Faculty of Engineering and Technology

University of Lucknow

Lecture Notes
Subject Code: EE–503
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Materials
Topic Name
(Crystal imperfection part 1)
By:
Er. Wazid Ali
Assistant Professor
Deptt. of Electrical Engineering
Crystal Defects
 INTRODUCTION
• Crystals will have a regular periodic
arrangement of atoms.
• Any deviation from this periodicity is
known as defects or imperfections in
crystals.
• Definition: The deviation from the
perfect periodicity of atomic arrays
in crystals is known as crystal
defects.
• The crystal defects affect their
properties such as mechanical
strength, ductility, crystal growth,
dielectric strength, magnetic
hysteresis, conductivity, etc.
• A perfect crystal, with every atom of
the same type in correct position, does
not exist.
• Thus, all crystals have some defects.
The defects in crystals may be confined
to a point, line, surface and volume.
The basic classes of crystal defects are:
1. Point defects
(Zero-dimensional defects)

2. Line defects
(One-dimensional defects)

3. Surface defects
(Two-dimensional defects)

4. Volume defects
(Three-dimensional defects)
 1. Point Defects
• The point defects are zero-dimensional
defects
• When an atom is missing or an atom is in
an irregular place in the lattice structure,
the corresponding defects are known as
point defects.
• A point defect produces strain in a small
volume of the crystal surrounding the
crystal, but does not affect the perfections
distant parts of the crystal.
• In general, point defects occur in metallic
and ionic crystals.

Point defects are of following types:

(1) Vacancies
(2) Interstitial defects
(3) Substitutional defects
(4) Frenkel’s defect
(5) Schottky’s defect
 1.1. Vacancies
• Vacancies are simplest point defects in a
crystal which refers to a missing atom at
its site.
• Definition: The defects due to the
missing atoms at their lattice sites are
called vacancies.

A crystal lattice
with vacancy defect
is shown in figure.
• Vacancy defects are mainly due to the
imperfect packing during the formation of
crystal or due to thermal vibrations of
atoms at high temperature.
• At high temperature atoms are
frequently and regularly change their
positions leaving empty lattice sites
behind their positions.
• For most crystals, the thermal energy
is of the order of 1 eV per vacancy.
 1.2. Interstitial defects
• Definition: When an impurity atom
tries to settle in the interstitial
space between the parent atoms of
the crystal without displacing, then
such a defect is known as
interstitial defect.
• Interstitial impurities are much smaller
than the atoms in the bulk matrix.
• The formation of interstitial impurity
defect is shown figure.
• Formation of
interstitial
impurity defect
is shown figure.

• Example:
Carbon atoms are interstitial impurity
atoms that are added to Iron to make
Steel. In steel, Carbon atoms with
radius of 0.071 nm are well fitted in the
interstitial spaces between the larger
Iron atoms of radius 0.124 nm.
• The number of vacancies per unit volume of
the crystal depends upon temperature.
• In most cases, diffusion (mass transport by
atomic motion) can only occur because of
vacancies.
• In case of ionic crystals, there are two types
of point defects related to vacancies.
• They are: (A) Schottky defects and
(B) Frenkel defects
1.1.1. Schottky defects
• It is special case of vacancy defects in ionic
crystals.
• Definition: When a pair of vacancies is
produced at one positive ion site and one
negative ion site due to absence of positive
and negative ions, then this type of defect is
call the Schottky defect.
• In ionic crystals, there are two types of
possible vacancies, namely cation (+ve ion)
vacancies and anion (–ve ion) vacancies.
• When a +ve ion from the interior of the
lattice moves out of the crystal to its
surface, then a +ve vacancy is formed at
its site.
• The formation of +ve ion vacancy results
in excess negative charge inside the
crystal.
• To maintain charge neutrality, a –ve ion
moves to the crystal surface creating a
–ve ion vacancy at its site.
• NaCl, CsCl etc., exhibits Schottky
defect
• The formation of vacancies is
illustrated in the following figure.
1.1.2. Frenkel defects
 It is special case of vacancy and
interstitial defects in ionic crystals.
 Definition: When an ion displaced from
a regular location in the crystal lattice to
an interstitial location in the crystal
lattice , then this type of defect is called
the Frenkel defect.
 Consider the periodic distribution of +ve
and –ve ions in an ionic crystal.
 When a +ve ion leave its site and settles
in the interstitial position then it creates
a vacancy in its position.
 Thus, a vacancy and interstitial defects
are created. This pair of defects is known
as Frankel defect.
 In case of Frankel defect also charge
neutrality is maintained.
 AgBr, AgCl, ZnS etc., exhibits Frankel
defects
 The formation of Frankel defects is
described in the following figure.
 1.3. Substitutional defects
• Definition: When an impurity atom
occupies the one of the positions of the
parent atoms of the crystal, then such a
defect is known as substitutional
defect.
• A substitutional impurity atom is an
atom of a different type than the bulk
atoms.
• Usually, substitutional atoms are close
in size (within approximately 15%) to
the bulk atom.
• The formation of
substitutional
impurity defect is
shown figure.

• Example: Zinc atoms are substitutional

impurity atoms that are added to Copper
to make Brass. In brass, Zinc atoms with
radius of 0.133 nm have replaced some
of the Copper sites of radius 0.128 nm.
 2. Line Defects
• These are also called as linear defects or
dislocations.
• These are one-dimensional defects
• Definition:
“Dislocations are areas where the atoms are
out of position in the crystal structure”
(OR)
“A dislocation is a one-dimensional defect
around which some of the atoms are
misaligned”.
• Thus, dislocations refer to a linear
disturbance of the atomic arrangement
in a crystal.
• Dislocations are generated in crystals
due to growth accidents, thermal stress,
phase transformation etc.
• They can be observed in crystalline
materials with the help of electron
microscope.
• They are two basic types of dislocations:
• Edge dislocations and
• Screw dislocations.
• Most of the dislocations found in
crystals are neither pure edge nor
pure screw dislocations, but contain
components of both these types.
They are called mixed dislocations.
 2.1. Edge dislocations
• If one of the vertical planes does not extended
to the full length, but ends in between,
within the crystal, then such a defect is
known as edge dislocation.

• In perfect crystal,
atoms are arranged
in both vertical and
horizontal planes as
shown in Fig .
• From the figure it is clear that the atoms are
in perfect equilibrium in their positions and
all bond lengths are in equilibrium state.
• If one of the vertical
planes does not extend
to the full length, but
ends in between within
the crystal as shown in
Fig. it is called edge
dislocation.
• Because of dislocation, (i) just above the
discontinuity, the atoms are squeezed and
are in state of compression and (ii) just
below the discontinuity; the atoms are
pulled apart and are in state of tension.
• The distorted configuration spreads all
along the edge into the crystal.
• Thus, the maximum distortion is centered
around the edge of the incomplete plane.
• This distortion represents a line
imperfection and is called an edge
dislocation.
• Edge dislocations are symbolically
represented by ┴ or ┬.
• When the incomplete
plane starts from the top
of the crystal, then it is
called positive edge
dislocation and is
represented by “┴”
(see Fig. a)
• When the incomplete
plane starts from the
bottom of the crystal, then
it is called negative edge
dislocation and is
represented by “┬”
(see Fig. b).
 2.2. Screw dislocations
• The screw dislocations are also known as
Burger dislocations.
• These dislocations arise due to the
displacement of atoms in one part of a
crystal relative to the other part
[forming a spiral ramp around the
dislocation line].
 Burger Vector
• The magnitude and direction of the
lattice distortion associated with a
dislocation is called Burger vector.
• Dislocations are quantitatively
described by the Burger vector, and is
donated by ‘b’
• The magnitude of Burger vector is
found by drawing a closed circuit
around the dislocation line. This
circuit is called Burger’s circuit.
• Consider a perfect
crystal as shown in
Fig.
• Consider the case of edge
dislocated crystal shown in
Fig.

• When the same operation is

performed on the crystal, we
end upto at point Q instead
of the starting point P.

• Now, we have to move an extra step to return

to point P in order to close the Burger circuit.
• The magnitude and direction of the step is
called Burger Vector.

• Burger vector = QP = b
Note:
The Burger vector is perpendicular to the edge dislocation.
• Consider the Berger
circuit in a crystal
that contains screw
dislocation.
• In the perfect
crystal, starting
from P, if we trace
the Burger circuit,
the circuit is closed
path PMNOP as
shown in Fig.
In case of a crystal
with a screw
dislocation shown in
Fig. (b), the circuit
would not be
completed and
requires an extra step
b = FA, parallel to
the dislocation axis to
close the circuit. This
additional vector b is
called Burger vector.

Note:
The Burger vector is parallel to the screw dislocation.
 3. Surface Defects
• These are two-dimensional defects
• The regions of distortions that lie about a
surface having a thickness of few atomic
diameters are known as surface defects.
• Surface defects are two-dimensional defects
that separate two regions of the crystal.
• Surface imperfections are metastable
imperfections.
• If the crystal is heated close to its melting
point, many of the surface imperfections
disappear.
Disclaimer- This content is solely for the purpose of e-learning
by students and any commercial use is not permitted. The
author does not claim originality of the content and it is based
on the references as listed.

References:
Text Books:
1. L. H. Van Vlack, “Elements of Materials Science and Engineering”, Pearson
Education India.
2. V. Raghavan, “Materials Science and Engineering: A First Course”, PHI Learning
Pvt. Ltd.
3. V. S. R. Murthy, A. K. Jena, K. P. Gupta and G. S. Murty, “Structure and
Properties of Engineering Materials”, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
4. J. F. Shackelford, “Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers”, Pearson.
5. C. S. Indulkar and S. Thiruvengadam, “An Introduction to Electrical Engg.
Materials”, S. Chand & Co.

Reference Books:
1. L. Solymar and D. Walsh, “Electrical Properties of Materials”, Oxford University
Press.
2. I. P. Jones, “Materials Science for Electrical and Electronic Engineers”, Oxford
University Press.
4. J B Gupta “Electrical and Electronics Engineering Material” S K Katariya & Sons
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5. Open Source contents available on google and youtube.