COMMUNICATION II

communication is the giving, receiving, or exchange of information, opinions or ideas by writing,

speech or visual means or a combination of the three so that the material communicated is completely
understood by everyone concerned.
The Purposes of Communication
According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are six main purposes of communication:
• Communicating to Inform
We communicate to tell someone about something. To inform is to pass on information. In the
workplace, you are informing when you explain something to your colleagues, your employees,
or your customers. If you tell an employee how to operate the copy machine, you are informing;
if you tell a customer how to fill out a form, you are informing. You also inform when you tell
another person what happened. Perhaps you received a phone call from a customer who is angry
about his or her service, and you need to describe the call to your supervisor to learn what to do
next. This situation is another example of communicating to inform.
• Communicating to Persuade
This aims to influence people and bring them round to your way of thinking.
Communication in the business world is mainly persuasive. In other words, you are trying to get
another person to do or believe something. In business, you are always selling your ideas,
yourself, your products, or your services. Selling and persuading are nearly synonymous in the
business world. You may be trying to persuade your supervisor to give you a raise, you may be
attempting to persuade a colleague to change a portion of a project on which you are both
working, or you may be trying to sell a customer your company’s service or product. All of these
are examples of persuasion at work.
In order to succeed at persuasion, you must generally give good reasons for the person you are
communicating with to do or believe what you intend.
• Communicating to Establish Credibility
Establishing credibility is important for people in business. Credibility is achieved via effective
communication. Credibility enhances an individual’s or company’s reputation.
Credible people demonstrate that they have strong emotional character and integrity; they are known
to be honest, steady, and reliable. Credibility is akin to reputation. Increasingly, at an
organizational level, reputation is becoming more important. Sophisticated customers do not
make financial decisions based solely on an organization’s competitive advantage in the marketplace.
Instead, customers are increasingly sensitive to a company’s reputation. In fact, public relations have
developed as a functional area to manage the reputations of companies.
• Communicating to establish goodwill
This involves maintaining and forming cordial and harmonious relationships with people you are
communicating Your ability to establish and build relationships affects every aspect of your life.
Whether in your social, academic, or professional life, this ability determines the depth of your
relationships with friends, family members, classmates, and coworkers. Good relationships result
in goodwill which is the favorable reputation that an individual or a business has with customers.
Any communication that helps to develop a better relationship between you and your receiver
builds goodwill.
• To inquire
This involves obtaining information in various ways, e.g., by asking questions or through formulating
questionnaires.
• Social interaction.
We communicate to establish and maintain relationships with others
Principles/ essentials of effective communication
i. Clarity
Be clear about the message you want to deliver, as giving a confused message to your audience only
ends up with them being confused and your message being ignored. Avoid unnecessary detail.
ii. Conciseness/ Brevity
Communication should be brief. Do not include too much detail that will bore the receiver. The
message should be direct.
iii. Simple.
Avoid the use of big words, jargon and slang. They only confuse the receiver and will lead to
communication breakdown.
iv. Consistency
Make sure that your theme remains the same. Avoid bringing in details which are not central to the
main message.
v. Medium
There are several ways you can deliver your message—the trick is to use the right one.The right
medium is one:
✓ with the greatest accuracy
✓ with the largest likelihood of audience comprehension/ understanding
✓ with the lowest financial cost
✓ fast
vi. Relevancy
Communicate only what is appropriate and relevant to the audience.
vii. Completeness
Communicated message must be complete. Completeness refers to providing enough information
so that the intent of the message is understood by the receiver. Never make them guess what
you mean and never assume that the audience will know what you mean. Give important
information such as time, date, places, quantities, dimensions etc.
viii. Correctness
The sender must give correct facts and express them in the correct language.
ix. Courtesy
We must create friendship with all those to whom we communicate. Workmates, customers, clients
etc. respond positively to those who treat them with respect and kindness. Use words such as
please, thank you, sorry, congratulations etc.
communication channels
a) Face-to-Face
Face-to-face is still the preferred communication channel if clarity of message is of primary
importance.
⎯ Advantages
• Face to face communication allows you to interact with the listener in a back-and-forth discussion.
• It also allows you to utilize nonverbal gestures, facial expressions and personal charisma to enhance
the message.
• Fast feedback.
⎯ Disadvantages
• A drawback is the potential that a conflict could become more heated or emotional in a face-
to-face channel.
• Tension or stress is also more likely if you have personal conflict with the other person.
• No permanent record. Not admissible in court. Cannot be used as evidence.
• Frequent interruptions.
b) Telephone
Landlines or mobile telephones are useful communication tools in businesses where distance and
travel prevent face-to-face conversation.
⎯ Advantages
• The telephone still allows immediate interaction between two parties in the communication.
• Mobile phones also expand your ability to communicate with distant workers or offices.
⎯ Disadvantages
• There is lack of nonverbal or facial expressions. This can inhibit the ability to interpret the
context or emotion of a message sender.
• The phone is also less personal than a face-to-face meeting.
• No permanent record except in where there is the recording of the conversation.
• Prone to disturbances such as static which hinder audibility.
c) E-mail
This is the use of computer hardware and associated software to transmit electronic mail over a
network.
⎯ Advantages
• E-mail is a vital communication channel in geographically dispersed companies.
• E-mail allows for more flexible response times. You can send a message one day and receive a
response in a few hours or the next day. It allows for conversation that isn't time-pressured, but can
serve for fast turnaround times.
• It also allows for the inclusion of files, such as documents or images.
• Permanent record.
• Prior planning before prior.
⎯ Disadvantages
• E-mail is less personal than either face-to-face or phone.
• Lack of instant clarifications.
• Feedback can be slow.
d) Letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports e.t.c (Written communication)
Written communication expresses facts and ideas in writing in a clear, convincing and organized
manner. Some of the various forms of written communication that are used internally for business
operations include memos, reports, e-mail, letter, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals.
⎯ Advantages of written communication (letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports e.t.c.)
• Permanent record: The documents of written communication act as a permanent record. When it is
needed, important information can be easily collected from the preserved documents. The documents
of written communication are easy to preserve. Oral and non-verbal communication cannot be
preserved.
• Precise and explicit. Written communication presents the information more accurately and clearly.
Written communication is clear and straight forward.
• Used as a reference: If it is needed, written communication can be used for future reference.
• Delegation of authority: Written communication can help the authority to delegate the power and
authority to the subordinate. It is quite impossible to delegate power without a written document.
• Easy presentation of complex matter: Written communication is the best way to represent any
complex matter easily and attractively.
• Longevity: Written document can be preserved for a long time easily.
• Effective communication: Written communication helps to make communication
effective. It is more dependable and effective than those of other forms of communication.
• Maintaining image: Written communication helps to maintain the images of both the person and the
organization. It also protects the images of the company or organization.
• Proper information: It is a proper and complete communication system. There is no opportunity to
include any unnecessary information in a written document.
• Easy to verify: The information and messages that are preserved can be verified easily. If there
arises any misunderstanding any party can easily verify the information.
Disadvantages of written communication (letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports etc.)
• Expensive: Written communication is comparatively expensive. It costs are huge in terms of
stationery and the manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.
• Time consuming: Written communication takes time to communicate with others. It is a time-
consuming media. It costs the valuable time of both the writer and the reader.
• Useless for illiterate person: If the messages receiver is illiterate, understanding written
communication is quite impossible.
• Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an unexpected medium to keep business secrecy.
Secrecy is not always possible to maintain through written communication.
• Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents cannot be changed easily at any time. Lack of
flexibility is one of the most important limitations of written communication.
• Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message receiver; prompt
response is not possible in case of written communication like it is possible in oral communication.
• Delay in decision making: Written communication takes much time to communicate with all the
parties concerned. So, the decision maker cannot make decisions quickly.
• Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and expensive to keep all the records in written
communication.
• Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses complex words in writing a message. It becomes
difficult to meaning out to the reader. So, the objectives of the communication may lose.
• Lack of direct relation: There is no direct relation/ interaction.
Barriers to effective communication
• Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. A breakdown in communication may result when a
message is not adapted to its receiver. Recognizing the receiver’s age, social economic
status, needs, status, knowledge of the subject, and language skills assists the sender in
preparing a successful message. If a customer is young, for example, use a medium that
appeals to that age and vice versa.
• Language barriers. Language barriers occur when people do not speak the same language,
or do not have the same level of ability in a language. However, barriers can also occur when
people are speaking the same language. Sometimes barriers occur when we use inappropriate
levels of language (too formal or informal) or we use jargon or slang which is not
understood by one or more of the people communicating. The receiver is less likely to
understand the message if the sender has trouble choosing the precise words needed and
arranging those words in a grammatically-correct sentence.
• Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject. If the sender lacks specific information about
something, the receiver will likely receive an unclear or mixed message. Have you shopped
for an item such as a computer, and experienced how some salespeople can explain
complicated terms and ideas in a simple way? Others cannot.
• Information Overload. If you receive a message with too much information, you may tend
to put up a barrier because the amount of information is coming so fast that you may have
difficulty comfortably interpreting that information
• Emotional Interference. An emotional individual may not be able to communicate
well. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful, that person may be too
preoccupied with emotions to receive the intended message. If you don’t like someone, for
example, you may have trouble “hearing” them.
• Physical Distractions. If a receiver of a communication works in an area with bright lights,
glare on computer screens, loud noises, excessively hot or cold work spaces, or physical
ailments, that receiver will probably experience communication breakdowns on a regular
basis. A bad cellular phone line or a noisy venue can destroy communication. If an E-mail
message or letter is not formatted properly, or if it contains grammatical and spelling errors,
the receiver may not be able to concentrate on the message because the physical appearance
of the letter or E-mail is sloppy and unprofessional.
• Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication,
communication may cease. Detailed instructions presented over the telephone, for example,
may be frustrating for both communicators.
• Long Communication Chain. The longer the communication chain, the greater the
chance for error. If a message is passed through too many receivers, the message often
becomes distorted. If a person starts a message at one end of a communication chain of ten
people, for example, the message that eventually returns is usually liberally altered.
• Lack of Interest. If a message reaches a reader who is not interested in the message, the
reader may read the message hurriedly or listen to the message
carelessly. Miscommunication may result in both cases.
• Lack of Knowledge. If a receiver is unable to understand a message filled with technical
information, communication will break down. Unless a computer user knows something
about the Windows environment, for example, the user may have difficulty organizing files if
given technical instructions.
• Poor Communication Skills. Those who have weak reading and listening skills make ineffective
receivers. On the other hand, those who have a good professional vocabulary and who concentrate on
listening, have less trouble hearing and interpreting good communication.
• Lack of Feedback or inadequate feedback. Since communication is a two-way process,
the sender must search for a means of getting a response from the receiver. Delayed
feedback can interfere with good communication.
Strategies for overcoming barriers to effective communication
It is very important to overcome barriers to effective communication. This involves diagnosing and
analyzing situations, designing proper messages, selecting appropriate channels, assisting receivers of
messages in correct decoding and interpretation of the messages and providing for an efficient and
effective feedback system.
• Clarify Ideas before Communication:
The sender should be very clear in his/ her mind about what he/ she want to say. He should know the
objective of his message and, therefore, he should arrange his thoughts in a proper order.
• Communicate According to the Need of the Receiver:
The sender of the communication should prepare the structure of the message not according to his
own level or ability but he should keep in mind the level, understanding or the environment of the
receiver.
• Develop writing skills:
Clearly written messages can help avoid semantic and perception barriers. A well written
communication eliminates the possibility of misunderstanding and misinterpretation. When writing
messages, it would be wise to adopt the K.I.S.S. principle which means “Keep It Short and Simple,
thus making the meaning as clear as possible so that it accomplishes the desired purpose.
• Use of Simple Language:
Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and jargons should be
avoided.
• Reduction and elimination of noise levels:
Noise is the main communication barrier which must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to
identify the source of noise and then eliminate that source.
• Active Listening:
Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between “listening” and “hearing”. Active
listening means hearing with proper understanding of the message that is heard. By asking questions
the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not by the receiver in the same terms
as intended by the speaker.
• Emotional State:
During communication one should not show their emotions as the receiver might misinterpret the
message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the message is in a bad mood then the
receiver might think that the information being delivered is not good.
• Proper Media Selection:
The communicators should properly select the medium of communication. Simple messages should
be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of written means of communication
should be encouraged for delivering complex messages. For significant messages reminders can be
given by using written means of communication such as : Memos, Notices etc

Types of communication
• Formal communication: When communication occurs by following the prescribed rules and
procedures of the organization, it is called formal communication. Formal communication is governed
by the established chain of command.
Uses of formal communication
- Issuing instruction. The management uses it to pass forth instructions to staff on various subjects.
- Inform. Information concerning different issues is conveyed in an organization via formal channels.
This can be vertically or horizontally.
- Coordination. Formal communication tends to be used for coordinating routine transactions within
groups and organizations.
- Persuade.
- Motivate.
• Informal communication: When communication does not follow any prescribed rule or
procedure, it is called informal communication. The basis of informal communication is
spontaneous relationship among the participants. Informal communication is sometimes
more powerful and more effective that formal commutation.
Uses of informal communication
- Supplements formal communication.
- Informal communication is useful in supporting the social functions of groups. This is because
organizations are less explicit in regulating social relationships than they are in regulating formal
communication.
- Giving or getting help - Giving or getting help refers to joint problem solving for one person’s
benefit. This type of interaction commonly consists of a question-answer exchange. Often these
questions are shouted from a distance and results are in short, simple answers.
- Gets work done. The maintenance of personal networks and social relationships through informal
communication is understood to be a key factor in how people get work done.
• Internal communication: Internal communication refers to the flow of information to the internal
participants of an organization. It happens only within the organization. The main purpose of this
communication is to ensure smooth functioning of organizational activities.
Internal communication may be of two types: Vertical communication and horizontal communication.
- Vertical communication: When information flows between superiors and subordinate of an
organization, it is known as vertical communication. Vertical communication can be of three types:
Downward communication, upward communication and diagonal communication.
✓ Downward Communication: Downward communication occurs when information flows form
superiors to subordinates.
✓ Upward Communication: Upward communication occurs when information flows form
subordinates to superiors. Purpose: Through upward communication, subordinates convey their
responses, reactions and performance feedback to their superiors.
✓ Diagonal or cross communication: Diagonal communication occurs when
information flows between persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships.
Purpose: Diagonal communication is used to speed information flow, to improve understanding and to
coordinate efforts for the achievement of organizational goals.
- Horizontal communication: Where information flows among persons holding the same position or
rank in the organization.
Uses of internal communications
Improving the effectiveness of the organization. The more information people have, the more quickly
they get it and the better connections the better the work done.
Informs. Information from the management gets to the subordinates and vice versa. Message
communicated could be about policy decisions or requests.
Problem solving. This is by providing a channel for everyone's ideas and opinions. Solutions can be
found if communication is encouraged and is effective.
It creates a climate of openness within the organization. If everyone feels he/ she has access to
whatever information he/ she needs or wants, and can talk to anyone in the organization about
anything, it encourages good relations among people and promotes trust.
Through downward communication, superiors send organizational goals, policies, job assignments,
orders, instructions etc. to their subordinates.
• External communication: Where an organization communicates with external or outside parties.
External parties include customers, suppliers, investors, bankers, insurance companies, government
agencies, local communities etc. the main purpose of external communication is to exchange
information with the outside parties. External communication employs the use of letters, PR,
advertising, emails, presentations etc.
• Interpersonal communication: Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between
two or more people. Successful interpersonal communication is when the message senders and the
message receivers understand the message.
Uses of interpersonal communication
- Give and collect information.
- Influence the attitudes and behavior of others.
- Form contacts and maintain relationships.
- Make sense of the world and our experiences in it.
- Express personal needs and understand the needs of others.
- Give and receive emotional support.
- Make decisions and solve problems.
• Intra-personal communication
Intra -personal communication is an individual's internal use of language or thought. It can be useful
to envision intrapersonal communication as occurring in the mind of the individual. The individual
communicates in his/ her mind through the process of thinking and feeling.
Intrapersonal communication enables an individual to shape self-concept and develop one’s
convictions. It helps one to think, plan, analyze and interpret ideas and messages. It also provides the
opportunity to think of new ideas and be creative about new decisions, approaches and solutions.
Intrapersonal communication can encompass:
You use it when you:
- Think things through
- Interpret events
- Interpret messages of others
- Respond to your own experiences
- Respond to your interactions with others
Uses of intra -personal communication
- Enables one to effectively communicate with others.
- In order to successfully communicate with others, you must first learn to communicate with
yourself. Intrapersonal communication is the most basic level of communication. You must
understand who you are and what you think of yourself.
- Increases focus, concentration and performance. If you believe you cannot do something, your brain
will tell your body exactly that and it will shut down. When you stay encouraged and positive, your
body will also respond in a positive way.
- Enables one think things through.
- Enables one interpret messages and events.

Forms of Communication
i. Oral Communication
Oral communication includes sounds, words, language and speaking. Language is said to have
originated from sounds and gestures. There are many languages spoken in the world. The basis of
language formation is: gender, class, profession, geographical area, age group and other social
elements. Speaking is an effective way of communicating and is again classified into two types viz.
interpersonal communication and public speaking.
Good Oral communication is an inseparable part of business communication. In a business, you come
across people from various ages, cultures and races. Fluent oral communication is essential, when
with dealing people in business meetings. Also, in business communication self-confidence plays a
vital role which when clubbed with fluent communication skills can lead to success.
Public speaking is another verbal communication in which you have to address a group of people.
Preparing for an effective speech before you start is important. In public speaking, the speech must be
prepared according to the type of audience you are going to face. The content of your speech should
be authentic and you must have enough information on the topic you have chosen for public speaking.
All the main points in your speech must be highlighted and these points should be delivered in the
correct order. There are many public speaking techniques and these techniques must be practiced for
an effective speech.
Advantages of Oral Communication
Verbal Communication has the following advantages:
1. Saving of Time
Under this form of communication the messages are communicated immediately without consuming
any time. Oral communication is the best option during an urgent condition and when immediate
action is necessary.
2. Saving of Money
It saves money as it needs no help of any particular media.
3. More Effective
As there is direct touch/ contact of the sender and receiver message transmission proves to be more
effective. The sender of message can also exercise his personal influence over the receiver of
message.
4. Knowledge of Reaction of Message
An important advantage of oral communication is that under this method of communication,
the sender of message can judge the reaction of the message on its receiver. He comes to know
whether the receiver of the message will follow it or not.
5. Increase in Productivity and Efficiency
Verbal communication is more effective. It increases the productivity and efficiency of workers
because they clearly understand it and follow it.
Disadvantages of Oral Communication
Oral communication has the following disadvantages:
1. Lack of Proof of Message
The greatest disadvantage of oral communication is that there is no proof of the message
communicated.
2. Not Suitable for Future Reference
Since there is nothing in writing supporting the messages communicated orally, it is not suitable for
future reference. If there is any dispute on any point of the message, it cannot be helped in any way.
3. Not Suitable in Case of Distance
If the receiver and the sender of the message are far from each other, this method of
communication is not suitable because it will increase the cost of communication.
ii. Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication is the way in which we express our feelings, emotions, attitudes,
opinions and views through our body movements. Body language is a non-verbal way of
communication. Body posture and physical contact convey a lot of information. Body posture
matters a lot when you are communicating verbally to someone. Folded arms and crossed legs
are some of the signals conveyed by a body posture. Physical contact, like, shaking hands,
pushing, patting and touching expresses the feeling of intimacy. Facial expressions, gestures and
eye contact are all different ways of communication. Reading facial expressions can help you
know a person better.
Creative and aesthetic non-verbal communication includes singing, music, dancing and sculpturing.
Symbols and sign language are also included in non-verbal communication.
When we communicate, non-verbal cues can be as important, or in some cases even more
important, than what we say. Non-verbal communication can have a great impact on the listener
and the outcome of the communication.
Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures
displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the
communicators (proxemics). These non-verbal signals can give clues and additional information
and meaning over and above spoken (verbal) communication.
Non-verbal Messages Allow People To:
• Reinforce or modify what is said in words. For example, people may nod their heads vigorously
when saying "Yes" to emphasize that they agree with the other person, but a shrug of the shoulders
and a sad expression when saying "I'm fine thanks,” may imply that things are not really fine at all!
• Convey information about their emotional state.
• Define or reinforce the relationship between people.
• Provide feedback to the other person.
• Regulate the flow of communication, for example by signaling to others that they have finished
speaking or wish to say something.
Non-verbal communication include:
- Body Movements (Kinesics)
- Posture
- Eye Contact (Oculesics)
- Para-language
- Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics)
- Facial Expressions
- Physiological Changes
a) Body Language or Body Movements (Kinesics)
Body movements include gestures, posture, head and hand movements or whole-body movements.
Body movements can be used to reinforce or emphasize what a person is saying and also offer
information about the emotions and attitudes of a person. However, it is also possible for body
movements to conflict with what is said. A skilled observer may be able to detect such
discrepancies in behavior and use them as a clue to what someone is really feeling.
Research work has identified the different categories of body movement/ gestures that are detailed
below with each category describing the purpose they commonly serve:
i. Emblems: these gestures have direct verbal translations, like nodding the head for ‘yes’,
shaking the head for ‘no’ or waving the hand for ‘hello’. They may be used in place of words.
ii. Illustrators: Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal message are known as
illustrators. For example, the common circular hand movement which accompanies the
phrase 'over and over again', or nodding the head in a particular direction when saying 'over there'.
iii. Affect Displays: These are facial expressions or gestures which show the emotions we feel.
These are often unintentional and can conflict with what is being said. Such expressions give
strong clues as to the true emotional state of a person.
iv. Regulators: Gestures used to give feedback when conversing are called regulators, for
example head nods, short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm', and expressions of interest or
boredom. Regulators allow the other person to adapt his or her speech to reflect the level of
interest or agreement. Without receiving feedback, many people find it difficult to maintain a
conversation.
v. Adaptors: these are unconscious movements of the body that originate from the nervous
state of our mind. E.g., in an interview, when the candidate is nervous or uncomfortable
with the questions asked, he/ she may unconsciously crack knuckles, shake legs or tap the foot
b) Posture
Posture can reflect people's emotions, attitudes and intentions. Research has identified a wide range
of postural signals and their meanings, such as:
i. Open and Closed Posture: Two forms of posture have been identified, ‘open’ and ‘closed’,
which may reflect an individual's degree of confidence, status or receptivity to another
person. Someone seated in a closed position might have his/her arms folded, legs crossed or
be positioned at a slight angle from the person with whom they are interacting. In an open
posture you might expect to see someone directly facing you with hands apart on the arms
of the chair. An open posture can be used to communicate openness or interest in someone
and a readiness to listen, whereas the closed posture might imply discomfort or disinterest.
ii. Mirroring: Notice the way a loving couple relate to each other. You might like to observe a
close relationship in person or on television. You will see that the partners' postures will
match, as if one partner is a mirror reflection of the other. For example, if one partner
drapes an arm over the back of a chair this might be replicated in the other person's position.
If one partner frowns, it could be reflected in the other partner's facial expression. This
'mirroring' indicates interest and approval between people and serves to reassure others of
interest in them and what they are saying.
c) Eye Contact (Oculesics)
This is the science of the movement/ grammar of our eyes. Eye contact serves three main purposes:
i. To give and receive feedback: Looking at someone lets them know that the receiver is;
concentrating on the content of their speech. Not maintaining eye contact can indicate
disinterest. Communication may not be a smooth process if a listener averts their eyes too frequently.
ii. To let a partner, know when it is their 'turn' to speak: This is related to the above point. Eye contact
is more likely to be continuous when someone is listening, rather than speaking. When a person has
finished what they have to say, they will look directly at the other person and this gives a signal that
the arena is open. If someone does not want to be interrupted, eye contact may be avoided.
iii. To communicate something about a relationship between people: When you dislike
someone, you tend to avoid eye contact and pupil size is often reduced. On the other hand,
the maintenance of positive eye contact signals interest or attraction in a partner.
Eye grammar (what eyes communicate)
✓ Staring eyes. Too much eye contact which show superiority or lack of respect, a threatening
attitude or a wish to insult.
✓ Too little eye contact. It indicates dishonesty, impoliteness, insincerity, and also shyness.
✓ Withdrawal of eye contact. This is considered a sign of submission.
d) Para-language (paralinguistics)
Para-language relates to all aspects of the voice which are not strictly part of the verbal message,
including the tone and pitch of the voice, the speed and volume at which a message is delivered,
and pauses and hesitations between words.
These signals can serve to indicate feelings about what is being said. Emphasizing particular words
can imply whether or not feedback is required.
A voice that has tremors will not make feel very positive about the speaker.
A high speed of talking in interviews or negotiations or presentations will not instill confidence in
the interviewers or audience.
e) Closeness and Personal Space (Proxemics)
The study of personal space is termed proxemics.
Every culture has different levels of physical closeness appropriate to different types of relationship,
and individuals learn these distances from the society in which they grew up.
When someone violates an appropriate distance, people may feel uncomfortable or defensive. Their
actions may well be open to misinterpretation.
In Western society, four distances have been defined according to the relationship between the
people involved.
The Four Main space zones/ distances
- Intimate Distance (touching to 45cm)
- Personal Distance (45cm to 1.2m)
- Social Distance (1.2m to 3m)
- Public Distance (3m)
These four distances are associated with the four main types of relationship - intimate, personal, social
and public.
Each of the distances are divided into two, giving a close phase and a far phase, thus making eight
divisions in all. It is worth noting that these distances are considered the norm in Western Society:
✓ Intimate Distance: Ranges from close contact (touching) to the 'far' phase of 15-45cm. In
British society, it tends to be seen as an inappropriate distance for public behavior and, as
mentioned above, entering the intimate space of another person with whom you do not have
a close relationship can be extremely disturbing.
✓ Personal Distance: The 'far' phase of personal distance is considered to be the most
appropriate for people holding a conversation. At this distance it is easy to see the other
person's expressions and eye movements, as well as their overall body language.
Handshaking can occur within the bounds of personal distance.
✓ Social Distance: This is the normal distance for impersonal business, for example working
together in the same room or during social gatherings. Seating is also important;
communication is far more likely to be considered as a formal relationship if the interaction
is carried out across a desk. In addition, if the seating arrangements are such that one person
appears to look down on another, an effect of domination may be created. At a social
distance, speech needs to be louder and eye contact remains essential to communication,
otherwise feedback will be reduced and the interaction may end.
✓ Public Distance: Teachers and public speakers address groups at a public distance. At such
distances exaggerated non-verbal communication is necessary for communication to be
effective. Since subtle facial expressions are lost at this distance so clear hand gestures are
often used as a substitute. Larger head movements are also typical of an experienced public
speaker who is aware of changes in the way body language is perceived at longer distances.
⎯ Advantages of non-verbal communication
• Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement an oral message by adding to its meaning.
You can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
• Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication
through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
• Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the oral message especially if the oral
message is blocked by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to
lips to indicate need for silence, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
• Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual meaning of the
specific words.
• Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g., pointing a direction while stating directions.)
The Four Main space zones/ distances
- Intimate Distance (touching to 45cm)
- Personal Distance (45cm to 1.2m)
- Social Distance (1.2m to 3m)
- Public Distance (3m)
These four distances are associated with the four main types of relationship - intimate, personal,
social and public.
Each of the distances are divided into two, giving a close phase and a far phase, thus making eight
divisions in all. It is worth noting that these distances are considered the norm in Western
Society:
✓ Intimate Distance: Ranges from close contact (touching) to the 'far' phase of 15-45cm. In
British society, it tends to be seen as an inappropriate distance for public behavior and, as
mentioned above, entering the intimate space of another person with whom you do not have
a close relationship can be extremely disturbing.
✓ Personal Distance: The 'far' phase of personal distance is considered to be the most
appropriate for people holding a conversation. At this distance it is easy to see the other
person's expressions and eye movements, as well as their overall body language.
Handshaking can occur within the bounds of personal distance.
✓ Social Distance: This is the normal distance for impersonal business, for example working
together in the same room or during social gatherings. Seating is also important;
communication is far more likely to be considered as a formal relationship if the interaction
is carried out across a desk. In addition, if the seating arrangements are such that one person
appears to look down on another, an effect of domination may be created. At a social
distance, speech needs to be louder and eye contact remains essential to communication,
otherwise feedback will be reduced and the interaction may end.
✓ Public Distance: Teachers and public speakers address groups at a public distance. At such
distances exaggerated non-verbal communication is necessary for communication to be
effective. Since subtle facial expressions are lost at this distance so clear hand gestures are
often used as a substitute. Larger head movements are also typical of an experienced public speaker
who is aware of changes in the way body language is perceived at longer distances.
⎯ Advantages of non-verbal communication
• Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement an oral message by adding to its meaning.
You can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
• Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication
through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
• Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the oral message especially if the oral
message is blocked by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to
lips to indicate need for silence, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
• Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual meaning
of the specific words.
• Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g., pointing a direction while stating directions.)
• Help to illiterate people: This type of communication uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact,
proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it is very much helpful for
illiterate people.
• Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in handicapped people
especially to deaf people. Deaf people exchange message through the movements of hands, fingers,
eye ball etc.
• Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph, sign etc. that
can be seen very much attractive.
• Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the
receiver very fast. For this reason, it reduces the wastage of valuable time of the communicator.
• Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like signs and symbolscan also
communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.
⎯ Disadvantages of non-verbal communication
• Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. This is because this
communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning to the receiver.
No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning vary according to culture and context.
• Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in oral communication, but it is generally not possible to
stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it easier to tell when a subject
has changed, for instance or to analyze its grammar. Nonverbal does not lend itself to this kind of
analysis.
• Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a hand
gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up with
everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
• Culture-bound: Different cultures have different meanings and interpretations of different non-
verbal messages.
• Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation and necessary
explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of the messages.
• Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-verbal
communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions eye contact, touch etc. for communicating
with others which may not be understandable for the simple and foolish people.
• Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal communication
with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or listeners. It is less influential
and cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a public tool for communication.
• Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or
structure like verbal. In most instances, people unconsciously and habitually engage in non-
verbal communication by moving the various parts of their bodies.
• Costly: In some cases, non-verbal communication involves huge cost. For example, neon sign,
power point presentation, cinema etc. are very much costly compared to others form of
communication.
• Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, sign, sound,
para language etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in distortion of
information in non-verbal communication.
iii. Written Communication
Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate. Good written
communication is essential for business purposes. E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some
of the ways of using written communication in business. Written communication can be used
for formal business communication and also for informal communication purposes. Mobile
SMS is an example of informal written communication.
⎯ Advantages of Written Communication
• The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is communicated. This
is one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of communication in business
activity.
• No need of Personal Contact
In written communication there is no need of personal contact:
• Economical
If the receiver and sender of the message are far apart, it is economical to communicate the message
in writing because communicating by post is cheap and quite economical.
• Written Proof
Written communication provides a proof for future reference. If there is any dispute the message may
be referred to.
⎯ Disadvantages of Written Communication
Written communication has the following disadvantages:
• Delay
There is delay because the message is writing is communicated after a certain process is
completed. It is prepared, edited, proofread etc. before the written communication is
delivered. Consequently, the message is delayed.
• Lack of Secrecy
There is no secrecy in written communication. Secrecy cannot be maintained because these
messages can be accessed by anyone.
• Costly
Written communication involves heavily expenditure. If the receiver and sender of message are near
to each other, it is fairly costly to communicate in writing.
iv. Visual communication
Visual communication is visual display of information, like, photography, signs, symbols and designs.
Television and video clips are the electronic form of visual communication.
⎯ Advantages of visual communication
• Conveys information in a fast manner
• Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch,
sign, sound, paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in
distortion of information in non-verbal communication.
iii. Written Communication
Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate. Good written
communication is essential for business purposes. E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some
of the ways of using written communication in business. Written communication can be used
for formal business communication and also for informal communication purposes. Mobile
SMS is an example of informal written communication.
⎯ Advantages of Written Communication
• The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is
communicated. This is one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of
communication in business activity.
• No need of Personal Contact
In written communication there is no need of personal contact:
• Economical
If the receiver and sender of the message are far apart, it is economical to communicate the
message in writing because communicating by post is cheap and quite economical.
• Written Proof
Written communication provides a proof for future reference. If there is any dispute the
message may be referred to.
⎯ Disadvantages of Written Communication
Written communication has the following disadvantages:
• Delay
There is delay because the message is writing is communicated after a certain process is
completed. It is prepared, edited, proofread etc. before the written communication is
delivered. Consequently, the message is delayed.
• Lack of Secrecy
There is no secrecy in written communication. Secrecy cannot be maintained because these
messages can be accessed by anyone.
• Costly
Written communication involves heavily expenditure. If the receiver and sender of message
are near to each other, it is fairly costly to communicate in writing.
iv. Visual communication
Visual communication is visual display of information, like, photography, signs, symbols and
designs. Television and video clips are the electronic form of visual communication.
⎯ Advantages of visual communication
• Conveys information in a fast manner
Visual communication is very fast as far as conveying a message is concerned. A graph for example,
showing company’s expenditure in a financial year, can be understood just at a glance, compared
to paragraphs of text or a speech to convey the same information.
• Better understanding and retention
A picture is retained in our memory longer than words or quotes. Research shows that people
remember visuals the best, followed by speech, accompanied by reading.
• Impactful
A graphic of any kind can elicit a stronger reaction from the reader. Compare saying "Nature is a
wonderful thing" to an audience, to an image of young, cuddly animals. The image will move people
emotionally and be more effective.
• Effective
It is a much more efficient way of communicating - not just in time required for relaying
information, the effort is much less too. For example, if I had to describe the usage of a pen to a
group of people, it would be much easier for me to do so with a pen at my aid, and the point
would get across better when those present actually see the pen being written with.
• Removes ambiguities
Ambiguities are more common with only oral communication, especially now with globalization, as
people from diverse backgrounds and linguistic abilities are working together. A visual, on the
other hand, makes everything very clear. For example, if I say "The Kremlin is a colorful, domed
structure", some would imagine it to be like a grand cathedral, whereas a few others would think
of it shaped liked an igloo. But with a picture, everyone would instantly know how it actually looks.
• Captivates and retains audience attention
When visuals are used instead of a simple speech, it makes a person more involved and connected,
as visuals are able to pull down most barriers of communication, and open up people.
⎯ Disadvantages of visual communication
• Costly: The visual methods of communication are more costly than those of other methods.
To draw maps, charts, diagram is costly. That is why only large companies or organization
can use this technique. High quality images, pictures and graphics, require additional
resources to produce. Besides, using lower quality visuals has been proven to reduce credibility.
• Complex presentation: Sometimes visual presentation of information becomes complex.
Thus, the receivers cannot understand the meaning of the presentation.
• Incomplete method: This technique is considered as an incomplete method. Visual
presentation is not sufficient to communicate effectively and clearly but also it can be
successfully used with oral communication. Also only a small amount of information can be
conveyed via a graphic. A very detailed visual will look cluttered, overwhelm the reader, and
reduce its impact.
• Time consuming: Making a graph or pie chart requires more time and effort, as it involves
selecting, compiling, and presenting a large amount of information in a visually-pleasing
manner. Whereas oral communication takes no time to exchange information.
• Distracting. Visuals can be distracting, shifting the focus away from the presentation itself. For
example, using a fancy, illegible font can actually distract members of the audience from what is
being said. A visual can also close up the viewer, if it is too disturbing or controversial.
• Problem for general readers: General people do not prefer to communicate through visual
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or
listeners. It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere.
iv. Audio-visual communication
This is the use of both a sound and a visual component for communication. It involves the use of
slide-tape presentations, films, television programs, church services and live theater productions.
⎯ Disadvantages of Audio-visual communication
• Technical Problems
Regardless of your equipment, there are many things that could go wrong that may disrupt your
presentation. A bulb might burn out on your projector or it might be blurry or hard to focus. When
using a PowerPoint presentation, font and colors may show up differently on screen or the music and
sound might not play. CDs can skip. DVDs may be scratched or not compatible with your player.
• Distractions
Visual aids are more of a distraction if used throughout the entire presentation versus during key
points. Special effects and light from the projector can draw attention away from the speaker.
Too much information can also be distracting, because the audience will be trying to read
and/or take notes while the speaker has moved on to the next subject. There also may be too
many slides for the audience to interpret or the audio and visual may not match up. An
entertaining video can take the focus off the speaker and the presentation, while a dry video and
low lighting can put students to sleep.
• Expensive
Professionally created audiovisuals are expensive. Slides, videos, and films cost money unless
borrowed from a library. The equipment used e.g., video cameras, computer hardware and
software can be very costly.
• Time
Audiovisual presentations can take a considerable amount of time to prepare. It takes time to
produce your own video or slides. Films may be difficult to obtain, or it can take time to get
permission to use them. Posters and transparencies may require extensive preparation. Creating
a PowerPoint presentation can also be time consuming.
• Space
If you choose to use an audiovisual aid, the size of the room should be taken into consideration. It is
critical that all students are able to see or hear your presentation. If the room is too large for everyone
to see the visual aid, or if part of your audience is forced to view the presentation at odd angles, some
students will struggle to keep up with your lesson.
• Convenience
Certain audiovisual aids such as VCRs for older video recordings, can be bulky and difficult to
transport.