Phy101 Lecture Note

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

Current in capacitors
Consider the charging capacitor in the figure.

We have drawn two loops name as L which is outside the loop and Loop R which is in
between the parallel plates of capacitor.
The capacitor is in a circuit that transfers charge (on a wire external to the capacitor) from
the left plate to the right plate, charging the capacitor and increasing the electric field
between its plates. The same current enters the right plate (say I) as leaves the left plate.
Although current is flowing through the capacitor, no actual charge is transported through
the vacuum between its plates.
Ampere’s circuital is not applicable for loop L and we can find magnetic field at point P
using Ampere’s circuital law

$$$$⃗ = 𝜇* 𝐼
$$$⃗ 𝑑𝑡
∮ 𝐵.

Now if we consider an imaginary cylindrical surface. No conduction current enters cylinder

surface R, while current I leaves through surface L. Thus, Ampere’s law is not applicable
and magnetic field at point P must be zero. So, we have a contradiction; calculated one
way, there is a magnetic field at a point P; calculated another way, the magnetic field at P is
zero.
Nonetheless, a magnetic field exists between the plates as though a current were present there
as well.
For consistency of Ampere's Circuital law requires a displacement current ID = I to flow
across surface R.
The explanation is that a displacement current ID flows in the vacuum, and this current
produces the magnetic field in the region between the plates according to Ampere’s law If
Q is the charge on capacitor plate and area of plates of capacitor is A
Electric field between plates is
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 𝑄
𝐸=
𝜀* 𝐴

When capacitor is getting charged rate of changed in electric field is

𝜕𝐸 1 𝑑𝑄
=
𝜕𝑡 𝜀* 𝐴 𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝐸
𝜀* 𝐴 = 𝐼2
𝜕𝑡

Here ID is called displacement current

In integral form
𝜕𝐸$⃗
𝜀* 3 $$$$⃗ = 𝐼2
𝑑𝑎
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜙6
𝜀* 3 = 𝐼2
𝜕𝑡

This current does not have significance in the sense of being the motion of charges.
The generalization made by Maxwell then is the following. The source of a magnetic field
is not just the conduction electric current due to flowing charges, but also the time rate of
change of electric field. More precisely, the total current I is the sum of the conduction
current denoted by IC and the displacement current denoted by ID
Adding integral form of displacement current in Ampere’s law we get

𝑑𝜙6
$$$⃗ $$$⃗
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇* 𝐼8 + 𝜇* 𝜀* 3
𝑑𝑡

and is known as Ampere-Maxwell law.

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Electromagnetic waves
According to Maxwell, an accelerated charge is a source of electromagnetic radiation.
In an electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic field vectors are at right angles to each other
and both are at right angles to the direction of propagation.
They possess the wave character and propagate through free space without any material
medium. These waves are transverse in nature. Fig shows the variation of electric field E along
Y direction and magnetic field B along Z direction and wave propagation in +X direction

According to Maxwell’s theory, these electric and magnetic field do not come into
existence instantaneously. In the region closer to the oscillating change, the phase
difference between electric field E and Magnetic field B is π/2 and their magnitude quickly
decreases as 1/r3 (where r = distance from source) these components are called Inductive
component.
At larger distance E and B are in phase and the decrease in their magnitude is
comparatively slower with distance, as per 1/r. These components are called radiated
components.

Characteristics of Electromagnetic waves

(1) Representation in form of equations:
Electromagnetic wave shown in figure at time t, the y component is 𝐸: of electric
field given by equation 𝐸: = 𝐸* sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )
In vector form. 𝐸 = 𝐸: 𝑗 = [𝐸* sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )]j
Similarly Magnetic component is given as B = [𝐵* (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )]k
(2) Relation between magnitude of E and B is E=Bc
Here c is velocity of light
(3) The velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum

1
𝑐=
H𝜀* 𝜇*

The velocity of electromagnetic waves in medium

1
𝑣=
√𝜀𝜇

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 From definition of refractive index.
𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣
√𝜀𝜇 𝜀 𝜇
𝑛= =L
H𝜀* 𝜇* 𝜀* 𝜇*

N P
Since 𝜀M = N = 𝑘 dielectric constant of medium and relative permeability 𝜇M = P
O O
𝑛 = √𝜀M 𝜇M
(4) Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature
(5) Electromagnetic waves possess energy and they carry energy from one place to the
other.
(6) Electromagnetic waves exert pressure on a surface when they are incident on it, called
radiation pressure
If ∆U is the energy of electromagnetic waves incident on a surface of area A in time
∆t, in direction normal to the surface and if all energy is absorbed then change in momentum
∆T
Δ𝑝 = 8
(7) Energy density of electromagnetic wave
]
YZ[\
X
𝜌 = 𝜀* 𝐸MVW and 𝜌 =
NO
(8) The intensity of radiation (I) is defined as the radiant energy passing through unit
area normal to the direction of propagation in one second

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐼= = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)

If radiation is passing through unit area with velocity c then volume in one second = c
Thus, energy volume = ρc from the value of ρ 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

X
𝐼 = 𝜀* 𝑐𝐸MVW

Similarly
]
8YZ[\
𝐼=
PO

(9) E x B gives the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave

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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Sr. Name Source Wavelength in Frequency
No. (m) range (Hz)
1 γ – rays Radioactive nuclei, nuclear 10−14 to 3 × 1022 to
reactions 10 −10
3x 1018
2 x − rays High energy electrons suddenly 1 × 10−10 to 3 × 1018 to
stopped by a metal target 3 × 10−8 1 × 1016
3 Ultra−violet Atoms and molecules in 6 x 10−10 to 5 x 1017 to
electrical discharge 4 × 10−7 8 × 1014
4 Visible light incandescent solids, 4 x 10−7 to 8 x 1014 to
Fluorescent, lamps 8 x 10−7 4 x 1014
5 Infra−red (IR) molecules of hot bodies 8 x 10−7 to 4 x 1014 to
3x 10−5 1 × 1013
6 Microwaves Electronic device 10−3 to 3 x 1011 to
(Vacuum tube) 0.3 1 x 109
7 Radio Charges accelerated through 10 to 3 x 107 to
frequency conducting wires 10 4
1 x 104
wave

Electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of wavelengths (or) frequencies. The whole
electromagnetic spectrum has been classified into different parts and sub parts, in order of
increasing wavelength and type of excitation. All electromagnetic waves travel with the
velocity of light. The physical properties of electromagnetic waves are determined by their
wavelength and not by their method of excitation.

The overlapping in certain parts of the spectrum shows that the particular wave can be
produced by different methods.

Uses of electromagnetic spectrum

The following are some of the uses of electromagnetic waves.

1. Radio waves: These waves are used in radio and television communication systems.
AM band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz.
Higher frequencies up to 54 MHz are used for short waves bands.
Television waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz.
FM band is from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.
Cell phones use radio waves in ultra high
frequency (UHF) band.

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2. Microwaves: Due to their short wavelengths, they are used in radar communication
system.
Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic application of these waves.

3. Infra-red waves:
(i) Infrared lamps are used in physiotherapy.
(ii) Infrared photographs are used in weather forecasting.
(iii) As infrared radiations are not absorbed by air, thick fog, mist etc, they are used to take
photograph of long distance objects.
(iv) Infra-red absorption spectrum is used to study the molecular structure.

4. Visible light: Visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us provides
information about the world. The wavelength range of visible light is 4000 Å to 8000 Å.

5. Ultra−violet radiations
(i) They are used to destroy the bacteria and for sterilizing surgical instruments.
(ii) These radiations are used in detection of forged documents, fingerprints in forensic
laboratories.
(iii) They are used to preserve the food items.
(iv) They help to find the structure of atoms.

6. X rays:
(i) X rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine.
(ii) It is used to study the crystal structure in solids.

7. γ−rays: Study of γ rays gives useful information about the nuclear structure and it is
used for treatment of cancer

Problems
1) If you wish to detect details of the size of atom (1 × 10-12 m) with electromagnetic
radiation, it must have a wavelength of about this size (a) what is its frequency (b)
What type of electromagnetic radiation might this be?
2) A 1000 W bulb is kept at the centre of a spherical surface and is at a distance of 10 m
from the surface. Calculate the force acting on the surface of the sphere by the
electromagnetic waves, along with E0, B0 and intensity I. Take the working efficiency of
the bulb to be 2.5% and consider it as a point source, calculate the energy density on the
surface.
3) The maximum electric field at a distance of 10 m from an isotropic point source of light
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 is 3.0 V/m. Calculate
(a) the maximum value of magnetic field
(b) average intensity of the light at that place and
(c) the power of the source εo = 8.854 × 10-12 C2N-2 m-2

Waves and their phenomena:

Reflection,
Refraction
Polarisation
Diffraction,

Reflection

• Waves reflect from all surfaces, this is seen in mirrors

• The key feature of reflection is the angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of
reflection r

Refraction

• Refraction is when light travels at a different speed when travelling through

another medium

o This is seen when light passes through a boundary such as from air to glass

• White light splits into a spectrum due to refraction

o violet light is slowed down more and refracts more than red light
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 Refraction of light through a prism

Polarisation

• Polarisation is a wave phenomenon that only occurs for transverse waves

o This is when the vibrations of transverse waves are restricted in one

direction

Polaroid sunglasses use polarisers to reduce glare

Diffraction

• Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass an obstruction

o This obstruction is typically a narrow slit known as an aperture

• It usually represented by a wavefront

• The only property of a wave that changes when it diffracts is its amplitude

o This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through

a gap
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 • The effects of diffraction are most prominent when the gap size is approximately
the same or smaller than the wavelength of the wave
• As the gap size increases, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the
case that the gap is much larger than the wavelength, the waves are no longer
spread out

The size of the gap affects how much the waves spread out when diffracted

• The diffraction pattern of light can be represented as a series of light and dark fringes
which show the areas of maximum and minimum intensity
• If a laser emitting blue light is directed at a single slit, where the slit width is larger than
the wavelength of the light, it will spread out as follows:

The intensity pattern of blue laser light diffracted through a single slit

• If the laser were to be replaced by a non-laser source emitting white light:

o The central maximum would be white

o All maxima would be composed of a spectrum
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 o The shortest wavelength (violet / blue) would appear nearest to the central
maximum
o The longest wavelength (red) would appear furthest from the central
maximum
o The fringe spacing would be smaller and the maxima would be wider

Qualitative treatment of the variation of the width of the central diffraction maximum with
wavelength and slit width.

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