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Tassos Dimitriou
CpE-203
Discrete Structures
Set 5
Prof. Tassos Dimitriou
Computer Engineering Department
Kuwait University
CpE-203: Discrete Structures 1
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Outline
Sequences
Sums
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Definitions
Sequence: an ordered list of elements
A sequence is a function from a subset of Z to a set S. We
use the notation an to denote the image of the integer n.
We call an a term of the sequence.
Example:
Subset of N: 1 2 3 4 5 …
S: 2 4 6 8 10 …
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Sequences
We use the notation {an} to describe a sequence
It is often convenient to describe a sequence with a formula.
For example, the sequence on the previous slide can be
specified as {an}, where an = 2n.
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The Formula Game
What are the formulas that describe the following
sequences a1, a2, a3, … ?
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … an = 2n - 1
-1, 1, -1, 1, -1, … an = (-1)n
2, 5, 10, 17, 26, … an = n2 + 1
0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25 … an = 0.25n
3, 9, 27, 81, 243, … an = 3n
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More sequence examples
an = 3n
The terms in the sequence are a1, a2, a3, …
The sequence {an} is { 3, 6, 9, 12, … }
Arithmetic Progression
a, a+d, a+2d, …, a+nd, …
an = a + (n-1)d
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More sequence examples
bn = 2n
The terms in the sequence are b1, b2, b3, …
The sequence {bn} is { 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, … }
Geometric Progression
a, ar, ar2, ar3, …, arn-1, …
an = arn-1
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Determining the sequence formula
Given values in a sequence, how do you determine the
formula?
Steps to consider:
Is it an arithmetic progression (each term a constant amount
from the last)?
Is it a geometric progression (each term a factor of the previous
term)?
Does the sequence repeat (or cycle)?
Does the sequence combine previous terms?
Are there runs of the same value?
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Determining the sequence formula
1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, …
The sequence alternates 1’s and 0’s, increasing the number of
1’s and 0’s each time
1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, …
This sequence increases by one, but repeats all even numbers
once
1, 0, 2, 0, 4, 0, 8, 0, 16, 0, …
The non-0 numbers are a geometric sequence (2n) interspersed
with zeros
3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, …
Each term is twice the previous: geometric progression
an = 3*2n-1
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Determining the sequence formula
15, 8, 1, -6, -13, -20, -27, …
Each term is 7 less than the previous term
an = 22 - 7n
3, 5, 8, 12, 17, 23, 30, 38, 47, …
The difference between successive terms increases by one each time
a1 = 3, an = an-1 + n
an = n(n+1)/2 + 2
2, 16, 54, 128, 250, 432, 686, …
Each term is twice the cube of n
an = 2*n3
2, 3, 7, 25, 121, 721, 5041, 40321
Each successive term is about n times the previous one
an = n! + 1
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Recurrences
A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an equation that
expresses an in terms of one or more of the previous terms of
the sequence.
Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence
relation an = an-1 + 3 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , and suppose that a0 = 2.
What are a1, a2, and a3?
Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence
relation an = an−1 − an−2 for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . , and suppose that
a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. What are a2 and a3?
Initial conditions specify the terms that precede the first term
where the recurrence relation takes effect.
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The Fibonacci numbers
Fibonacci, Leonardo de Pisa (ca. 1170 -
ca. 1240)
The Fibonacci numbers have an intimate
relationship with the golden ratio the Greeks
so admired, and with Euclid’s GCD algorithm
Furthermore, nature seems to love Fibonacci
numbers
Fibonacci sequence:
F0 = 0 and F1 = 1
Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 , if n > 1
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Fibonacci numbers in nature
More about plants, etc. in
http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat.html
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Closed formulas for recurrences
Closed formula: an explicit expression for a recurrence as a
function of n.
Example: Determine whether the sequence {an}, where an = 3n for
every nonnegative integer n, is a solution of the recurrence relation
an = 2an−1 − an−2 for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Answer the same question where an = 2n and where an = 5.
Example: Find a closed expression for the sequence that satisfies
the recurrence relation an = an-1 + 3 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , with a0 = 2.
Can be solved by iterating (i.e. repeatedly using) the recurrence
relation using either forward substitution or backward substitution.
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Summations
n
What does a
j m
j stand for?
It represents the sum am + am+1 + am+2 + … + an.
The variable j is called the index of summation, running from its lower
limit m to its upper limit n.
We could as well have used any other letter to denote this index.
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Summations
How can we express the sum of the first 1000 terms of the
sequence {an} with an=n2 for n = 1, 2, 3, … ?
We write it as
6
What is the value of j?
j 1
It is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21.
100
What is the value of j
j 1
?
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Summations
It is said that Friedrich Gauss came up with the following formula:
When you have such a formula, the result of any summation can be
calculated much more easily, for example:
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Sum of Arithmetic Series
Can you prove the “Gauss formula”?
Hint: Group numbers in pairs…
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Geometric Series
Let’s prove
Observe that:
S = 1 + a + a2 + a3 + … + an
aS = a + a2 + a3 + … + an + a(n+1)
so, (aS - S) = (a - 1)S = a(n+1) - 1
Therefore,
For example: 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 +… + 1024 = 2047.
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Geometric Series (cont.)
What about, when a < 1?
Infinite number of terms!
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Useful series
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Double summations
Like a nested for-loop
4 3
ij
i 1 j 1
Is equivalent to:
int sum = 0;
for ( int i = 1; i <= 4; i++ )
for ( int j = 1; j <= 3; j++ )
sum += i*j;
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Products
There is also a special notation for products.
The product of am, am+1, . . . , an is represented by
and is read as the product from i = m to i = n of ai .
How would you represent the factorial using this notation?
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