electrical activity in the brain in response to a
stimulus
 Post-mortem examinations show the structure of the brain.
 Spatial resolution refers to the smallest
feature/measurement that a scanner can detect.
 Temporal resolution is how quickly the scanner can
detect changes in brain activity.
 Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the difference between
these rhythms.

Introduction:

Biological rhythms are cyclical changes in the way biological systems (humans, animals, plants)
behave. Rhythms can be classified according to how long they last.

 Circadian Rhythms – have cycles that generally occur once every 24 hours, such as the
sleep-wake cycle, another example is body temperature.
 Infradian Rhythms – have cycles that occur longer than 24 hours and can be weekly,
monthly or annually.
 Ultradian Rhythms - last fewer than 24 hours and can be found in the pattern of human
sleep.

The timing of biological rhythms is regulated by factors both inside and outside our bodies. Factors
inside our body are called Endogenous pacemakers; those outside the body are exogenous
zeitgebers.

 Circadian Rhythms:
The most obvious circadian rhythm in humans is the sleep-wake cycle. (Circa = ‘about’ and diem
= ‘a day’, so a cycle that lasts a day). It is a 24 hour rhythmic cycle where there are differing levels
of consciousness. People sleep for a certain time every 24 hours, and conduct other activities
during wakefulness. The fact that we feel drowsy when it’s night time and alert during the day
shows the effect of daylight (exogenous zeitgeber) in our sleep/wake cycle. However, what
would happen if the biological clock was ‘left to its own devices’ without the influence of light
(called free running)? Would we still fall asleep and awake at regular times?

Research: Siffre’s cave Study

In 1962 Michel Siffre (pronounced ‘Seef’) spent two months living in complete isolation in a cave
to study the effects on his own circadian rhythm. He was deprived of natural light, a clock, a
calendar and sound, but had access to adequate food and drink. He slept and ate only when his
body ‘told him to’. Therefore, the only influence was his internal body clock (endogenous
pacemaker). Siffre re-surfaced in mid-September 1962 believing it to be mid-August! He believed
the date to be a month earlier than it was. His lack of external cues made him feel a day was
actually ‘longer’ than it was and fewer days had passed in total.
A decade later he performed a similar feat for six months in a cave in Texas.

In each case, his ‘free running’ circadian rhythm settled to around 25 hours. Just beyond the usual
24 hours.
Other research…

Aschoff and Wever (1976) asked a group of participants to spend four weeks in a WWII bunker…

…The participants were shielded from natural light (no

windows), temperature changes or other environmental cues.
They had access to artificial light and could switch it on/off.
Similar to Siffre, they displayed a circadian rhythm of
approximately 25 hours. (One participant extended to 29 hours).

These studies suggest the ‘natural’ sleep/wake cycle may be

slightly longer than 24 hours but we use natural light to entrain
(adjust) our pacemakers associated with the 24 hour clock.

Furthermore, circadian rhythms are not easily overridden by external cues…

Simon Folkard et al (1985) studied a group of 12 participants who agreed to live in a dark cave for
3 weeks, isolating them from natural light. The researchers manipulated the clock. Participants
would retire when the clock read 11.45pm and awoke when it read 7.45am. Over the course of
the study, the researchers speeded up the clock (unbeknown to participants) so what they
believed was a normal 24 hour day was in fact only lasting 22 hours.

Interestingly, only one of the participants could adjust comfortably to

new regime! This seems to suggest the existence of a strong free
running circadian rhythm that cannot be easily overridden by
changes in the external environment.

Evaluation to consider…

Small sample sizes and As fascinating as the research is in this area, it tends to involve small
generalisation groups of participants and in the case of Siffre, one individual. The
people involved may not be representative.
This therefore limits the degree to which meaningful generalisations can
be made and applied to the wider population.
Confounding variables Although the participants in Aschoff and Wever’s study were deprived
of natural light, they still had access to artificial light. Siffre would turn on
a lamp every time he woke up which remained on until he went to
bed. It was assumed that artificial light would have no effect on his free
running circadian rhythm however other research Czeisler 1999,
suggests the opposite, that artificial light can have an influence. This
means the use of artificial light could have been a confounding
variable and affected the validity of the results.
Individual differences Linked with generalisation is that individual cycles can vary, some
people have a natural preference for going to bed early and rising
early (known as ‘larks’) whereas others prefer the opposite (‘owls’).
There are also age differences in sleep/wake patterns. Thus, individuals
seem to have innate differences in their cycle length and onset and
these individual differences can further complicate generalisation.
Practical applications to Research has provided a better understanding of the consequences of
shift work disrupted circadian rhythms i.e. shift work. Night workers can
experience reduced concentration around 6am, making mistakes and
accidents more likely. Poor health has been linked with night shifts. This
highlights economic implications and how changes in shift work
patterns could help workers stay healthy and manage productivity.
Endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep wake cycle:

Sleep is not a random human function. It is influenced by particular factors both inside and
outside us. Don’t be alarmed by the words endogenous pacemakers and exogenous
pacemakers. In a nutshell, endogenous pacemakers refer to an internal body clock that sets
many of our bodily rhythms, including sleep. The internal body clock that has an effect on when
we sleep and when we are awake is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Exogenous zeitgebers
are external cues that have an influence on when we’re sleep or awake, such as light.

So how does endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers influence our circadian rhythm
(sleep/wake cycle)? Let’s go inside the body first.

 The main endogenous pacemaker (internal) is the

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) or biological clock.
It’s a bundle of nerves located in the hypothalamus
of the brain.

 The SCN is located above the optic area ( i.e. Optic

nerve & optic chiasm)
 Therefore, it can receive information about light
directly. The SCN passes the information about day
length/light to the pineal gland.
 Based on this information, the pineal gland will
release melatonin (a chemical that makes us feel
sleepy).
 During the night, the pineal gland increases
melatonin production. With more daylight, less
melatonin. The SCN is therefore to a degree
regulated by light from our outside world.
 However, even in the absence of any light (trapped
in a cave). The SCN generates a rhythm related to its
production of protein. When it reaches a certain
level of protein it passes a message to the pineal
gland and melatonin will still be released or inhibited.
 So although daylight influences the SCN it’s not
absolutely essential. (Think of a person who is blind,
they still have a sleep/wake cycle regardless of light
input).

_______________________________________________________________________________
Notes
Research supporting the SCN: Morgan’s hamster study

Morgan (1995) removed and transplanted the SCNs from hamsters and shows support the
importance of the SCN as an endogenous pacemaker.
Hamsters were bred so that they had a circadian rhythm of 20 hours rather than 24. The SCN cells
from these abnormal hamsters were transplanted onto the brains of normal hamsters. These
normal hamsters began to adopt the same abnormal circadian rhythm as their 20 hour donor.

Furthermore, when hamsters with nocturnal patterns of activity (usual) had their SCNs replaced
with SCNs from mutated hamsters which slept through the night and were active during the day
(unusual), the hamsters followed the new daytime activities of the donor’s patterns. Further
evidence from lesioning (cutting) the SCN in rats showed a complete disruption to the animals
sleep/wake cycle.

So…? This suggests the transplanted SCN had imposed its pattern onto the hamsters and shows
the significance of the SCN and how endogenous pacemakers are important for biological
rhythms.

Let’s now turn to exogenous zeitgebers, or external cues.

The most influential exogenous zeitgeber is light, (zeitgeber is German for ‘time giver’) and it’s an
important factor in our environment that ‘resets’ our biological clocks, this is called entrainment.
Light enters the eye through the retina and this information is passed onto the SCN.
(Another example of zeitgebers would be social cues such as meal times).

Low levels Via the SCN sends Pineal gland Induces

of light Optic area signals to releases sleep
(retina) to the SCN pineal gland melatonin …zzzzz
goes…

The main point is that although most of the processes are internally driven, it can be governed by
the exogenous zeitgeber of light.

Notes
Research supporting exogenous zeitgebers: Campbell and Murphy (1998)

An innovative study by Campbell & Murphy

showed that light may be detected by skin
receptor sites on the body, even when the same
information is not received by the eyes. 15
participants were woken up at various times and a
light pad was shone on the back of their knees.
The researchers found a change in their
sleep/wake cycle of up to 3 hours in some cases.

So…? This suggests that light is a powerful exogenous zeitgeber that

doesn’t need to rely on the eyes to exert influence on the brain.

Evaluation to consider…

Ethics in animal studies Generalising findings from animal studies to humans is questionable.
The findings from the Campbell and Murphy study have yet to be
Methodological issues replicated. Critics have suggested that participants may have been
in research exposed to a limited amount of light to their eyes which would be a
major confounding variable and affect the validity of the results.

Exam hint: These three areas, circadian rhythms, endogenous pacemakers and
exogenous zeitgebers all interact to control biological rhythms so aim to consider these concepts
together rather than as separate components.

Just to summarise…

 Circadian rhythms are once in a day (24 hours)

 Siffre and Aschoff & Wever’s circadian studies showed a
25hr cycle with participants
 The SCN is the main endogenous pacemaker (biological
clock). It passes information to the pineal gland. This
gland releases melatonin
 Research by Morgan (hamsters) suggests SCN controls
sleep/wake cycle
 Light is the main exogenous zeitgeber
 Research by Campbell & Murphy (knees) suggests light is
so powerful, it doesn’t need to enter the eyes to influence
circadian rhythms.
  Infradian Rhythms: The menstrual Cycle
Infradian rhythms have cycles that occur longer than 24 hours. The best example is the
female menstrual cycle because it occurs monthly. The cycle begins from the first day of a
woman’s period, when the womb lining is shed, to the day before her next period. The
‘average’ cycle takes about 28 days to complete, however it varies with every woman
and can be anywhere between 21days (short cycle) and 35 days (long cycle). Every
woman’s cycle is different.

Hormones:

Being a biological rhythm the menstrual cycle is governed by changes in hormones. One of
the most important hormones is oestrogen and this is at its highest around half way through
the cycle during ovulation. At this point an egg is released from the ovary. After ovulation,
another hormone called progesterone also increases in preparation for the possible
development of an embryo and this ‘preparation’ is the womb lining starting to thicken
with blood, getting the womb ready for pregnancy.

If pregnancy doesn’t occur, the egg is absorbed back into the body, the lining of the
womb sheds, and this is the menstrual flow. Below is a calendar showing an example of
‘Keri’s cycle’. (Let’s assume she has an average 28 day cycle).

1. Keri starts
her period 3. Keri has a
10th August. 28 day cycle
This is the first which means
day of her she is likely to
cycle. Her start her
menstrual period 6th
flow lasts 5 September.
days (14th). Her cycle
Her levels of ends the day
oestrogen are before (5th)
increasing.

2. Around 14
days (23rd)
after Keri
starts her
period, she
begins to
ovulate.

Exam hint: Although it does appear the menstrual cycle is

governed by internal factors (endogenous pacemakers) such as hormonal changes, research
suggests they can be heavily influenced by exogenous zeitgebers.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
notes
Research supporting the infradian rhythms: menstrual cycle

Reinberg (1967) conducted a study where one female participant spent three months in a cave
with only light from a small lamp. Reinberg noted that her menstrual cycle shortened from the
usual 28 days to 25.7 days. This suggests that the lack of light (an exogenous zeitgeber) affected
the woman's menstrual cycle, and therefore demonstrates the effect of external factors on
infradian rhythms. (This research relates to the exam hint).

Note: Pheromones
are chemicals
released (i.e. through
sweat) that may
trigger a response
from a member of
A further study that also links to the exam hint… the same species
(mammals/bees).
McClintock and Stern (1998)

Aim: to show that the menstrual cycle is influenced by pheromonal secretions from other women.
Sample: 29 female university students, not taking birth control pills.
Design: A Longitudinal experiment with independent measures.
Method: Samples of pheromones were gathered from 9 of the women at different stages of their
menstrual cycle, via a cotton pad placed under their armpit. The pads were worn for at least 8
hours to ensure pheromones were picked up. The pads were treated with alcohol and frozen (to
eliminate any bacteria). This was the control group.

The odour from these pads were inhaled by the other 20 women (the experimental group) by
being rubbed on their upper lip. On day 1, pads from the start of the cycle were applied to the 20
women, on day 2 they were given pads from the second day of the cycle, and so on.
Result: when the experimental group inhaled secretions from women who were about to ovulate,
their menstrual cycles became shorter. When they inhaled secretions from women who had just
ovulated, their menstrual cycles became longer. The experimental groups’ menstrual cycles were
affected by the secretions from the control group. On 68% of occasions the recipients of the
sweat donation had experienced changes to their cycle which brought them closer to their
‘odour donor’. (Synchronised)
Conclusion: This possibly explains why when a group of women live in close proximity their
menstrual cycles tend to synchronise and provides support for the role of exogenous zeitgebers
(pheromones) in infradian rhythms.
’To synchronise or not to synchronise’

Notes
Evaluation to consider…

Methodological McClintock’s research has criticisms that suggest there are numerous
limitations in factors other than pheromones that could change a woman’s cycle,
synchronisation studies such as stress, diet, exercise etc. that may act as confounding
– Individual differences variables. Furthermore, research involves small samples of women and
relies on women self-reporting the onset of their own cycle. Therefore,
these ‘other factors’ both methodological and individual differences,
make the influence of pheromones on infradian rhythms questionable.

Replication Recent replication of research between women’s cycles in close

proximity has failed to find evidence of menstrual synchrony suggesting
reduced reliability.

Animal The knowledge gained about pheromones is mainly from animal

studies/pheromones studies, in animal sex selection. In contrast, evidence for definite effects
of pheromones in human behaviour is still questionable and again
poses doubt on the validity of pheromones affecting the menstrual
cycle.
Evolutionary approach Evolutionary psychologists suggest a possible reason for women’s
menstrual cycles synchronising is that it provides an evolutionary
advantage for groups of women – in other words the synchronisation of
pregnancies means that childcare can be shared among multiple
mothers who have children at the same time due to a couple of
reasons firstly, women lactating at the same time (having breast milk)
and secondly, through the release of oxytocin – mothers are able to
bond to babies.

Therefore, these factors mean that ultimately synchronisation of

women’s menstrual cycles will enhance survival.

Just to summarise…

 The menstrual cycle is an example of an Infradian Rhythm

because it occurs longer than 24 hours (once per month)
 The average cycle lasts 28 days, but it can be between
21 to 35 days
 The hormone estrogen is at its highest during ovulation.
After ovulation progesterone increases in preparation of
the womb for pregnancy.
 The cycle is primarily an endogenous pacemaker, but it
can be influenced by exogenous zeitgebers.
 Research had suggested that light can influence the
cycle and also the pheromones of other women may
lead to ‘synchronisation’ (women on their periods at the
same time).
  Ultradian Rhythms: The cycles of sleep
These occur less than 24 hours and a good example are the stages of sleep. A typical night’s
sleep takes you from stage 1 to 4 then back to 2 and finally into REM. Sleep is the perfect
example of an ultradian rhythm, that is, one that repeats itself over a period of less than 24 hours.
One cycle of sleep typically lasts about 90 minutes and during a typical night’s sleep we will
repeat this cycle four or five times, although the cycles do differ through the night. Here, we will
first consider the stages of sleep, then how these stages form a cycle (pattern) during the night
while we’re asleep.

Note: It might be a good idea to remind yourself of the brainwave

patterns we considered when we looked at EEGs. Alpha, beta,
theta and delta waves. They will come up again here with
ultradian rhythms.

Sleep stages:

Sleep stages: see diagram to the left

 Stages 1 and 2 are ‘light sleep’ stages:

Brain patterns become slower starting
with alpha waves, progressing to theta
waves.
 Stages 3 and 4 are ‘deep sleep’
associated mainly with delta waves.
 Stage 5 (REM sleep). The body is
‘paralysed’ to prevent acting out our
dreams. The eyes rapidly move from side
to side (Rapid eye movement- REM). The
brain activity resembles a person who is
awake.
 Stages 1-4 are NREM stages (Non REM)
 Stage 5 is REM stage
 On average the entire cycle repeats
every 90 minutes and a person may
have 4 or 5 full cycles per night.
Sleep cycle:

How do the stages of sleep create a cycle of sleep?

Looking at the table above on the y axis we have the stages of sleep, on the x axis are the hours
of sleep.

As we fall asleep we enter stage 1 sleep which is high frequency and low amplitude sleep. As we
progress through stages 1-4 sleep becomes deeper. Stage 4 sleep is characterised by delta waves
and is the deepest sleep stage, it’s difficult to wake up at this point! Heart rate and blood pressure
fall and muscles are very relaxed. We are in stage 4 for about 30 minutes. We’ve been asleep for
about an hour all together. Then we start to ascend back through these stages in reverse order,
i.e. back to stage 3, and then stage 2, but instead of going back to level 1, after just over an hour,
we enter REM sleep. (REM is characterised by rapid eye movement, the body is paralysed and
dreaming occurs). This is one cycle completed.

Each sleep cycle lasts around 90 minutes, and a good night of sleep will feature 4-5 cycles with
episodes of REM sleep.

As the table illustrates we spend most of the first half of the night in deep sleep (NREM) and most
of the second half in REM sleep.

Of course, do remember the above describes a ‘typical’ night’s sleep and there are significant
individual differences between people (in fact this is one of the methodological issues with
studying sleep cycles because of unique differences). Sleep cycles also differ with age, a 17 year
old will have a different cycle to a 70 year old.

Exam hint: When discussing the ultradian rhythms and the sleep cycle, you must
explicitly mention that the cycle occurs more than once every 24 hours.

Notes
Research evidence for the distinct stages of sleep and the role of REM sleep

Dement and Kleitman (1957)

Aim: The aim of this laboratory experiment was to investigate the relationship between eye
movements and dreaming.
Method: The nine participants were seven adult males and two adult females. The participants
were studied under controlled laboratory conditions. Participants had to report to the laboratory
at bedtime where they were connected to an EEG. The EEG took measurements throughout their
time asleep all night. P's were asked not to drink caffeine.

Results: The results show that REM sleep is predominantly, though not exclusively, associated with
dreaming, and Non-REM sleep is associated with periods of non-dreaming sleep. P's were able to
recall dreams when awakened during REM periods. If they were awakened in other stages they
were less likely to report dreaming.

The REM periods occurred at regular intervals during the night, though each participant had their
own pattern: the mean period between each REM phase for the whole group was 92 minutes,
with individual norms varying between 70 minutes and 104 minutes.

Conclusions: Three things… first, from these findings (which are reliable as there has been much
replication) it can be said the stages of sleep follow a pattern throughout the night second,
dreams mostly occur in REM and finally, participants did on average go into REM every 90 or so
but there were still individual differences.

Dement (1960) compared participants who had been deprived of REM sleep with a control group
who had been deprived of the same amount of NREM sleep. He found that the REM deprived
group were more irritable, more aggressive and unable to concentrate on various tasks. Borbely
(1986) found that REM deprived individuals made 31 attempts to re-enter REM on the first night of
deprivation (called REM re-bound), 51 attempts on the second night and over 60 attempts on the
third… Dement and Borbely’s research suggests that REM is a distinct and significant stage of the
ultradian rhythm and also important for our psychological well-being.

In 1964 Randy Gardner remained awake for

264 hours. While he experienced numerous
problems such as blurred vision and
disorganised speech, he coped incredibly well
despite his significant sleep deprivation.

After his experience, he slept for just 15 hours

and over several nights recovered only 25% of
his lost sleep. He recovered about 70% of stage
4 sleep, 50% of his REM sleep and very little of
the other stages. These results suggest the wide
degree of flexibility in terms of the different
[Randy Gardner pictured trying to recognise scents] stages within the sleep cycle and the variable
nature of this ultradian rhythm.
Evaluation to consider…

Individual differences A significant problem when studying sleep cycles is the differences
observed in people. This can be seen in Dement and Kleitman’s
research.
Tucker et al (2007) also found differences in participants in terms of the
duration of each stage, particularly stages 3 and 4 (NREM). These
research suggest there may be innate individual differences in ultradian
rhythms which means it’s worth focusing on these differences during
investigations into sleep cycles.

Lack of ecological Sleep cycles are usually investigated with a high degree of control in
validity sleep laboratories. Participants will wear caps with electrodes to
monitor EEG patterns and asked to sleep and then be woken up at
various points during their cycle. This is both invasive for the participant
as well as being very artificial and may lead them to sleep in a way that
doesn’t represent their ordinary sleep cycle. This lack of ecological
validity could lead to false conclusions being applied to our
understanding of sleep cycles.

Flexible Randy Gardner’s experience of remaining awake for 264 hours and
subsequently recovering 70% of stage 4 and 50% of his REM sleep and
little of the other stages. This suggests the degree of flexibility in terms of
the different stages may not be as ‘fixed’ as psychologists believed.
However, we should consider that Gardner’s results could be unique to
him, for example an older individual may have very different results in
the sleep they recovered. This means generalisation of such specific
cases could be difficult to the wider population.

Just to summarise…

 The cycle of sleep is an ultradian rhythm as it occurs less

than 24 hours
 One cycle lasts about 90 minutes and this is repeated 4-5
times during the night depending on how many hours
sleep a person has.
 Stages 1-2 is light sleep; Stages 3-4 deep sleep and these
are Non-REM sleep (NREM). Stage 5 or REM sleep is where
dreaming usually occurs and brain activity is similar to a
person who is awake.
 One cycle lasts about 90 minutes. There are about 4-5
cycles per night.
 Research suggests dreaming usually occurs during REM
stage and it’s important for psychological well-being.

Notes
 Sample exam questions

 The divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral (somatic and autonomic)

Which one of the following responses results from the action of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system? Shade one box only.

A Decreased pupil size

B Increased digestion

C Increased heart rate

D Increased salivation

(Total 1 mark)

 The structure and function of sensory, relay and motor neurons. The process of synaptic
transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and inhibition.

Briefly outline how excitation and inhibition are involved in synaptic transmission.
(Total 4 marks)

 The function of the endocrine system: glands and hormones

Briefly explain one function of the endocrine system (2 marks)

 The fight or flight response including the role of adrenaline

You are a passenger in a car that has suddenly slammed on its brakes to avoid hitting a dog.
Your breathing quickens, your mouth is dry and you have a feeling of ‘butterflies’ in your
stomach. But after a few minutes these physical changes start to disappear. Using your
knowledge of the body’s response to stress, explain why you are likely to have experienced:

(a) the changes that occurred in the first 30 seconds; (2 marks)

(b) The changes that occurred after a few minutes. (2 marks)

 Localisation of function in the brain and hemispheric lateralisation: motor,

somatosensory, visual, auditory and language centers; Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas,
split brain research. Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma.

Split brain patients show unusual behaviour when tested in experiments. Briefly explain how
unusual behaviour in split brain patients could be tested in an experiment. (2 marks)
 Ways of studying the brain: scanning techniques, including functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI); electroencephalogram (EEG’s) and event-related potentials (ERPs); post-
mortem examinations.

The electroencephalogram (EEG) and event-related potentials (ERPs) both involve recording
the electrical activity of the brain.

Outline one difference between the EEG and ERPs. (2 marks)

 Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian and the difference between
these rhythms. The effect of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on
the sleep/wake cycle

Outline one example of a circadian rhythm (4 marks)

 Genotype/phenotype

Rita and Holly are identical twins who were separated at birth. When they finally met each other
at the age of 35, they were surprised at how different their personalities were. Rita is much
more social and out-going than Holly.

Use your knowledge of genotype and phenotype to explain this difference in their personalities

(4 marks)

 Questions linked to research methods

A psychologist wanted to test the effects of biological rhythms on the ability to solve maths
problems. She used random sampling to form two groups each of 20 students.

She tested one group on one set of maths problems at 3 am in the morning. The other group
was tested on another set of maths problems at 3 pm in the afternoon. She found that
performance of the group tested at 3 pm was significantly better than the group tested at 3 am.

When submitted for peer review the paper was rejected because of serious design problems.

Explain one problem with the design of this study and suggest ways of dealing with this problem.

(4 marks)
 Application 16 mark essay

Robert suffered a stroke at the age of 55. After the stroke he was paralysed down his right side,
though he could move his left arm and leg easily. Robert could clearly understand what was
said to him, but was unable to produce any speech.

Discuss how knowledge of hemispheric lateralisation and language centres in the brain has
helped our understanding of cases such as Robert’s. Refer to Robert’s case in your answer.

(Total 16 marks)
 Essay planning (A describe and evaluate question)

Describe and evaluate evidence of plasticity and functional recovery after trauma in the brain

(16 marks)

A01: 6 marks, A02: 10 marks

 AO1 Definition of brain plasticity

 Maguire as correlational evidence…link back i.e. ‘the larger hippocampus in London Taxi
drivers suggests the experience of driving a taxi led to brain plasticity in the hippocampus’
 Description of functional recovery…link back ‘the new connections in the brain are
activated allowing recovery of nearby regions in the brain.
 (roughly 120/150 words)

 AO3 research support – Kuhn for example…

P – There is research support for the idea of brain plasticity

E- Kuhn found a significant increase in grey matter in various regions of the brain
E- This occurred after participants played video games for 30 minutes over a two month
period
L – This matters because Kuhn provides evidence for brain plasticity showing how
experience and lead to structural changes in the brain.

 AO3 further support – Maguire

P- There is further evidence to support the idea of brain plasticity
E- Maguire found the posterior hippocampus of London Taxi drivers’ brains was positively
correlated with their time as a taxi driver and this was different in comparison to controls.
E - (Issue & debate) point – However, some psychologists suggest that research
investigating brain plasticity is limited. Maguire’s research is biologically reductionist and
only examines a single biological factor (size of hippocampus) in relation to spatial
memory. This approach is limited because it fails to consider all the different
biological/cognitive processes involved in spatial navigation which may limit
understanding.
L- Therefore, while Maguire’s research shows that the brain can change in response to
frequent exposure to a particular task, some psychologists argue that a more holistic
approach may be deemed more appropriate.

 AO3
P- A final strength of research examining plasticity and functional recovery is the practical
application of neurorehabilitation
E – This uses motor (physical) therapy and electrical stimulation of brain areas following
significant accident, injury or strokes.
E – The brain has the ability to fix itself to a certain to a certain extent.
L- This matters because it shows the positive application of research in this area to help
improve the cognitive functions of people suffering injuries.
 Essay Planning (A discuss question)
Discuss the effects of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep-wake
cycle (16 marks)

AO1: Describe how the sleep-wake cycle is controlled endogenously below.

AO3: Fully complete the P.E.E.L points below

P- Evidence to support the role of endogenous pacemakers comes from Morgan (1995)
E- They found …….

E- Also,

L-This shows the importance of endogenous pacemakers because……….

AO3: Fill in the next P.E.E L statement

P- A further piece of evidence that supports the role of endogenous pacemakers is Siffre.
E-

E-

L- This shows us the sleep-wake cycle is controlled by the SCN because despite there being no
exogenous zeitgebers e.g. light or clocks, Siffre still woke and slept.
 AO1: Describe how light effects the working of the sleep-wake cycle (e.g. mention stopping
melatonin) (16 mark)

AO3: Select one study from the pack and use it to show the importance of an exogenous
zeitgebers on the sleep-wake cycle.
P

Continue…
 The endocrine system: Fight or flight – Exam question

Below is an exam question with an answer. Many students make the mistake of not ‘fully’
addressing a question. This one has two parts, an outline and to make reference to something.

Outline the key processes involved with the fight or flight response, make reference to the role of
adrenaline in your answer (6 marks)

Core knowledge 1: up for the fight (or flight)

A person will change from their normal resting state (the parasympathetic state) to the
physiologically aroused sympathetic state when faced with a perceived threat. This causes the
pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). This has the effect on the cells of
the adrenal gland causing them to release adrenaline. This triggers physiological changes in the
body which creates the physiological arousal necessary for the fight or flight response.

Core knowledge 2: what biological changes occur due to increased adrenaline?

The physiological changes initiated by the secretion of adrenaline include increased heart rate,
increased breathing rate, dilated pupils, inhibits digestion and inhibits saliva production.

Q) Feeling anxious? This often leads to the sensation of butterflies in the stomach, can you guess using a
physiological reason why these may occur?

The physiological changes in the stomach cause this. Blood is diverted away from the stomach to the vital
organs, and the stomach muscles tighten. This adds to the feeling of ‘butterflies’ and people can feel quite
‘sick’ and occasionally experience nausea.

Core knowledge 3: - calming down again

Once the threat has passed, the parasympathetic nervous system is activated to calm the person
down and return them to a resting state. Adrenaline is no longer secreted from the adrenal
glands. Heart and breathing rates return to normal, and the person establishes homeostasis. The
parasympathetic nervous system works in opposition to the sympathetic nervous system and act
like a brake so we do not use up all our vital resources by staying in a constant state of
heightened physiological arousal.
 9/12 mark design question

9/12 mark design a study questions can be tricky to answer, the more you practice doing them
the better you will become at answering them effectively rather than writing obscure points
showing a lack of understanding. As they are 9 or 12 marks they can really make the difference in
your overall grade.

One example is below…

Imagine you have been asked to design a study to investigate whether there is a relationship
between the number of hours students spend sleeping and how successful they are at
completing a series of anagrams. You decide you will time the participants as they do the
anagram task.

Discuss the following aspects of this investigation:

 Write an aim and a fully operationalised hypothesis

 Explain the procedure you would use to carry out the investigation
 How would you ensure that the experience of your participants is ethical?

(9 marks)