Information Disorder: The Essential Glossary

Claire Wardle
Research by: Grace Greason,
Joe Kerwin, Nic Dias
July 2018

Definitions and terminology matter. For the policy-makers, technology companies,

politicians, journalists, librarians, educators, academics, and civil society
organisations all wrestling with the challenges posed by information disorder,
agreeing to a shared vocabulary is essential.

This glossary features the most frequently used and commonly misunderstood
words, acronyms, and phrases that relate to information disorder. It is designed to be
a living document that will evolve as a reference point alongside research findings,
shifts in technology, and the inevitable debates sparked by the definitions.

An algorithm is a fixed series of steps that a computer

Algorithm
performs in order to solve a problem or complete a task.
For instance, social media platforms use algorithms to
compile the content that users see. These algorithms in
particular are designed to show users material that they will
be interested in, based on each user’s history of engagement
on that platform. For example, algorithms can often filter
content so that users primarily see types of content with
which they have previously engaged. Users tend to engage
with content that provokes an emotional reactions like fear
and anger. As such, it’s argued that algorithms designed to
take advantage of users’ emotions create an environment
wherein disinformation created to play into deep-seated
fears and cultural identities will flourish.1
 An API, or application programming interface, is a means
API
by which data from one web tool or application can be
exchanged with, or received by another. Many working to
examine the source and spread of polluted information
depend upon access to social platform APIs, but not all are
created equal and the extent of publicly available data varies
from platform to platform. Twitter’s open and easy-to-use
API has enabled thorough research and investigation of
its network, plus the development of mitigation tools such
as bot detection systems. However, restrictions on other
platforms and a lack of API standardization means it is not
yet possible to extend and replicate this work across the
social web.

Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computer programs

Artificial
that are ‘trained’ to solve problems that would normally
intelligence be difficult for a computer to solve. These programs
(AI) “learn” from data parsed through them, adapting methods
and responses in a way that will maximize accuracy. As
disinformation grows in its scope and sophistication, some
look to AI as a way to effectively detect and moderate
concerning content. AI also contributes to the problem,
automating the processes that enable the creation of more
persuasive manipulations of visual imagery, and enabling
disinformation campaigns that can be targeted and
personalized much more efficiently.2

Automation is the process of designing a ‘machine’ to

Automation
complete a task with little or no human direction. It
takes tasks that would be time-consuming for humans to
complete and turns them into tasks that are completed
quickly and almost effortlessly. For example, it is possible to
automate the process of sending a tweet, so a human doesn’t
have to actively click ‘publish’. Automation processes are the
backbone of techniques used to effectively ‘manufacture’ the
amplification of disinformation.

Black hat SEO (search engine optimization) describes

Black hat
aggressive and illicit strategies used to artificially increase
SEO a website’s position within a search engine’s results, for
example changing the content of a website after it has been
ranked. These practices generally violate the given search
engine’s terms of service as they drive traffic to a website at
the expense of the user’s experience.3
 Bots are social media accounts that are operated entirely
Bots
by computer programs and are designed to generate posts
and/or engage with content on a particular platform.
In disinformation campaigns, bots can be used to draw
attention to misleading narratives, to hijack platforms’
trending lists, and to create the illusion of public discussion
and support.4 Researchers and technologists take different
approaches to identifying bots, using algorithms or simpler
rules based on number of posts per day.5

A botnet is a collection or network of bots that act in

Botnet
coordination and are typically operated by one person or
group. Commercial botnets can include as many as tens of
thousands of bots.6

Data mining is the process of monitoring large volumes

Data Mining
of data by combining tools from statistics and artificial
intelligence to recognize useful patterns. Through collecting
information about an individual’s activity, disinformation
agents have a mechanism by which they can target users
on the basis of their posts, likes, and browsing history. A
common fear among researchers is that, as psychological
profiles fed by data mining become more sophisticated,
users could be targeted based on how susceptible they are to
believing certain false narratives.7

Dark ads are advertisements that are only visible to the

Dark Ads
publisher and their target audience. For example, Facebook
allows advertisers to create posts that reach specific users
based on their demographic profile, page ‘likes’, and their
listed interests, but that are not publicly visible. These types
of targeted posts cost money and are therefore considered
a form of advertising. Because these posts are only seen by
a segment of the audience, they are difficult to monitor or
track.8

Deepfakes is the term currently being used to describe

Deep Fakes
fabricated media produced using artificial intelligence. By
synthesizing different elements of existing video or audio
files, AI enables relatively easy methods for creating ‘new’
content, in which individuals appear to speak words and
perform actions, which are not based on reality. Although
‘deepfakes’ are still in their infancy, it is likely we will see
the term ‘deepfakes’ used more frequently in disinformation
campaigns, as these techniques become more sophisticated.9
 A dormant account is a social media account that has not
Dormant
posted or engaged with other accounts for an extended
Account period of time. In the context of disinformation, this
description is used for accounts that may be human-
or bot-operated, which remain inactive until they are
‘programmed’ or instructed to perform another task.10

Doxing or doxxing is the act of publishing private or

Doxing
identifying information about an individual online, without
his or her permission. This information can include full
names, addresses, phone numbers, photos, and more.11
Doxing is an example of malinformation, which is accurate
information shared publicly to cause harm.

Disinformation is false information that is deliberately

Disinformation
created or disseminated with the express purpose to cause
harm. Producers of disinformation typically have political,
financial, psychological, or social motivations.12

Encryption is the process of encoding data so that it can

Encryption
be interpreted only by intended recipients. Many popular
messaging services such as WhatsApp encrypt the texts,
photos, and videos sent between users. This prevents
governments from reading the content of intercepted
WhatsApp messages, and journalists from attempting
to monitor mis- or disinformation being shared on the
platform.

Fact-checking (in the context of information disorder) is

Fact-Checking
the process of determining the truthfulness and accuracy
of official, published information such as politicians’
statements and news reports.13 Fact-checking emerged
in the U.S. in the 1990s, as a way of authenticating claims
made in political ads airing on television. There are now
around 150 fact-checking organizations in the world,14
and many now also debunk mis- and disinformation from
unofficial sources circulating online.
 Fake followers are anonymous or imposter social media
Fake
accounts created to portray false impressions of popularity
Followers about another account. Social media users can pay for fake
followers as well as fake likes, views, and shares to give the
appearance of a larger audience. For example, one English-
based service offers YouTube users a million “high-quality”
views and 50,000 likes for $3,150.15

Malinformation is genuine information that is shared to

Malinformation
cause harm.16 This includes private or revealing information
that is spread to harm a person or reputation.

Manufactured Amplification occurs when the reach or

Manufactured
spread of information is boosted through artificial means.
Amplification This includes human and automated manipulation of search
engine results and trending lists, and the promotion of
certain links or hashtags on social media.17 There are online
price lists for different types of amplification, including
prices for generating fake votes and signatures in online
polls and petitions, and the cost of downranking specific
content from search engine results.18

The formal definition of the term meme, coined by

Meme
biologist Richard Dawkins in 1976, is an idea or behavior
that spreads person to person throughout a culture by
propagating rapidly, and changing over time.19 The term
is now used most frequently to describe captioned photos
or GIFs that spread online, and the most effective are
humorous or critical of society. They are increasingly being
used as powerful vehicles of disinformation.

Misinformation is information that is false, but not

Misinformation
intended to cause harm. For example, individuals who don’t
know a piece of information is false may spread it on social
media in an attempt to be helpful.20
 Propaganda is true or false information spread to persuade
Propaganda
an audience, but often has a political connotation and is
often connected to information produced by governments.
It is worth noting that the lines between advertising,
publicity, and propaganda are often unclear.21

Satire is writing that uses literary devices such as ridicule

Satire
and irony to criticize elements of society. Satire can become
misinformation if audiences misinterpret it as fact.22 There
is a known trend of disinformation agents labelling content
as satire to prevent it from being flagged by fact-checkers.

Scraping is the process of extracting data from a website

Scraping
without the use of an API. It is often used by researchers
and computational journalists to monitor mis- and
disinformation on different social platforms and forums.
Typically, scraping violates a website’s terms of service (i.e.,
the rules that users agree to in order to use a platform).
However, researchers and journalists often justify scraping
because of the lack of any other option when trying to
investigate and study the impact of algorithms.

A sock puppet is an online account that uses a false identity

Sock Puppet
designed specifically to deceive. Sock puppets are used
on social platforms to inflate another account’s follower
numbers and to spread or amplify false information to
a mass audience.23 The term is considered by some to be
synonymous with the term “bot”.

Trolling is the act of deliberately posting offensive or

Trolling
inflammatory content to an online community with the
intent of provoking readers or disrupting conversation.
Today, the term “troll” is most often used to refer to any
person harassing or insulting others online. However, it
has also been used to describe human-controlled accounts
performing bot-like activities.
 A troll farm is a group of individuals engaging in trolling or
Troll Farm
bot-like promotion of narratives in a coordinated fashion.
One prominent troll farm was the Russia-based Internet
Research Agency that spread inflammatory content online
in an attempt to interfere in the U.S. presidential election.24

Verification is the process of determining the authenticity

Verification
of information posted by unofficial sources online,
particularly visual media.25 It emerged as a new skill set
for journalists and human rights activists in the late 2000s,
most notably in response to the need to verify visual
imagery during the ‘Arab Spring’.

A VPN, or virtual private network, is used to encrypt a

VPN
user’s data and conceal his or her identity and location. This
makes it difficult for platforms to know where someone
pushing disinformation or purchasing ads is located. It is
also sensible to use a VPN when investigating online spaces
where disinformation campaigns are being produced.

1
Wardle, C. & H. Derakshan (September 27, 2017) Information Disorder: Toward an
interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe, https://rm.coe.
int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c
2
Ghosh, D. & B. Scott (January 2018) #DigitalDeceit: The Technologies Behind Precision
Propaganda on the Internet, New America
3
Ghosh, D. & B. Scott (January 2018) #DigitalDeceit: The Technologies Behind Precision
Propaganda on the Internet, New America
4 Wardle, C. & H. Derakshan (September 27, 2017) Information Disorder: Toward an
interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe, https://rm.coe.
int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c
5
Howard, P. N. & K. Bence (2016) Bots, #StrongerIn, and #Brexit: Computational Propaganda
during the UK-EU Referendu, COMPROP Research note, 2016.1, http://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/
wp-content/uploads/sites/89/2016/06/COMPROP-2016-1.pdf
6
Ignatova, T.V., V.A. Ivichev, V.A. & F.F. Khusnoiarov (December 2, 2015) Analysis of Blogs,
Forums, and Social Networks, Problems of Economic Transition
7
Ghosh, D. & B. Scott (January 2018) #DigitalDeceit: The Technologies Behind Precision
Propaganda on the Internet, New America
8
Wardle, C. & H. Derakshan (September 27, 2017) Information Disorder: Toward an
interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe, https://rm.coe.
int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c
9
Li, Y. Chang, M.C. Lyu, S. (June 11, 2018) In Ictu Oculi: Exposing AI Generated Fake Face
Videos by Detecting Eye Blinking, Computer Science Department, University at Albany, SUNY
10
Ince, D. (2013) A Dictionary of the Internet (3 ed.), Oxford University Press
11
MacAllister, J. (2017) The Doxing Dilemma: Seeking a Remedy for the Malicious Publication
of Personal Information, Fordham Law Review, https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=5370&context=fl
12
Wardle, C. & H. Derakshan (September 27, 2017) Information Disorder: Toward an
interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe, https://rm.coe.
int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c
13
Mantzarlis, A. (2015) Will Verification Kill Fact-Checking?, The Poynter Institute, https://
www.poynter.org/news/will-verification-kill-fact-checking
14
Funke, D. (2018) Report: There are 149 fact-checking projects in 53 countries. That’s a new
high, The Poynter Institute, https://www.poynter.org/news/report-there-are-149-fact-checking-
projects-53-countries-thats-new-high
15
Gu, L., V. Kropotov & F. Yarochkin (2017) The Fake News Machine: How Propagandists Abuse
the Internet and Manipulate the Public. Oxford University, https://documents.trendmicro.com/
assets/white_papers/wp-fake-news-machine-howpropagandists-abuse-the-internet.pdf
16
Wardle, C. & H. Derakshan (September 27, 2017) Information Disorder: Toward an
interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe, https://rm.coe.
int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c
17
Wardle, C. & H. Derakshan (September 27, 2017) Information Disorder: Toward an
interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe, https://rm.coe.
int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c
18
Gu, L., V. Kropotov & F. Yarochkin (2017) The Fake News Machine: How Propagandists Abuse
the Internet and Manipulate the Public. Oxford University, https://documents.trendmicro.com/
assets/white_papers/wp-fake-news-machine-howpropagandists-abuse-the-internet.pdf
19
Dawkins, R. (1976) The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press.
20
Wardle, C. & H. Derakshan (September 27, 2017) Information Disorder: Toward an
interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe, https://rm.coe.
int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c
21
Jack, C. (2017) Lexicon of Lies, Data & Society, https://datasociety.net/pubs/oh/
DataAndSociety_LexiconofLies.pdf
22
Wardle, C. & H. Derakshan (September 27, 2017) Information Disorder: Toward an
interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making, Council of Europe, https://rm.coe.
int/information-disorder-toward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-for-researc/168076277c
23
Hofileña, C. F. (Oct. 9, 2016) Fake accounts, manufactured reality on social media, Rappler,
https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/investigative/148347-fake-accounts-manufactured-reality-
social-media
24
Office of the Director of National Intelligence. (2017). Assessing Russian activities and
intentions in recent US elections. Washington, D.C.: National Intelligence Council, https://www.
dni.gov/files/documents/ICA_2017_01.pdf.
25
Mantzarlis, A. (2015) Will Verification Kill Fact-Checking?, The Poynter Institute, https://
www.poynter.org/news/will-verification-kill-fact-checking