Topic: Identification and classification of hard and soft corals and the factors

affecting their distribution along the North Coast, ENB.

Abstract
This paper outlines the research review on the identification of different forms of corals that
basically come under either hard or soft coral forms and what factors affect the distribution of their
diversity in a small coastal island called Vurar. From past research similar to this thesis, the
conclusions have proved that Transect Line Intercept method or sampling technique is most
feasible with the division of the three main coral reef zones. With the consideration of working
ethically, this paper outlines the hypothesis of identifying whether depth and other factors have an
influence on the coral species distribution within the reef zones or not.

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background

Biology
Although they are often mistaken for plants or rock, corals are simple animals belonging to a group
of invertebrates (spineless animals) called cnidarians. Related to sea anemones, hydroids and
jellyfish they all share a common simple structure, the polyp. Polyps are the actual coral animals.
Thousands of these animals cover one coral branch or mound. A polyp has a small cylindrical
body, with an opening or mouth encircled by numerous stinging tentacles. The tentacles contain
stinging cells called nematocysts that allow coral polyp to capture small organisms that swim too
close. The only difference between sea anemones is corals produce a mineral skeleton.
In shallow water corals that live in warm water often have another source of food, which is through
the symbiotic relationship of a single celled algae called zooxanthellae. Through the process of
photosynthesis this alga is able to make its own food through the absorption of the sun’s energy,
ass the host and in exchange the coral animal gives nutrients to the algae. For this reason, this
relationship allows shallow water corals to grow fast enough to build the enormous structures we
call reefs.
Diversity
For most tropical reefs which consist of the buildup of so-called true stony corals, each polyp sits
in a cup made of most calcium carbonate. There are so many different shapes, sizes, colors of
corals that can be stony like most of the reef builders but there’s also some that stand alone like
organ pipe corals, precious red corals and blue corals also have stony corals. There are also corals
that use more flexible to build their skeletons- the sea fans, sea rods, rubbery soft corals and the
black corals.

1|P ag e
The family tree of the animals we call corals, is complicated, regardless according to Ure Smith
(1976) this organism belongs to the Animal Kingdom, classified under the Phylum of Coelenterata
(encompassing cnidaria), there are three (3) classes; Anthozoa, Hydrozoa (hydra) and Scyphozoa
(jellyfish) but more focus will be on the Anothozoa class. Simply put there are three groups of
animals: the stony or hard corals (order Scleracinitia), soft corals (order octocorallia) and the
Hydrozoan corals (class Hydrozoa). This paper will focus on specifically on the hard and soft
corals.

Geographical Location - Coral triangle

In terms of biodiversity, lying between the Pacific and Indian Oceans within the tropical waters is
a roughly triangular area from the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Islands and Timor Leste that form what is known as the Coral Triangle (Hoegh-Guldberg, 2009).
As one of 8 major coral reef zones in the world, the coral triangle is recognized as a global center
of marine biodiversity and a global priority for conservation. This area contains at least 500 species
of reef building corals in each eco region. In alignment, PNG is located within the coral triangle comprising
of a diverse coral reef system that is home to some of the most important marine resources, aquatic
ecosystems and economical value to the coastal communities.
There is not much information or research carried out that accurately covers each coral reef species in an
area. The greater the variation and diversity the more complicated it takes to collect data and in a developing
country try as PNG and specifically around the waters of east New Britan. The province being one of the
hotspots of commercial fisheries like Tuna and a transport port of large fishing vessels that pass through

2|P ag e
1.2 Problem statement

In the past years, Vurar Island has been not known of formally until the recent establishment of
University of Natural Resources and Environment (UNRE) partnership with the people on the
Island. The school holds most of its academic research-based field trips and study along the diverse
biodiversity surrounding the island. The main type of aquatic ecosystems found around the island
are coral reefs, mangroves and sea grass. As for the latter mangrove and seagrass there have been
studies on the type of species that are dominant and are inhabitants of the area where as corals
there has been none or less documentation of the type of coral species grown in Vurar waters.
Hence, students, staff and researchers are unaware of the the of coral species that surround the
island and what factors affect their distribution. Therefore, the main problem is there is lack of
knowledge on the identification of corals and the different factors that distinguish and differentiate
their species diversity.
1.3 Aim of the research

The main aim of this research is to identify the impact of depth variation (and other factors) on the
distribution of coral growth forms across the reef zones.

1.4 Research question or research hypothesis

Is there an impact of depth variation (and other factors ) on coral distribution of coral growth forms across
the reef zones or not ?

1.5 Research objectives (good research have more than one)

1. To comprehend different literatures on the identification and classification of different

types of coral reefs
2. The types of sampling methods used in identifying corals
3. The factors that contribute to the distribution of the corals

Chapter 2 Literature Review

Introduction
Coral reefs are known as the “rainforests” of the oceans containing a wide range of inhabitants
from aquatic plants to the organisms that have evolved and adapted to live and breed. Corals due
to their hard exoskeleton structure have been mistakenly categorized under rocks or plants of the
sea but actually belong to the animal kingdom carrying out all the characteristics of an animal.
Apart from the direct aspects like the obvious radiant colors observed at first sight when we see
coral reefs, they are the world’s most important ecosystems due to several reasons, both indirect
and direct. Coral reefs are the most diverse of all marine ecosystems. They teem with life, with
one quarter of the ocean species depending on reefs for food and shelter, plays an important role

3|P ag e
in the worlds carbon cycle and indirectly is also of high economic importance due to provision of;
fisheries, livelihood, tourism, pharmaceuticals and wave buffer to coasts.
Unfortunately, they have been greatly threated due to human impacts that effect the coral reefs.
Impacts overfishing and destructive fishing, pollution, global warming (warming of the ocean,
changing ocean chemistry) and invasive species are taking a huge toll (citation). Some places have
lost their reefs entirely and are currently facing the consequences while many places today are
witnessing the effect as the oceans are not the same as they were. In addition, coral reefs are very
complex communities with many kinds of animals, plants and fishes, to many to be easily
understood or counted. This creates complications for scientists to identify each factor that
contribute to the whole entity of plants and animals that live on the reef or how the ecosystem
works. If reef resources are to be protected, developed, managed or protected, information about
them must be collected to have factual knowledge to justify their condition and status. There are
different methods to measure coral reefs in a geographical location and most data will vary
according to the different factors that distribute the diversity and abundance.

Body
Identification of Corals
During research carried out on the coral reefs of the Northern Gulf of Eilat (Red Sea) in nine localities the
major faunistic and floristic components occupying space on the coral reefs are stony (hard) and soft corals
with inclusion of benthic algae (Y.Loya, 1977). The percent living coverage of the three components and
the relative abundance of the different species of each component were studied by line transects, on the reef
flats and the upper forereef zones of nine localities. In focus of the two types of corals, due to their biological
structures, the classification and identification of coral families and species data can be easily collected
through quantitative and qualitative characteristics. On the other hand, Weil & Ruiz (2003) created new
approaches in using better technologies that contain new information that has allowed scientists to separate
species from what was considered for decades to be morphologically.
The main goal of these laminated ID cards is to facilitate and standardize the identification in the field of
the common corals and hydro corals of the wider Caribbean. We have selected representative photos and
prepared simple, clear and concise descriptions of each species. To facilitate the identifications, the species
were organized according to their common morphologies instead of their evolutionary relationships.
Although both research methods are proven feasible both could be incorporated together as one to compare
whether the number of species identified are hard or soft corals and through what factors do the distribution
vary.
Comparison between reef flats and upper fore-reef zones, in terms of average living cover of stony corals,
shows that the variation among the reef flats is greater than the variation among the upper fore reef zones.
However, there is no significant variation in the average living coverage of soft corals between these two
zones. The coexistence of stony corals, so~ corals and algae on the reef ecosystem is due to different
biological properties of each component.
Factors that determine distribution

4|P ag e
In the process of identifying and classifying the different types of corals, it is also very vital to consider the
physiological or abiotic factors and biotic factors that contribute to the growth and development of the reef
system. Taking in account that biodiversity varies in each fringing reef zone and is affected the following
reef indicators
Zonation patterns
The relationship of zones in the coral reefs was discussed in a paper Loya and slobodki (1971) where the
three different zones of the back reef, the reef crest and fore reef. were named according to their most
conspicuous faunal or topographical characteristics. The zonation pattern described was based on
topographical characteristics, as well as relative abundance and living coverage of different species. Thus,
the reef flat, for example, was described as a separate zone from the back reef is dearly different in its
topographical characteristics. This statement states that each coral reef zone was distinct according to their
different physical properties and biology. In contrast, other indices are determined by the number of species.
The more species are found in a sample, or the more species present in a species list for a given environment,
the greater the diversity (Gleason, 1922) The approach taken in the above study is to choose severe indices,
with different biological interpretations, which are also sensitive to different aspects of the diversity
concept. greater the dominance in the sample.

Abiotic factors
Turbidity and sedimentation
Loya (1976) came up with the findings that high levels of suspended sediment can smother corals
causing mortality, decrease coral fertilization rates, and reduce the amount of light available for
photosynthesis, and heavy sedimentation is associated with lower coral cover, fewer species and
lower growth rates. Therefore, highly turbid environments were previously considered to be
unsuitable for coral reef development. However, recent field investigations have documented
highly diverse and thriving coral reefs in regions characterized by very high turbidity and low light
conditions, such as the nearshore environments of the Great Barrier Reef, the Bonaparte
Archipelago in Western Australia, and South Atlantic reefs along the coast of Brazil (Rogers,
1990). These highly turbid environments might serve as important refuge for reef building corals,
because the high turbidity increases the intensity of light scatter, thereby reducing the solar
irradiance and thermal stress on corals.
Wave action and water mixing
Wave action can represent a risk for corals. The incessant pounding of waves on the reef crest can
make life hard for coral reef organisms. Many corals cannot survive here, and those that do often
adopt smaller, more flattened shape to deflect the energy of the waves. ( ) subsequently water
mixing provides coral reef organisms, such as corals, with the perfect balance of food, oxygen and
nutrients, and helps stabilize temperature and salinity—the salt content—of their environment().
It is observed that the salinity of water in landlocked lagoons is often higher than in the open ocean.
As the sun beats down on the lagoon, water evaporates leaving the salt behind, thus gradually
increasing the salinity of the lagoon. Most marine organisms are incapable of dealing with
significant changes in salinity.

5|P ag e
Exposure and depth
Depth is one of the most important factors determining the amount of sunlight that reaches bottom-
dwelling organisms like corals. Reef building corals possess microscopic algae in their body
tissues, called zooxanthellae. These algae need light to photosynthesize—the process by which
they gain energy from sunlight—which is why reef building corals are found only in the shallow,
sunlit waters of the tropics. Findings found from Bradbury and Young (1982) prove that as average
temperatures rise, minimum temperatures might still limit tropical corals from establishing
populations in the subtropics where even low temperatures can impair metabolic processes and
photosynthetic efficiency and cause photodamage, coral bleaching and mortality. In this way since
deeper reef zones are cooler the preferred light environments for species are in deeper depth zones
where they are more abundant unlike in shallow depths.
Biotic factors
The relationship between corals and algae are complex but have core principles that if one is altered
the other gets affected. Morrissey (1980) summarized that ccompetition with macroalgae, both for
settlement sites and by overgrowth, was one of the early hypotheses to explain the lack of coral
presence and reef accretion. Not only can these two factors but the existence of different organisms
presents in the reef ecosystem that share the same energy flow and natural systems often correlate
or compete with each other. Predation is an example, as studied by Bak and Van Eys 1980, that
the larval dispersion within the ocean is highly altered by larger invertebrates like sponges. This
reduces the ability of corals to excrete their carbonate skeletal structures blocking the life stage of
the polyp to grow.

Conclusion
In summary, the identification and classification of the types of coral reef species found in any
location or sampling site will require in depth scientific knowledge on how the whole system
works. This means starting from the smallest cellular or microorganism that comes in contact with
the species. The biology of coral reefs must be thoroughly understood, East New Britan is located
within the coral triangle hence is very important noting the vast biodiversity that has no accurate
or documented research on the type of species, organisms or factual information on coral reef
systems in PNG. Although there are methods in identifying or monitoring the coral reef, there is
less information on what factors contribute on the relationship of the types of coral reefs, the zones
in which they grow in, the biotic & abiotic factors that contribute to the distribution and what is
the relationship. In today’ world carrying out research especially on exploratory studies like this
is complicated, but with the right about of data, theories can be proven. In this case, identifying
the type of corals along the North Coast Road of ENB is a starting point for all coral reefs in the
country.

6|P ag e
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
3.1 Study Location (optional)

This research will be studied and carried out in East New Britan, just off the North Coast Road on
an island called Vurar. The experiment will focus on one site of the island that contains coral reef
ecosystems and where it is most accessible for transport to move back and forth. Research will be
conducted at one section of the island as shown in figure 3, the site is more of a smaller bay of the
island where villagers use as a boat stop for boats. The area consists of mangroves, sea grass at the
shallowest areas near the shore and a range of coral reefs. From the first reef zone till the last, the
study will only focus on the types of corals within the reef and not beyond in the deep. From 1 tip
of the area to the other tip is approximately 1 kilometer.

Figure 3 Zoom in view of selected site

Figure 2 Vurar Island, study location

3.2 Research Method and Design

There are three main parts in this research; the coral identification which is textual and descriptive
description of the type of coral and the taxonomy, the type of reef zone the species is located in
and the depth measurements. The research method will consist of both qualitative and quantitative
data, which is mixed research design. In carrying out this research, the qualitative data which is
the identification of coral reef zones and coral forms will be integrated with the measurement of
depth and how the depth of each zone has an impact on the types of coral forms grown at that
particular site.
In terms of approach this research is mainly exploratory methods in which the data needs to be
collected is new research in which it has not been done yet. In addition, the research will focus
mainly on exploratory design in which the intent of using two phases from 1) identifying the coral
reef zones as well as identifying the coral reef forms (hard or soft corals) and in which the second

7|P ag e
method will develop which is 2) measuring depth variation and other factors in each zone. Under
the two main parts there will be three simple methods to be used in carrying out this study; transect
line method which is the standard method used to calculate the different species present in the
separate zones and all within the transect will be collection of data on external factors like depth
and the soral identification cards that will be tabulated according to each zone.
Using the exploratory design, the first method will be the qualitative data collection which is the
coral identification, then the zonation using the transect line method with the depth variations and
finally merging both will result in the interpretation based on the type of coral present within the
zonation given the relationship with depth variations.

Line Intercept Transect

Line intercept transects are used to assess the sessile benthic community of coral reefs. The
community is characterised using lifeform categories which provide a morphological description
of the reef community. These categories are recorded on data sheets by divers who swim along
lines which are placed roughly parallel to the reef crest at depths of 3 metres and 10 metres at each
site. For future monitoring, the location of each site is recorded and marked on the reef. If the
expertise of the observer allows the identification of coral species, this methodology may be
expanded to include taxonomic data in addition to the life form categories.
To do a line intercept transect, secure a fiber glass tape measure to both ends of the transect with
the tape draped over the reef in between and record each species and its coral form. In a point
intercept you only record only what is located at each specified point along the line., e.g., every 20
cm. Depending on your objectives and available resources, you may want to survey several lines
at each site, use a longer line, or longer intervals. To test the adequacy of your sample size, check
the cumulative species recorded against the number of transects surveyed. The number of points
scored by a given species divided by the total number of points yields of the percentage cover.
As proposed by the S. English, C. Wilkinson and V. Baker in their survey carried out in the Great
Barrier Reef through the Australiana Institute of Marine Science on descriptions of coral and coral
reef fish populations. The methods presented are selected because they use inexpensive accessible
equipment. These methods require minimal expertise to provide useful data for the description of
reef communities and monitoring for management.
Site selection

8|P ag e
First things first conduct a general survey of the reef to select suitable sites on the reef slope which
are representative of that reef. Manta towing is a useful technique for site selection. At least 2 sites
should be selected. If distinct windward (front-reef) and leeward (Back-reef) zones exist, sites
should be selected in each habitat. The precise location of sites should be recorded while at the
site, noting landforms or unique reef features such as bays or indentations, points or channels,
which may be useful for relocating the site. A GPS (Global Positioning System) and an aerial
photo or chart of the area is extremely useful for positioning and relocating sites. Mark the position
of the transect. Metal stakes, such as angle iron or star-pickets, should be hammered deep into the
substratum (at least 0.5 metres). Attachment of subsurface buoys may help reduce loss of site
markers.

3.3 Sampling

Sampling is the process by which organisms in small areas can be counted, or quantified, to
estimate abundance over a larger area. The small areas, or samples, must be representative of the
larger area for these estimates to be accurate. Sampling a reef allows us to estimate species
richness, or the number of species in a given area. Species richness is one measure of the health of
a reef, as healthy reefs generally have more species than degraded reefs. To calculate species
richness, scientists count all the different species they find while sampling. Species richness does
not tell us anything about the relative abundance of these species, but simply lets us know how
many are present
The part of the coral reef that is measured is called a sample. To measure a part of the environment
is called sampling. Basically, the area shown in the study site is the sample and the measuring
technique is through either using the transect line or including a quadrant. Transects and quadrats
are two tools commonly used when sampling and monitoring coral reefs. A transect line is any
line marked at regular intervals, such as a measuring tape, that is easy to use in the field. Quadrats
are framed areas, such as squares made from PVC pipes. These tools provide a systematic method
for determining species richness.
Depending on the magnitude, the only variation will be the surveying of depth and coral species
but the identification of species will be constant. Sampling will occur only for depth along the
transect or through the quadrant using replication once every two weeks, according to three zones.
Since there are only three types of data that should be collected and this is a new but simple design.
The sampling will occur within the transect line for each interval for instance for every 10m, the
depth and the type of coral present will be identified. A similar method was used in research carried
out by UNRE student but with the seagrass species (2021). The process is as follows in the data
collection.

9|P ag e
3.4 Data Collection

Once sampling is identified, the data collection must be implemented. The process in in doing this
experiment will be similar in the research carried by UNRE students 2021 where they used the scale and
site dependent technique and has a number of approaches practicing it. Specifically, the seagrass survey
demonstrated the in situ (on site) Transect and Quadrant Methods.
1. First step was to set the 50 m transect line where the coral species began perpendicular to the
shoreline, with the first mark of 0 m is embedded in and the line is pulled tightly outwards till 50
m is covered.
2. Starting from 0 m and along the transect line at every 10 m interval, place the 50 cm x 50 cm
quadrant and record the required details on standard data sheets.
➢ Estimate the total percentage (%) cover of species within the quadrant - (use the coral
identification ID cards as a guide)
➢ Identify the number of species of within the quadrant and determine the percentage
contribution of each species to the cover – (use the species identification keys provided)
➢ At every recording point measure and record the canopy height of the dominant species in
the quadrant (an average of 3 leaves)
➢ At every recording point observe and record counts of organisms present in the quadrant –
(three major groups: invertebrates, vertebrates or mollusks).
➢ At every recording point observe and record the parameters (depth) in the quadrant

See appendix for coral Identification cards that show different types of coral species that either come under
hard or soft forms. In addition, since the data collected are al primary, the data collection will be presented
using this tabulated form below for a simplified version.

Reef Zone Coral form Depth Depth Depth

(hard or soft)

3.5 Data Analysis and Discussion

The data will be analyzed and presented as shown in the figure below an example of a frequency
graph used to analyze species using a transect line method but instead of species percentage cover
the data will be percentage of types of coral species in each depth interval. From this we can tell
that along each transect line there is a measure of depth which inhabits only specific types of corals.

10 | P a g e
In analyzing we conclude that there is a relationship with the impact of depth on the different type
of coral forms,

Species Percentage (%) cover

100% 90%
90%
73%
Percentage cover (%)

80%
70%
58%
60%
50% 42%
40% 30% 28%
30% 21% 22%
20% 10%
10% 4% 5% 5%
0%
0m 10m 20m 30m 40m 50m
Objective Point

Enhalus acorides (Ea) Thalassia hemprichii (Th)

Cymodocea rotundata(Cr) Cymodocea serrulata (Cs)

Many statistical tests involve analysis of variance (ANOVA) in their research dealing with mostly
relationships between species and water parameters. In general ANOVA provides ways of
determining if means from three or more samples differ significantly from each other. In this
research there will be a presentation of two graphical results, the box plot and the frequency graph.
The box plot will outline the mean differences between the three zones but specifically according
to the different depths while the frequency graph will illustrate the different coral forms within
each reef zone.

Using the excel application in a laptop, the data can be analyzed by using the frequency graphs to
compare the different types of species in each zone, the ANOVA, box plot, and mean bars to find
the mean relationship of each zone. Initially the identification of coral forms will be tabulated and
in analysis can be further discussed.

3.6 Limitations

In every research there are some things that restrict the accuracy of the statistics. In the study of
the impact of depth variation on coral species within each zone. They are as follows;
1. The research teams when recruiting team members to help collect data, there is no 100%
assurance that they will be able to perform the required skills to obtain progressive results
which will limit the research,

11 | P a g e
 2. Lack of equipment available to conduct the research is a major problem. Due to financial
issues the methodology will not be performing to the best of its ability.

3. Limitation of data, this is an exploratory non experimental research design meaning the
study is based on an open environment where there is a lot of external factors that may alter
the results or variables.

4. This is newly established research where the study are has no been researched on and so
there is little literature and reference to support the thesis.

Chapter 4 Research Ethics (upon requirement with most research)

Human Ethics
The main concern with humans is the reassurance and convincing of the importance and obligation
this study is worth. Under human ethics before the brainstorming of topic and study site Vurar
Island and community has a strong relationship with the school. Having this as an advantage, the
leaders are aware of the purpose our university holds which is using our natural resources in the
most sustainable and eco-friendly environment. But for formalities and recognition there will be;
1. A consent form from the University to the community leaders asking for permission to
conduct research on their land and sea.
2. Creating a comforting and open relationship with the community. Also, communication is
very important.

Environmental Research Ethics

This research is highly proven to be ineffective to the ecosystem and the organisms within. Both
terrestrial and coral reefs are highly vulnerable so as recognition and formalities the right approach
is to show to them by first creating an awareness on the importance of our species and how this
research is beneficial for both students and other people.

12 | P a g e
Chapter 5 Timeframe/Plan and Budget
Grant chart time-frame
Task Name Week 2 Week 4 Week 6 Week 8 Week 10 Week 12

Mon Fri Mon Fri Mon Fri Mon Fri Mon Fri Mon Fri

Planning

Identification
and sampling
begin

Analysis of

data

Presentation

of data

collection

13 | P a g e
The gantt chart outlines the sampling activities from preparation, collection, and analysis of data.
The blue shaded area indicates the actual activities taking place. However, the light maroon
shaded area is the set up or preparation. The duration of the study and data collection will be
within 12 weeks, beginning in week 2 of semester 2, 2023 and ending in week 12. After
tabulating the raw data, the important activity is the presentation of the data using excel
application.

14 | P a g e
Referencing
➢ Bak RPM, van Eys G (1975) Predation by the sea urchin Diadema antillarum Philippi on
l~ving corals. Oecologia 20: 111-
➢ Bradbury RH, Young PC (1981) The effects of a major forcing function, wave energy, on
a coral reef ecosystem. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 5:229-24
➢ Loya Y (1976) Effects of water turbidity and sedimentation on the community structure of
Puerto Rican coraIs. Bull Mar Sci 26:450-466
➢ Loya Y (1978) Plotless and transect methods. In: Stoddart DR, Johannes RE (eds) Coral
reef research methods. UNESCO, Paris, p 197
➢ Rogers CS (1990) Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation. Mar Ecol
Prog Ser 62:185-202
➢ Morrissey J (1980) Community structure and zonation of macroalgae and hermatypic
corals on a fringing reef flat of Magnetic Island Queensland, Australia. Aquat Bot 8: 91-1
➢ Use Smith, 1976, Corals of the Great Barrier Reef, Sydney Australia
➢ Chabanet, P., Adjeroud, M., Andréfouët, S., Bozec, Y.-M., Ferraris, J., Garcìa-Charton, J.-
A., & Schrimm, M. (2005). Human-induced physical disturbances and their indicators on
coral reef habitats: A multi-scale approach. Aquatic Living Resources, 18(3), 215–230.
➢ Hussein A. El-Naggar. (2020). Human Impacts on Coral Reef Ecosystem, Natural
Resources Management and Biological Sciences.
https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88841
➢ Tunnicliffe, V. Breakage and propagation of the stony coral Acropora cervicornis, PNAS
78, 2427-2431 (1981)
➢ S. English, C. Wilkinson and V. Baker, 1997, Survey Manual for tropical Marine
Resources 2nd Edition, Townsville

➢ UNRE Research, 2021), Seagrass species identification, Fisheries Department, Kokopo,

ENB

15 | P a g e