METOCEAN FOR USERS – STEP 2 – WHAT IS METOCEAN?

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Parameters

CURRENTS

Figure 1: Types of Current

[Courtesy Dr Cort Cooper Chevron]

What are Currents?

In the element on Ocean Circulation, we looked in general terms at the overall

movement of the oceans and in particular at the global “conveyor belt”. In this element
we look more specifically at the different types of currents in the oceans – and learn
how rubber ducks and Nike shoes have a story to tell!!

The different types of current are illustrated in Figure 1. What we see is that there
many different types of currents in the oceans and that they occur at periods ranging
from seconds to many days. Below we will briefly go over some key basic principles of
current generation and some of the current types.

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Currents
Ekman Transport and Geostrophic Currents

Ekman Transport and Geostrophic Currents - in a nutshell (from Ref 6)

Water movement in the oceans is influenced by:

 Solar Heating;

 Winds;

 Gravity;

 Coriolis;

 Density differences (from differences in temperature and salinity);

 Coastal and topographic boundaries.

Solar heating cause water to expand. Near the equator the water is about 8 cm
high than in middle latitudes. This cause a very slight slope and water wants to flow
down the slope. Winds blowing on the surface of the ocean push the water. Friction
is the coupling between the wind and the water's surface. A wind blowing for 10 hours
across the ocean will cause the surface waters to flow at approximately 2% of the wind
speed. Water will pile up in the direction the wind is blowing. Gravity will tend to pull
the water down the "hill" or pile of water against the pressure gradient.

Figure 2: Winds, driven by solar

heating and the earth’s rotation, drive
the ocean’s surface currents.
Source:
http://earth.usc.edu/~stott/Catalina/Oceans.html
[Accessed 23/1/08]

Figure 2:

But the rotation of the Earth in the form of the Coriolis force intervenes and causes
the water to move to the right (in the northern hemisphere) around a mound of water.

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Figure 3: Coriolis effect. Source: http://earth.usc.edu/~stott/Catalina/Oceans.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

These large mounds of water and the flow around them are called Gyres and they
occur in all the ocean basins.

Figure 4, Gyres. Source: http://earth.usc.edu/~stott/Catalina/Oceans.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

The inward push of water forming the mound is the result of a process called Ekman
Transport, with the Coriolis force acting to move water to the right in the northern
hemisphere (and to the left in the southern hemisphere).

Figure 5, Ekman Transport. Source: http://earth.usc.edu/~stott/Catalina/Oceans.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

Winds blowing over the surface of the ocean produce Wind-Induced Currents and
have the greatest effect on the surface waters. Lower layers are pushed along by

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 METOCEAN FOR USERS – STEP 2 – WHAT IS METOCEAN?

friction from the water layers above. As a result, the lower layers move slower than the
layers above. With each successive layer down through the water column the current
speed is reduced. This leads to the spiral affect as shown in Figure 5.

As the Coriolis force pushes the water to the right, it forms the hill as described above.
As the water tries to climb the hill it has to work against the force of gravity until a
balance is reached. This balanced flow is known as a Geostrophic Current.

Figure 6 (a) & (b): Geostrophic Current around a gyre.

Source: http://earth.usc.edu/~stott/Catalina/Oceans.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

Now check out the following site to find out why Oceanographers are into rubber
ducks and Nike shoes:

 Plastic Duckies: http://www.seabean.com/ThingsThatFloat/duckies/index.htm

[Accessed 23/1/08]

 The Weather Doctor, “Of Shoes And Ships And Rubber Ducks And A Message
In A Bottle” http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/elements/shoes.htm
[Accessed 23/1/08]

Also read about sea-beans at: http://www.seabean.com/what.htm [Accessed 23/1/08]

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Salinity & Temperature –

Density Driven Currents

The density of sea water is a function of both salinity and temperature. The
density increases with increasing salinity, and decreases with increasing temperature.

The salinity of seawater (i.e. the concentration of dissolved salts) is expressed

in terms of parts per thousand (ppt) or practical salinity units (psu). Typical values for
sea water are in the order of 34 to 35 ppt (34 to 35 psu). In coastal areas the salinity is
often lower because of river outflows. In the absence of mixing, a brackish water
wedge can overlay more saline water underneath.

A density current (Ref 2) is the relative flow caused by differences in water

density from place to place usually caused by variations in temperature and/or salinity;
a salt-water or brackish water wedge is a density current when stratification occurs
between water masses having different densities.

Tidal Currents

Tidal currents (Ref 3) are the horizontal movement of water associated with the
rise and fall of the tide. Also called a tidal stream. In relatively open positions, the
direction of tidal currents rotates continuously through 360 degrees diurnally or semi-
diurnally (see element on tides for explanation of these terms). In coastal regions, the
nature of tidal currents is determined by local topography as well. In shallow water, the
tidal current profile is often assumed to follow a 1/7 power law from the sea surface to
the sea bed.

The equation is: V(z) = Vs (z/d) 1/7 ; for 0 < z < d, and V(z) = Vs for z = d

Where: V(z) = velocity at height z above the seabed

Vdm = depth mean velocity

d = water depth

Vs = velocity at the surface

Vdm = 7/8 Vs

Deepwater Currents – in a nutshell

Deepwater currents (Ref 4) are typically more complex and powerful then their
shallow water counterparts. The characteristic time scales of deepwater currents can
range from a few minutes to months and their magnitudes can reach 250 cm/s
extending over 100 meters in the water column. Such currents can generate the
dominant environmental global load for certain floating concepts like spars and for key
components like risers and pipelines.

On the high frequency end of deepwater currents, internal waves have periods as
low as a minute. Internal waves result because of stratification in the ocean. They are
most commonly driven by astronomical tides or winds. Internal waves rarely exceed
50 cm/s but a special form of internal wave known as a soliton can reach 100 cm/s,

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 METOCEAN FOR USERS – STEP 2 – WHAT IS METOCEAN?

generate even higher amplitudes through breaking on the sea floor, persist for tens of
minutes, and create amplitude fluctuations in the local thermocline of 100 m.

Another important type of high frequency current is turbidity currents. These are
underwater avalanches of sediment and originate in regions of steep slopes and
unconsolidated sediments. Few measurements exist but estimates are that
magnitudes can reach 500 cm/s near the bottom for a few minutes of time.

In the middle of the spectrum are topographic waves and eddies. Topographic
waves last for days, can reach magnitudes of 50-100 cm/s and affect a 1000 m or
more of the water column. Eddies and rings typically originate as instabilities from
boundary currents like the Loop Current. These currents can affect sites for days at a
time and create currents of 250 cm/s, typically in the upper 100 m of the water column.
Currents drop off gradually with depth though they can still be 50 cm/s at 500 m.

At the low frequency end of the spectrum are the permanent currents like the Gulf
Stream. These are persistent currents that flow for eons though they do often
meander up to 1000 km from their mean path. Peak currents can reach 250 cm/s in
the upper 200 m of the water column, and diminish gradually to 50 cm/s at 500-1000
metres.

………… now take a look through the attached PPT presentation:

Quick Facts:

Do you know that the convention is for the current direction is expressed in terms of
the direction TOWARDS which the current is flowing? An easterly current is one that
flows from West to East. This contrasts with winds and waves, where the convention
is to express direction in terms of direction FROM. Thus a northerly wind or swell is
coming FROM the North.

What’s the Relevance?

Currents in the ocean are (in broad terms) analogous to the winds in the
atmosphere. As we have seen above, there are many forces and influences at work in
the ocean that in combination result in the water movements vertically, across and
around the oceans. It is a detailed and complex scientific subject.

An appreciation and understanding of how and why different water masses are
formed, move around and interact is fundamental if the metocean engineer is to
provide meaningful advice on the current conditions to be expected at a particular
location.

Currents are relevant for both design and operations; they vary in speed,
duration and direction, they vary through the water column, they are sometimes
stronger at certain times of the month or year, they can be strong near to the sea bed,
and in many parts of the world they have a tendency to be strong in deep water at the
edge of the continental. Without data and a clear understanding of the mechanisms at
work, then there is the potential for big surprises – with both potential safety and
economic consequences.

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Why and Where Does it Matter for Shell?

Currents matter as they can have significant impact in both design (especially in
deeper waters) and in operations; for example:

 Current Loads on fixed and floating structures

impact through depth and time

 Drilling and Operational Activities

 Vortex Induced Vibration

 Riser/Tubular Deployment

 Pipelines

Take a look at the attached PPT presentation for a summary of

relevant characteristics of current conditions in the Gulf of Mexico:

Note in particular reference to the Loop Current – more details of this

phenomenon may be found in Reference 7 and 8.

Figure 7: Gulf of Mexico Loop Currents and Eddies.

Source: http://www.horizonmarine.com/ew_gulf.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

See the Loop Current animation at:

http://www.mathaware.org/mam/01/manifoldoc.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

For display of real-time current measurements in the Gulf of Mexico, try these Shell
sites [Accessed 23/1/08]:
http://houic-s-6292.americas.shell.com/adam
http://houic-s-6292.americas.shell.com/adcp/
http://brsepi03.shell.com/ADAM/viewgom
Note: these sites are not accessible from all locations and access may be restricted.

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Want to learn more? (Optional)

 Search the web for relevant sites.

 Refer to relevant books and publications in your OU or local library.

 Post any questions in the Q&A area in TeleTOP.

References

1. Smithsonian Institute, “Ocean Currents”,

http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANET/HTML/oceanography_currents_1.html
[Accessed 23/1/08]

2. University of South Maine, “Density Currents”,

http://www.usm.maine.edu/maps/lessons/nr11b.htm [Accessed 23/1/08]

3. NOAA, “Our Restless Tides”, http://co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/restles1.html [Accessed

23/1/08]

4. Dr Cort Cooper, Chevron, “Ocean Currents”,

http://info.ogp.org.uk/metocean/FloatingSystems/presentations.html [Accessed
23/1/08]

5. Ocean Circulation, Open University Team, Published by Butterworth Heinemann,

2001, ISBN: 0750652780.

6. University of Southern California, Ocean Currents and Climate,

http://earth.usc.edu/~stott/Catalina/Oceans.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

7. Hycom Consortium, “Loop Current”,

http://oceancurrents.rsmas.miami.edu/atlantic/loop-current.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

8. Horizon Inc, Eddy Watchsm, http://www.horizonmarine.com/ [Accessed 23/1/08]

Additional Resources

 Hycom Consortium, Ocean Surface Currents, Glossary,

http://oceancurrents.rsmas.miami.edu/glossary.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Circulation of Ocean Waters”,

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=115013 [Accessed 23/1/08]

 Flinders University of South Australia, “Oceanographic Utilities”,

http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/Utilities/index.html [Accessed 23/1/08]

 Texas A&M University, “Ocean World”,

http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/students/currents/currents1.htm [Accessed 23/1/08]