Resource efficient

design

Introduction 68

Energy efficiency 68

Water efficiency and conservation 73

Water conservation measures 76

Resource Efficient Design: Energy Efficiency

(excluding section on Plate Heat Exchanger):
this has been contributed by the government’s
Housing Energy Efficiency Best Practice
Programme, and Crown Copyright is reserved

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Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

Introduction Draught sealing around loft hatches is

particularly important as warm
Following an agreement reached between
the member states of the European Union,
moisture-laden air from occupied rooms can the United Kingdom is committed to
cause condensation in lofts. reducing its greenhouse gas emissions to
Conservation has been described as the
careful management and preservation of Pipework for heating must be insulated 12.5% below the 1990 level by 2010. The
natural resources and the environment. wherever it runs outside the heated living heating of buildings accounts for around a
Environmental Issues such as climate space; e.g., under floors or in garages. Hot third of all UK CO2 emissions and is
change, ozone layer destruction along with water systems should also be insulated to expected to contribute a similar proportion
air and water pollution are having a greater minimise heat loss from storage cylinders of the necessary reductions. Savings can
impact on building designs than in the past. and primary circuits; heat output from them be achieved from better insulation in new
For Building Services, regulations are in may contribute to space heating and existing buildings, more efficient
place to help in the design of space heating requirements in the winter but in summer it is heating and hot water systems and
and hot and cold water services. The wasted and may make the building electrical appliances.
Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating uncomfortably warm.
Engineering (CIPHE) supports all initiatives
that seek to reduce the use of energy and to The benefits of energy
rely where possible on renewable energy Professional responsibility efficiency
sources. This section of the Guide has been
compiled to give a broad view on aspects of The CIPHE’s Code of Professional Energy efficiency produces benefits both
installations where these valuable resources Standards requires members to safeguard for building occupants and for the
can be saved. Some of these aspects are the environment, as does the Engineering environment.
covered elsewhere throughout the Guide, but Council’s Code of Practice Engineers and the For the occupants of buildings, the benefits
this section has greater detail to give the Environment. As greenhouse gas emissions are lower fuel bills and more comfortable
designer/installer a better understanding, are one of the principal environmental conditions. A well-insulated building needs
helping to achieve that all-important concerns of the present time, following the less heat to bring it up to a comfortable
Resource Efficient Design. Code means that members must take all temperature and cools down more slowly
reasonable steps to pursue energy efficiency when the heating system is turned off. And
in the work they undertake. an efficient, well-controlled heating system
Aspects of heating system design and uses less fuel to produce a given amount of
installation are subject to the legal heat. Both these attributes combine to
requirements relating to energy efficiency set
Energy efficiency by the Building Regulations, which apply to
reduce the total amount of fuel needed and
hence the cost. Affordable heating is of
all material alterations to heating systems, particular importance in the social housing
including those in existing buildings. In many sector, which increasingly caters for
What energy efficiency cases, the customer relies on the installer for households with low incomes.
means advice both on compliance with the Consequently, contractors working for
Regulations and on options for reducing housing associations and local authorities
‘Energy efficiency’ is a measure of the benefit environmental impact. Professional need to pay particular attention to energy
obtained from the consumption of a unit of responsibility must therefore rest on efficiency.
energy. The energy efficiency of a building awareness of legislation and an appreciation Energy efficiency contributes to reduced
depends upon how well it is insulated and of the wider factors contributing to energy environmental impact through the use of
how well the heating is controlled, as well as efficiency. less fuel and lower emissions of
the efficiency with which its heating and hot
atmospheric pollution. But it is also
water systems can convert fuel to heat.
important to remember the difference in
The fabric of the building has an important The environmental rationale emissions between fuels, particularly the
influence on the amount of energy required to high emissions associated with electricity
keep it comfortable. If it is badly insulated, The combustion of fossil fuels, such as gas,
use. Electrical energy is already in a form
even the most efficient heating system will oil and coal, is responsible for a large
that can be converted to heat with 100%
require a great deal of energy to keep it proportion of all carbon dioxide (CO2)
efficiency and can operate motors, lights
warm. Although it may not always be possible emissions to the atmosphere. The
and electronic circuits without further
to improve building fabric insulation, the concentration of CO2 in the global
conversion. But that versatility comes at a
heating installer should always be aware of atmosphere has risen by about 30% since
price: electricity has been generated from
opportunities for improved insulation and the start of the industrial revolution. In recent
fuel consumed at power stations with an
bring them to the client’s attention. Better times, climatologists have reached a
average thermal efficiency of around 40%.
insulation will improve comfort and client consensus view that the ‘greenhouse effect’
The energy used overall to provide 1kWh of
satisfaction and may lead to opportunities for arising from CO2 and other man-made gases
delivered electricity is therefore
a more competitive quotation. in the atmosphere is likely to cause global
considerably greater at around 2.5kWh.
warming and consequent changes on
Excessive ventilation, caused by air leakage The total energy used to provide the supply
climates around the world. This has led to
through the building fabric, also contributes to is known as the ‘primary energy’, which
agreements under the auspices of the United
unnecessary heat loss. It is essential to takes account of the energy overhead
Nations Organisation to limit further
comply with requirements for ventilation and required for generation and distribution. It
emissions of greenhouse gases. Most
supply of combustion air to heating should be noted that there are also energy
notably, at the World Climate Conference in
appliances and for the ventilation of kitchens overheads associated with the production,
Kyoto in 1997, it was agreed that developed
and bathrooms, but opportunities to reduce refining and distribution of oil, gas and solid
nations should achieve an overall reduction
draughts around windows and doors should fuels although these are much smaller than
of 5.2% relative to 1990 levels over the
always be taken. for electricity, typically around 5%.
succeeding 15 years, with the European
Union contributing 8%, the USA 7% and
Japan 6%.

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Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

The distinction between ‘delivered energy’ Comparisons of both running cost and CO2 The requirement for control of heating
(as metered and paid for by the consumer) emissions must take account of the systems in dwellings may be met by
and primary energy is important when efficiency of the heating system, which has zone controls, timing controls and
considering environmental impact, which the effect of reducing the relative boiler interlock. The interlock
arises from primary energy consumption. disadvantage of electricity to some extent. requirement will be satisfied if the boiler
Table 1 gives CO2 emissions per unit of can only operate when either a space
delivered energy for electricity and heating heating thermostat or a hot water
fuels in the UK. Building Regulations cylinder thermostat is calling for heat.
In practice, this means that
Part L of the Building Regulations (Part J thermostatic radiator valves alone are
and Part F in the corresponding legislation not enough, and should be
for Scotland and Northern Ireland, supplemented by at least one room
respectively) requires that ‘reasonable thermostat.
provision shall be made for the
Table 1: CO2 emission factors for delivered The requirement for commissioning of
conservation of fuel and power’ in
energy in the UK heating systems was introduced for the
buildings. It specifically requires limiting
Fuel
first time in the year 2000 revision, and
CO2 emissions in kgC/kWh heat loss through the fabric of the building, applies to both new and existing
Gas (mains) 0.053 from hot water pipes and hot air ducts used
buildings. Responsibility for
LPG 0.068 for space heating, and from hot water commissioning rests with the person
storage vessels. Other requirements of
Heating oil 0.074 carrying out the work and includes the
particular relevance to heating installers
Solid fuels 0.079 – 0.106 recording of system settings and
are that space and water heating systems
Electricity 0.113
performance test results. A certificate
should be energy efficient and that building
must be made available to the client
occupiers should be provided with
and the building control body; the
sufficient information to allow them to
certificate issued under the Benchmark
operate their heating and hot water
Fuel choice Code of Practice for the Installation,
services efficiently. Part L was revised
Commissioning and Servicing of
Space and water heating can be provided during 2001, with new requirements in Central heating systems is considered
using a range of different fuels, including force from April 2002 (Part L1 deals with
suitable for this purpose.
electricity. Fuel price is generally the most dwellings, Part L2 with other buildings).
important factor for consumers in making a Under Part L, heating became a ‘controlled
choice of fuel. Standard tariff electricity is service’ from April 2002, and for the first
generally very expensive, at around 5 time the provisions applied to ‘material Table 3: Minimum SEDBUK boiler
times the price of gas in delivered energy alterations’ carried out to existing heating efficiencies to be used with
terms. Heating oil has varied considerably systems. So heating installers must take elemental U-values in Part L1
with the price of crude oil over the past 3 account of the Regulations not just in new
Central heating system fuel SEDBUK %
decades, from being the most economical buildings but also when renewing systems
fuel at times to considerably more in existing buildings: failure to do so will Mains natural gas 78
expensive than gas at others. LPG is leave them exposed to action from LPG 80
generally expensive and tends to follow oil aggrieved customers and Building Control Oil 852
price trends rather than the price of natural authorities. For boilers for which SEDBUK is not available,
gas. The relative price of fuels for heating Approved Document L gives detailed the appropriate seasonal efficiency may be
may be obtained from Table 12 in the practical guidance showing how the obtained from Table 4b of the SAP For oil-fired
Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP), requirements may be met. In Part L1, for combination boilers a SEDBUK value of 82%,
which is updated periodically: an dwellings, three alternative ways of as calculated by the SAP 98 method, would be
abbreviated version is shown here in Table acceptable.
demonstrating compliance with the
2. insulation requirements are shown,
including a ‘Carbon Index Method’, in
which the level of insulation required The Standard Assessment
Table 2: Typical fuel costs, including
VAT but not standing charges depends on the choice of fuel and the Procedure (SAP)
(SAP 2001) heating system efficiency. A minimum
heating system efficiency is required for A home energy rating is a measure of the
Fuel pence per kWh energy efficiency of a dwelling, intended
other cases, as shown in Table 3. Boilers
Gas (mains) 1.4 should meet specified SEDBUK to give information on the relative energy
LPG (bulk) 3.1 efficiencies, depending on type and fuel efficiency of different houses. SAP is the
Heating oil 1.7 used, and there are minimum standards UK Government’s standard methodology
Solid fuels 1.7 – 2.8 for cylinders and controls. For for home energy rating. The SAP rating is
Electricity (standard) 7.4 nondomestic buildings, there are also based upon running costs for space and
three alternative ways of showing water heating, which are calculated
Electricity (7 hour on-peak) 7.9
compliance, which are broadly analogous taking account of the form of the building,
Electricity (7 hour off-peak) 3.0 its thermal insulation, which fuel is used
to those for dwellings. The main difference
is in the calculation methods specified, and the performance of the heating
Advice given by installers on the choice of system. SAP ratings are expressed on a
fuel for heating should be based on both which take account of the different building
services systems used. range of 1-120, the higher the better.
relative costs and CO2 emissions, as an They allow comparisons of energy
increasing proportion of clients are now Apart from boiler efficiency, the most
efficiency to be made, and can show the
concerned about environmental impact. relevant requirements for heating system
scope for improvements. The SAP
Table 1 (above) may be used to provide a installers are those concerning controls,
process also delivers a carbon index, in
comparison between alternatives in terms commissioning, and provision of operating
the range 0-10, to indicate carbon
of CO2 emissions. and maintenance instructions.
emissions.

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Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

Using energy ratings, designers, developers, Information on the efficiency of both

house-builders, and home owners can take current and obsolete boilers, gas and oil,
energy efficiency factors into consideration can be seen on the Boiler Efficiency
both for new dwellings and when refurbishing Database at www.boilers.org.uk.
existing ones. Energy ratings can be used at Minimum standards of efficiency for most
Table 4: SEDBUK efficiency bands
the design stage as a guide to energy types of boiler are imposed by law, which
efficiency and the potential reduction of Band SEDBUK range in the UK is the Boiler (Efficiency)
future fuel bills and CO2 production. The A 90% and above Regulations 1993 (UK legislation
Building Regulations require that every new implementing the European Union Boiler
B 86%-90%
dwelling be given a SAP energy rating, which Efficiency Directive).
C 82%-86%
must be displayed in the form of a notice.
D 78%-82% Boiler efficiency depends on the design of
The heating designer has an important the boiler and the conditions under which it
E 74%-78%
opportunity to influence the SAP rating and operates. Boiler design features affecting
the carbon index through the choice of fuel, F 70%-74%
efficiency include:
boiler, hot water system, and controls. When G below 70%
the carbon index is used to show compliance a. Size (surface area) of heat exchanger
with Part L of the Building Regulations, the b. Water content of the heat exchanger
performance of the heating system can Specifying efficient systems c. the method of ignition, especially
contribute significantly, leading to less whether or not it relies on a permanent
stringent requirements for insulation. How can purchasers specify efficient pilot flame
heating systems? To help them Central
d. The type of burner control (on/off, gas
Heating System Specifications (CHeSS)
modulating or gas/air modulating)
SEDBUK have been published under the Energy
Efficiency Best Practice Programme as e. Whether or not the boiler is designed to
SEDBUK is an acronym for ‘Seasonal General Information Leaflet 59. They have operate in condensing mode
Efficiency of a Domestic Boiler in the UK’. been written with assistance from the f. Flue shape and length.
The method used in SEDBUK was relevant trade associations and the
developed under the Government’s Energy Operating conditions affecting boiler
manufacturers of heating products. The efficiency include:
Efficiency Best Practice Programme with the specifications cover the efficiency-critical
co-operation of boiler manufacturers, and components of domestic wet central a. The size (power rating) of the boiler in
provides a basis for fair comparison of heating systems (boilers, cylinders, relation to the design heat load and
different models. It was specifically designed controls), with an emphasis on ensuring radiator sizes
to provide efficiency values for use in SAP good levels of energy efficiency using well b. The heating system controls
calculations, and has been used in SAP proven and cost-effective techniques and c. Flow and return water temperatures.
assessments since July 1999. products. At present (CHeSS in year 2000)
there are four, summarised in Table 5. It is All three are at least in part within the
SEDBUK is the average annual efficiency
intended that purchasers should refer to control of the designer. Installation and
achieved in typical domestic conditions,
CHeSS when seeking quotations for commissioning are also important to the
making reasonable assumptions about
installation work: as well as calling for good realisation of the designer’s intentions.
pattern of usage, climate, control, and other
or best practice this is an aid to making Regular servicing and maintenance are
influences. It is calculated from the results of
quotations comparable. also necessary to ensure that efficiency is
standard laboratory tests together with other
sustained, particularly for oil fired boilers.
important factors such as boiler type, ignition
arrangement, internal store size, fuel used,
and knowledge of the UK climate and typical Table 5: CHeSS (2000) reference
domestic usage patterns. SEDBUK figures systems Condensing boilers
for most boilers currently on sale can be CHeSS
reference Type of system The heat exchanger in a condensing boiler
seen on the website www.boilers.org.uk, is designed to extract maximum heat from
which is updated monthly. HR1 Good practice; system with regular the flue gases. As a consequence of doing
For estimating annual fuel costs SEDBUK is (i.e. non-combi) boiler
so, the temperature of the flue gases may
a better guide than laboratory test results HC1 Good practice; system with combi fall below the dew point, which causes
alone. It can be applied to most gas and oil boiler water vapour to condense on the surfaces
domestic boilers for which data is available HR2 Best practice; system with regular of the heat exchanger, a situation that is
from tests conducted to the relevant (i.e. non-combi) boiler deliberately avoided in other boilers. The
European standards. The SEDBUK method presence of condensation in large
HC2 Best practice; system with combi
is used in SAP, which is described below. boiler quantities means that the heat exchanger
As a simple guide to boiler efficiency for must be made of corrosion-resistant
consumers, a scheme has been created with materials and that a drain must be
bands on an ‘A’ to ‘G’ scale, (see Table 4) provided to dispose of the liquid
The band may be used on product literature Boiler efficiency condensate.
and labels, though there is no legal Condensing boilers are always more
requirement for manufacturers to do so. The The efficiency of the boiler is the main
efficient than non-condensing boilers,
scheme is temporary, as it will be withdrawn factor affecting the energy efficiency of gas
which must be designed to operate with
when a European directive on boiler energy and oil-fired wet central heating systems.
flue gas temperatures high enough to
labelling is introduced. Guidance on boiler types (especially the
avoid the accumulation of condensate that
relative advantages of regular and combi
would cause corrosion.
boilers) and system design is given in
Good Practice Guide 284 Domestic central
heating and hot water: systems with gas
and oil-fired boilers.

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Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

Even the least efficient condensing gas boiler Secondly, the heat exchangers in indirect Guidance for the insulation of pipes and
is about 3% more efficient than the best cylinders should have sufficient surface area ducts is given in Section 1.52 of Approved
non-condensing boiler, and the difference is to provide rapid warm-up, as poor heat Document L1. Pipe work located outside
typically about 13%. Condensing boilers are exchanger performance causes the boiler to the insulated building fabric should be
most efficient when operating with low return be on for long periods at low loads. Apart insulated with a thickness, equal to the
water temperatures, which induce high levels from providing poor service to the household, outside diameter of the pipe (up to a
of condensation. But they remain more a slow response reduces boiler efficiency and maximum of 40mm) with insulation
efficient than other boilers even while not increases heat losses from the primary material having a thermal conductivity not
condensing. Although it is possible to circuit. It is also important to ensure that exceeding 0.035 W/m.K. Pipes connected
increase the proportion of time boilers cylinders have sufficient storage capacity; to hot water storage vessels, including the
operate in condensing mode by installing apart from the inconvenience caused by lack vent pipe and the primary flow and return
larger radiators and using lower flow and of capacity, system energy efficiency will be to the heat exchanger, should be similarly
return temperature, it is neither necessary impaired if the boiler has to be called upon insulated for at least 1 metre from their
nor to be recommended; field trials have frequently to reheat the cylinder. points of connection. Additional insulation
shown it to be not cost- effective. may be required to prevent freezing of
As a minimum, the designer should always
From the installer’s point of view, there are specify hot water cylinders that comply with pipes passing through unheated areas.
two particular considerations to be taken into BS 1566 or BS3198. ‘High performance’ Guidance on suitable protection measures
account when specifying condensing boilers: cylinders, which have fast recovery heat is given in the BRE publication Thermal
the provision of a drain for the condensate exchangers and are usually also better insulation: avoiding risks.
and the acceptability of ‘pluming’- the insulated, are recommended (see CHeSS
production of a visible cloud of water droplets (2000) notes 5, 6 and 7). ‘Medium duty’
- from the flue. The condensate drain does cylinders should always be avoided as they Solar water heating
not normally cause a problem, although care are usually badly insulated and have poor
must be taken to ensure that it can be kept Solar water heating panels are widely
heat exchanger performance, and do not
clear. Pluming can be a real problem, used around the world to provide domestic
comply with Building Regulations.
however, when the flue discharges into an hot water, particularly where sunshine is
area close to neighbouring property. Pluming plentiful and fuel is relatively expensive. In
may be perceived as much less acceptable the UK, the great majority of installed
than the less visible and more buoyant
Controls for heating systems systems are in dwellings.
combustion products from a noncondensing The output required from a heating system The efficiency of solar collector panels
boiler. Condensing boilers are thought by varies considerably, particularly in response depends on number of factors, including
some installers to be more difficult to to external temperature. Controls are needed the type of collector, the spectral response
maintain and less reliable but there is no to ensure that the system provides the of the absorbing surface, the extent to
reason why a condensing boiler should be appropriate output for all conditions, including which the panel is insulated and the
different from any other modern boiler in those where little or no additional heat is temperature difference between the panel
these respects. There is little difference in required. Controls contribute significantly to and the ambient air. Efficiency declines
complexity and the only additional the efficient operation of a heating system, by sharply as panel temperature increases
maintenance task is to ensure that the allowing the desired temperatures to be above air temperature, and the surface
condensate drain is clear. achieved in each room at the times required. finish of the collector is important.
For gas installations, condensing boilers The selection of appropriate controls also Evacuated tube collectors are able to
should be specified unless the additional plays a key part in the overall running costs of maintain their efficiency at high
costs outweigh the benefits or where there a heating system. For example, upgrading temperatures, although they may be no
are serious difficulties with terminal siting, controls on older heating systems can save more efficient at low temperature rises.
pluming or connection to a drain. For oil up to 15% on energy bills. The recommended A typical solar water heating installation
installations, condensing boilers have less of minimum set of controls is given in Good consists of one or more roof-mounted
an advantage over noncondensing types and Practice Guide 302 Controls for domestic panels, a hot water storage cylinder and a
until recently the market for them has not heating and hot water systems. See also means of transferring heat from the panels
been developed to the same extent as for General Information Leaflet 83 Domestic to the cylinder. Very simple systems, used
gas. boiler anti-cycling controls – an evaluation where sunshine is abundant, rely on
concerning claims made for boiler gravity circulation but systems designed
anti-cycling devices. for a typical UK climate require a pumped
Hot water cylinders primary circulation. BS5918 gives
guidance for the design and installation of
Two points require consideration to ensure Insulation such systems. Some systems used in the
the energy efficiency of hot water storage UK have separate storage cylinders for
cylinders. Firstly, they should be well Insulation is relevant to the heating installer in
solar heated water, which can be kept at
insulated, as heat lost to their surroundings two different contexts. Firstly, as noted
an intermediate temperature to maximise
cannot contribute usefully to space heating above, the extent to which the fabric of a
the amount of heat collected. Others rely
requirements when no heat is required in building is insulated affects the design
on an additional heating coil in the main
summer and may cause uncomfortably high heating load. Consequently, opportunities for hot water cylinder, which is also heated by
temperatures. Insulation is especially improving insulation should be explored
a central heating system or by an electric
important if the cylinder is located in an before undertaking heating system design – immersion heater. The circulation pump is
unheated space. the cost of the insulation may well be offset
usually controlled by a differential
by reductions in the cost of the heating
temperature sensor, which causes the
system, as well as energy cost savings
pump to operate whenever the
throughout the life of the installation.
temperature of the collector exceeds the
Secondly, parts of the heating system itself
temperature of the stored water in the
require insulation, regardless of the extent to
cylinder by a pre-set margin of 2 or 3°C.
which the building is insulated.

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Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

The energy content of the hot water produced b. Integrated thermal stores also provide A typical example would be the use of a
annually per unit area of solar water heating both space and water heating from within vented boiler system to heat mains
panel depends upon several factors, a single appliance. However, they differ pressure water. They are also useful if
including the collector efficiency, storage from CPSUs in that a separate boiler is there is a need to isolate chemically
volume and usage patterns. BS 5918 gives a used to heat the primary water. treated water in one circuit from separate
method for sizing solar hot water systems for systems. A plate heat exchanger allows
c. Hot-water-only thermal stores use the two systems to operate separately,
individual houses, taking account of climate, thermal storage only for production of
panel orientation and collector performance. while providing sufficient heat transfer for
domestic hot water. As for the two types correct operation.
It shows that the optimum panel orientation is described above, the domestic hot water
just West of South but that there is little effect is provided by a heat exchanger working
on output within 45° of the optimum. Plate heat exchanger sizing
at mains pressure.
Optimum tilt for the UK is around 33° but When selecting plate heat exchangers,
there is little difference within ±15°, which Also, some models of combination boiler
contain a small thermal store to overcome the they must be large enough to provide the
includes most pitched roofs in the UK. A rule required rate of heat transfer, at the
of thumb is that a house requires 2-4m2 of limitation on flow rates for domestic hot
water. desired temperatures, and must also be
panel area, which will yield around a large enough to ensure that pressure
10OOkWh per year of heat and meet around Thermal storage for larger buildings must rely
drops across the heat exchanger are not
half of annual hot water requirements. A set on purpose-designed storage vessels with
too high. Connection sizes will have an
of European Standards is currently under capacity and storage temperature optimised
effect on pressure drops, however they are
development. for the heat load. Other design parameters
usually sized to suit the internal
An Energy Efficiency Best Practice that must be considered are insulation of the
arrangement of the plates. The
Programme report on solar hot water storage vessel, arrangements for dealing
relationship between power, flow rate and
systems in new housing was published in with expansion and the control strategy for
temperature rise of water flowing through a
June 2001. coupling the store to the rest of the system.
plate heat exchanger can be calculated
Solar panels are also well suited to heating Thermal stores may contribute to improved from the equation:
swimming pools. The low temperature energy efficiency by allowing the installation
of a smaller heat source that can operate Power (kW) = 4.2 x Temperature
required and the very large thermal capacity change (°C) x Flow rate (l/s)
of the pool water makes it possible to achieve closer to its maximum load and hence with
relatively high collector efficiency using improved efficiency. However, heat losses Although the temperatures and flow rates
simple unglazed panels. Typical installations from the energy store need to be taken into will be different on the primary side of the
in the UK (covered by BS 6785) have a panel account; if insulation is not of a very high heat exchanger to those on the secondary,
area of around half of the pool surface area standard, then any gains in efficiency from the power will be the same (energy out =
and produce an average temperature rise the sizing effect can be cancelled out. energy in).
above ambient air temperature of around 5°K
Example
provided the pool is covered at night or
indoors. Plate heat exchanger To work out the basics for a heat
exchanger required to feed a shower with
A plate heat exchanger is a device used to hot water, we know the shower flow rate to
Thermal storage transfer heat from one liquid (or gas) flowing be about 8 litres per minute, the incoming
in one direction (primary) through the heat mains water temperature to be 10°C, and
Energy storage may be used either to cope exchanger to cold water flowing the opposite the required water temperature is 42°C:
with peak loads or to take advantage of lower direction (secondary). The two sets of water
energy prices at certain times of day. Heat is are kept separate by numerous stainless Power Out = 4.2 x (42 - 10) x (8/60)
stored using either solid cores or hot water steel plates through which the heat is = 17.92kW = Power In
vessels. The most common application of conducted. Each waterway can operate
typically up to 10 bar pressure, although Assuming the temperature of the primary
thermal storage is in dwellings, in which solid
models are available to take far higher water being used to provide the heat is
core storage is charged with heat at off- peak
pressures. A typical plate heat exchanger 75°C, and we would like to aim for a
rates for a 7 or 8 hour period. Guidance for
measuring only 20 x 7 x 12cm can transfer temperature drop of 10°C, we can work out
the design of such systems is contained in
heat at over 100kW – enough to heat 45 litres the required flow rate by reversing the
the Electricity Council (later the Electricity
per minute of hot water from 12-42°C. previous equation:
Association) publication Design of mixed
storage heater/direct systems. Power
Isolation Flow Rate =
Gas fired systems relying on hot water (4.2 x Temperature change)
17.92
storage vessels are also available for use in The ability of plate heat exchangers to =
(4.3 x (75 − 65))
dwellings. Three generic types are transfer heat from a high pressure circuit to a
recognised: low pressure circuit makes them the perfect = 0.42 l/s
a. Combined primary storage units (CPSU) choice for applications where the operating
provide both space and water heating pressures vary through a system. This is generally enough information
from within a single appliance, in which a required to select a heat exchanger,
burner heats a thermal store. The water however one may find that the flow rate
in the thermal store is circulated to requirement or pressure drop on one side
radiators to provide space heating, while of the heat exchanger is too high.
a heat exchanger is used to transfer heat Increasing the size of the heat exchanger
to incoming cold water at mains pressure will allow reduced primary flow rates, with
to provide a supply of domestic hot accordingly lower return temperatures.
water.

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Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

The only other alternative is to increase the This may be done on a large scale,
Air source heat pumps
size of the primary pump and/or pipework. whereby an electricity generating station is
The correct balance has to be found Air source heat pumps may be used to located in an urban area and heat, which
between heat exchanger size and primary extract heat either from outside air or from would otherwise have gone to waste, is
pump size. ventilation exhaust air. When outside air is distributed to buildings nearby. A similar
used as a heat source, the coefficient of approach may be adopted on a large
Applications required to work with lower campus site, such as a hospital or
performance declines as the air temperature
temperature differences across the heat industrial complex, which has a
drops. There can also be problems with icing
exchanger, such as using a heat exchanger continuous need for both heat and electric
of the heat exchanger where the outside air
to transfer heat from a boiler system at 75°C power. Smaller units are suitable for
is of high humidity, which is frequently the
to a radiator circuit at 50°C will also require individual buildings, such as sports
case in the UK. This requires periodic
larger heat exchangers. To size jobs centres or hotels. Large CHP systems
defrosting, which is often achieved by
accurately requires access to various pump tend to be based on gas turbine
temporary reversals of the heat pump and
curves as well as heat exchanger software - technology, while small units are more
reduces the CoP Because of those factors,
both of which can be obtained from likely to use reciprocating engines.
air-to-air heat pumps have a relatively low
manufacturers and often free on the Internet.
CoP (in the range of 2.0-2.5) when used for Micro CHP describes very small units
On small output systems, under 100kW, it
heating in a typical UK climate. As CoP designed to operate in an individual house
may be far easier and more economical to
declines with outside temperature, it is not or other small building, often relying on a
choose a heat exchanger that is slightly
economic to size air-source heat pumps for Stirling engine to drive the generator. Fuel
oversized, but off-the-shelf and hence
the coldest conditions, but to include some cells, which generate electricity directly
relatively cheap.
supplementary heating by electrical from gas passed over electrodes, are
Limescale resistance coils. currently expensive but offer a promising
The plates within the heat exchanger are Ground or water source heat pumps long term alternative form of generation.
embossed with a corrugated pattern, Micro CHP is technically feasible and is
Ground or water source heat pumps extract currently undergoing field tests in the UK
designed to maximise turbulence and heat
heat from the ground, or from bodies of water and elsewhere. However, there are
transfer. Providing flow rates are reasonable,
either at ambient temperature or with problems in matching short-term heat and
the turbulent flow prevents scale deposits
temperature raised by the outflow of waste electricity demand that could inhibit
from sticking to the plates. In addition, the
heat. They have the advantage over air commercial exploitation. In particular, if
slight flexing of the plates during operation
source heat pumps in that their heat source the unit were sized to replace a boiler,
helps to break up any deposits that do form.
has much greater specific heat than air and, there would be a significant surplus of
Swimming pools provided it has sufficient mass, varies much electricity that would need to be exported
less with outside temperature. and sold at a reasonable price.
Heating swimming pools poses additional Small ground source heat pumps have a Alternatively, if the unit were sized to meet
problems due to the levels of chlorides and seasonal CoP of around 3.5 in a typical UK the base electrical load, the heat produced
bromides often added to kill germs and climate. would not match the needs of the
bacteria in the water. Chlorine and bromine
household and a separate boiler would still
both attack metals, including copper, iron The CoP figures given above are for
be required.
and steel. If a copper brazed plate heat electrically driven vapour compression cycle
exchanger is used on treated water then the heat pumps. Absorption cycle heat pumps
copper is open to attack and may result in have a much lower CoP but have the
the failure of the heat exchanger. An advantage that they can be powered directly
alternative is to use Nickel brazed plate heat by gas. When used for heating, the CoP
exchangers that are far more resistant. obtainable in practice (of around 1.4) still
offers a considerable advantage over a
Water efficiency
Heat pumps
boiler. Domestic sized absorption heat
pumps are currently being evaluated in field
and conservation
trials in the Netherlands; they are compact Water is a precious resource; it is required
Heat pumps are available in a number of enough to be considered as a replacement to sustain life and is used extensively in
different forms and exploit different sources for a boiler, silent in operation and offer modern lifestyles. Water is consumed in
of low grade heat, with the effect that they output equivalent to that from a boiler of the sense that it is transformed from a
can produce significantly greater energy 140% efficiency. drinking water to a lower grade
output than is supplied to them by fuel or wastewater containing pollutants. This
electricity input. The performance of a heat Many heat pumps used for heating in section examines methods of water
pump may be characterised by its coefficient commercial buildings in the UK are conservation within and around domestic,
of performance (CoP), which is the ratio of reversible and also provide cooling in commercial and industrial buildings.
the heat output to the power input. Although summer at no additional capital cost.
In the UK, water supplied by the public
heat pumps clearly reduce requirements for
supply main is abstracted from streams,
delivered energy, they should be considered
rivers, lakes and reservoirs, as well as
in terms of primary energy if an overall gain Micro CHP groundwater from aquifers. These are fed
in energy efficiency is to be established. For
Combined heat and power (CHP) is the by an average rainfall of 1000mm of water
heat pumps driven by electricity, a good CoP
name given to systems designed to generate each year of which half returns to the
is required to overcome the primary energy
heat and electricity simultaneously. atmosphere by evaporation and
ratio of the electricity.
transpiration by plants. The hydrological
cycle is the process by which water moves
from the atmosphere to surface waters (by
precipitation) and aquifers, and then into
the sea.

73
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

Water conservation has become In the UK, water consumption in households

Clothes washing
increasingly important in the UK as demand has risen by 70% over the last 30 years to machine Miscellaneous
for water has increased and shortfalls in around 140 litres/person /day of which only 12% 35%
supply have occurred. Also, public about 2.5 litres is used for drinking purposes. Bathing
and
awareness of the scarcity of water in some In order to match these increases in demand showering
areas of the UK and the economic value of new sources of water have to be created. 17%
water has increased. However, in recent years in the UK there
The benefits of conserving water include: have been regular shortfalls in supply
1. Maintaining the availability of the water resulting in 178 drought orders being issued
between 1989 and 1991. Building new
supply during drought periods
reservoirs is expensive and can have
2. Reduced pumping and treatment costs significant effects on the environment. An
(with associated energy savings) alternative new approach to the problem is to
3. Wastewater reduction reduce the demand for water.
4. The protection of the environment and
the possible reduction in costs to the WC flushing
consumer. Water supply in the UK 32% Luxury appliances
1%
Throughout the world the use of water is In England and Wales, water abstracted to
increasing. Since 1950 the use of water has provide a public water supply is provided by
the ten regional water service companies and Figure 3 Typical household water use in
more than tripled to about 4340km3 each
around seventeen water companies as well the UK
year.
as small private abstractors. NOTE:
1. There is considerable variation in water- use
between household size, socioeconomic
group and from region to region.
2. External use includes water used for
300
gardening and car washing.
250

200
They supply water either metered or
unmetered. Figure 2 shows uses of
Litres/day

150
abstracted public water supplies in the UK.
100

Domestic water consumption

50
Presently domestic water bills are based
0 either on the rateable value of a building or
the volume of water consumed for metered
Belgium

Italy
Austria

France

Netherlands

Hungary
Spain

Finland

Sweden
UK

Luxembourg

Switzerland
Germany

Denmark

buildings. In 1991 only 2% of households in

England and Wales were metered. By
2000, 18% of households were metered.
Domestic demand for water has increased
over the past decade. This has been
alongside the population increase by 2.5%
Figure 1 Comparison of water consumption rates in Europe (1989/90) and other factors, which include:
a. The increase in low occupation density
Figure 2 Volume of public water supplied in the UK dwellings, (as the number of occupants
in a dwelling decreases the water
consumption for each person of that
dwelling increases)
b. The increasing use of water using
18000 appliances, such as clothes washing
16000
machines and dishwashers.
The largest single use of water in homes is
14000
for WC flushing, as is shown in Figure
12000 3. which gives a breakdown of water
Non-potable
consumption in a typical household in the
10000
Metered UK.
8000
Unmetered
6000

4000

2000

0
74

84
75

76

77

78

80

81

82

83

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

NOTE: Non-drinking water is clean but not drinkable which is distributed to large industrial users.

74
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

a. In industrial processes Since, traditionally water has been

WC flushing
43% Washing b. Cooling supplied on an unmetered basis many
27%
c. Sanitation consumers are unaware of the volume of
d. Landscape irrigation. water they use. A programme of promoting
water efficiency and conservation and the
benefits it can bring together with an
Programmes for water awareness of water consumption could
conservation instil a conserving ethic amongst water

Cleaning
To identify the need for water conservation a users. This could be based upon a public

1%
review of current water using practices and information scheme that includes the
current conservation measures should be education of school children in the
undertaken. The evaluation of existing water importance of water.
Canteen
use conservation techniques should consider the
9% volume of water conserved and if this can be
improved. Water conservation should not Identifying scope for water
Urinal flushing only be justified on an economic basis conservation
20% (although it is likely that initial conservation Current and future water supply and
Figure 4 Typical water use in offices measures need to be cost effective) but on a demand should be estimated so that the
complete cost-benefit analysis which takes long term water conservation techniques
an holistic view. have a sound basis. The projected
Any water supply problems should be forecast of population increase or
Office water consumption identified. The type of problems that may decrease and the use of a region for
Most water used in commercial buildings is occur on a water supply network include: residential, industrial, agricultural or
charged on a metered basis and therefore a. Short term - drought, supply commercial purposes should be used to
there is a financial benefit in reducing contamination predict future water demands. This
consumption. The single most common use information can be used to match the
b. Long term - leakage, inadequate water system sizing with the predicted
of water in offices is for WC flushing (43%) reserves, inadequate source of supply,
followed by urinal flushing. Previous Water demand. This is important for new
inadequate distribution capacity or developments, and can also be used for
Byelaws and now Water Regulations, stating pressure
that new flushing cisterns can only be in the renovation or upgrading of water
operation when the building is in use, have c. Seasonal shortcomings - such as supply systems.
recently addressed the frequency of flushing summer high demands.
urinals. Other uses of water in offices are
shown in Figure 4. External use of water, e.g. Legal and statutory
for landscape irrigation purposes, is not User education and considerations
accounted for in Figure 4. co-operation The following will have a bearing on any
For a water conservation programme to be long term water conservation programme:
successful the co-operation of water a. Water Industry Act 1991
Industrial water-use consumers is required.
b. Codes of practice for water supply
Most of the water used in industrial buildings such as British Standards BS 6700
is metered. This means there is already a
financial incentive for water conservation. c. Water Supply (Water Fittings)
The main uses of water are: Regulations
d. Existing water and energy
conservation programmes
e. Building Regulations
Figure 5 Water demand (with projections to 2021)
f. BREEAM (Building Research
Establishment’s Environmental
Assessment Method).

24000

22000
Present requirements for
20000 reducing waste of water
The Water Supply (Water Fittings)
18000 Regulations 1999 and the Water Byelaws
16000
2000 (Scotland) are in place to prevent
waste, undue consumption, misuse
14000 contamination or erroneous measurement
12000 of water supplied by the water
Year AD
undertakers. The Regulations that are
10000 relevant to water conservation cover water
fittings that are used to convey water as
2001
1961

1965

1969

1973

1977

1981

1985

1989

1993

1997

2005

2009

2013

1017

well as water using appliances. They set a

fine for each non-compliance plus a fine
Projected Projected Projected Actual use each day until it is rectified.
estimate (low) estimate (base) estimate (high)

75
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

In addition, the Water Regulations Advisory The use of dual flush mechanisms for WCs is
Approved Contractors
Scheme (WRAS) assesses compliance of now permitted. The reduced flush must be
fittings with the Regulations. This allows the not more than two-thirds of the maximum The Regulations include the concept of
selection of water fittings that will comply with flush volume and clear operating instructions Approved Contractors. This is a
the requirements and minimise the possibility must be provided. Also, alternatives to nonmandatory scheme whereby a
of contamination or waste of water. traditional external overflow arrangements contractor may choose to become a
for WC cisterns will be permitted. member of an Approved Contractor
Backflow prevention
Scheme. Such schemes are administered
The Water Supply (Water by water authorities or other organisations
An example of the application of European including the CIPHE’s own scheme, that
Fittings) Regulations 1999 Standards is the introduction of new are appointed by DEFRA or National
The Secretary of State for the Environment,
backflow prevention requirements. The Assembly for Wales. Some of the
Transport and the Regions (DETR, now
Water Regulations reflect the approach notification requirements are waived for
DEFRA) used powers under the Water Act to
being adopted in draft European Standard Approved Contractors. An Approved
replace the individual water companies’
EN1717. It is the responsibility of the system Contractor will issue a certificate for the
Water Byelaws with Water Regulations.
designer to select the backflow prevention work.
Note: The Water Supply (Water Fittings)
device appropriate to the fluid risk (i.e. a
Regulations 1999 came into force in July
performance based approach). This allows
1999. They are not retrospective, which
for the introduction of new methods to
means that they do not apply to any fitting
prevent backflow. The Regulations
lawfully installed with regard to the Byelaws
recognise risks associated with five fluid
before July 1999. The Regulations apply only
to England and Wales. However, new
categories. Water
Byelaws have been introduced in Scotland
that, subject to compliance with Scottish law,
Installation
conservation
Installation issues are similar to those
imposes similar requirements. Similar
Regulations have been introduced in
covered previously in the Byelaws. measures
Fittings should be installed as intended; i.e.
Northern Ireland. A number of water conservation
the fitting should operate as required by the
The efficient use of public water supplies and measures have been identified that would
Standards with which it is required to comply.
their prevention from contamination are be applicable in the UK, as well as other
In addition, the Regulations include
crucial to the protection of public health as techniques that would require further
requirements for not connecting materials
well as water resources. The Regulations research to exploit their full potential. The
that might lead to contamination through
embrace this idea and impact upon all water examination of water conservation
galvanic action or leaching. They also
fittings, including retrofitting and new methods was based on various attributes
include procedures for pressure testing and
construction within domestic, commercial such as:
disinfecting systems before they are used.
and industrial plumbing systems.
Notifications
Performance based requirements
There are new notification requirements in Types of conservation
Technically, the Regulations do not introduce the Regulations. The type of work that is measures
many changes to the requirements of the required to be notified includes the extension To achieve water conservation, changes
Byelaws that they replaced. The two main of plumbing systems in nondomestic are required in the way water is used, by
exceptions are (a) backflow prevention and premises, where there is a material change altering the pattern of use, by the
(b) requirements for water closets (WCs). of use of a building. In addition, notifiable installation of efficient appliances or a
The requirements of the Regulations are work includes appliances that consume high combination of the two. The simplest
based largely on performance standards, volumes of water for discretionary uses, for distinction that can be drawn between
rather than the prescriptive approach example swimming pools. Where high water measures is to divide them into those that
adopted in the Byelaws. Compliance is consumption fittings are to be installed, the are:
primarily based upon satisfying relevant water authority may consider metering the
British and European Standards. customer. a. products which relate to items, such
Mechanisms are in place to update these as, WCs, taps and automatic car
Disagreement and disputes washes
standards to reflect changes in technology
and permit innovation. Water companies are still responsible for b. techniques, such as, using air to move
enforcing the Regulations. In addition, there waste products instead of water and
Water-efficient WCs is a procedure for resolving disputes. Where water pressure reduction
From 1 January 2001, the maximum flush a water authority will not endorse an c. services that cover water-use audits
volume for newly installed WCs was reduced application for a relaxation, or refuses and water-use labelling.
to 6 litres. Such WCs must meet the consent following a notification, or applies
Examples of these measures are given in
requirements specified in DEFRA’s WC Suite conditions to the consent, the customer can
the following sections.
Performance Specification. appeal to DEFRA as to whether the action
WCs can be flushed using any mechanism was reasonable.
that passes this performance standard.
Products
Therefore, it will no longer be necessary to
use a siphon. This includes all types of device that can
be used to save water ranging from the
simple flow restrictor, through low-water-
use washing machines to fully recycling
automatic car washing equipment.
i. Flow restrictors are readily available
and can be fitted to many appliances,
but their use has to be appropriate.

76
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

Where taps can be left on by careless These products are not readily available ix. Automatic leak detectors are becoming
users and where items are washed under in the UK but are used in parts of France increasingly available in the UK. These
running water they are a cheap way of and the USA. To be used efficiently devices are fitted into the incoming
reducing water wastage. However, a these cisterns need to be matched to mains and close when a leak is
more effective, but more expensive, WC pans that can use the higher detected, preventing both the waste of
solution would be to install taps operated velocity water effectively. Another type water and damage to property. Some
by proximity sensors. of water and compressed air toilet, uses operate by sensing a high flow rate and
ii. The average amount of water used for a water to rinse the bowl and compressed others use conductivity detectors to
conventional shower is approximately 30 air to evacuate the contents. This type is activate valves.
litres, whilst a bath requires about 80 used in many types of buildings in the
USA. x. Automatic closure taps can produce
litres. It initially appears showering is water savings in commercial and public
more energy and water efficient, but the vi. Toilets that use no water for flushing are buildings where there is a risk of taps
fact is that households with showers use available. The most common type in the being left on accidentally.
them more frequently than non-shower UK is the composting toilet. In its
households use their baths. Also pumped domestic form this toilet is usually xi. Presently, 85% of households possess
and multi-head showers are not as electrically powered heating the waste a washing machine and 10% a
efficient as conventional showers. material to enable composting action to dishwasher, consuming, in total, about
Households whose water use is metered occur. The major problem with this type 12% of domestic water. The ownership
could use suitable showering products as of toilet is its size; the smallest domestic of these previously luxury goods are
a method of reducing total water model is about twice the size of a increasing. Water Regulations govern
consumption. conventional WC suite. Large (greater the maximum permissible volume of
than 15m3) composting toilets do not water used for a wash; between 150
iii. Conventional showerheads can and 180 litre for a washing machine
discharge water at between 0.3-0.5 l/s. usually require the external input of
energy for the process, as the aerobic (depending on drum size) and about
Low-flow showerheads can reduce this to 196 litre for an average dishwasher.
below 0.2 litre/sec depending on the decomposition is sufficiently exothermic
to be self-sustaining. These levels are above current
supply pressure. Research conducted in consumption of about 100 litre and 25
the USA has shown that the use of Large composting toilets may be litre respectively).
low-flow showerheads can save environmentally acceptable as they
approximately 27 litre each day each consume only a small volume of water, The Water Regulations maxima could
person (for a person who mainly showers require no drainage pipework and be brought in line with the water
rather than takes baths). This equates to produce compost that can be used in the consumption of current production
an energy saving in hot water of 444kWh garden. However the questions of models.
(1.6 x 109 J) each person each year for adequate hand washing facilities if there Other products include drip-proof taps and
water heated by gas (or 388kWh for is no available water supply and the drip feed irrigation systems.
water heated by electricity). The cheaper safety of children using toilets with open
alternative to low-flow showerheads is to chutes needs to be considered. Techniques
fit a flow restrictor to the supply to an vii. Urinal flushing cistern controllers have
existing showerhead, although this may A technique is defined as the application of
been widely used in the UK for some a collection of associated products (e.g. a
increase the showering time. time. Water Regulations state the vacuum drainage system), education or
iv. WC cistern water displacement devices, maximum rate at which cisterns may be legislative policies, changes in cultural
called dams, which are inserted into filled. Since 1989 new cisterns are habits or the use of alternative fluids for
cisterns, are available to reduce the required to be refilled only when the various processes.
volume of water flushed. Although these urinal is in use. There are various
are relatively inexpensive they can methods of sensing use and operation. i. In most drainage systems in the world
interfere with the correct and efficient Some use changes in water pressure to water is used as the transport medium.
operation of the cistern. They do not fit identify operation of taps and therefore This is mainly due to historical reasons
easily into UK cisterns with a syphon by association the use of urinals. Others as most drainage systems involved
flush mechanism because they are use passive infra-red (PIR) detectors to removal of waste into rivers. However,
designed primarily for use in cisterns detect movement of persons in the room, water is becoming increasingly
fitted with flap valves. If all the volume of some sense the temperature of urine in valuable and in some circumstances it
water in the cistern was necessary to the urinal traps and many use various is very wasteful to use water of drinking
clear the WC pan, a reduced flush forms of proximity detector. The essence quality to flush toilets and drains. An
volume may not be effective and the user of these devices is they all obviate the established alternative is the vacuum
will flush the cistern again and hence flushing of urinals when the premises are drainage system. This uses air as the
increase the use of water, instead of not being used and are usually an main transport medium. Some systems
reducing it. improvement over the use of the also use special appliances that use
traditional ‘pet- cock’ that has to be set to little water, such as, the vacuum WC
v. WCs can be flushed with water using and urinal.
compressed air assistance. Some such drip water at the required rate into the
cisterns use the pressure of the mains cistern. ii. Education programmes to change the
water supply to compress a volume of air viii. The use of an occupancy detector to public’s uses of water have been used
above the stored water. When the water isolate the water supply to a washroom at various times in most developed
is released into the bowl it has a much when unoccupied is another application countries of the world. Education of all
greater velocity than from a conventional of PIR technology. This can minimise the ages is needed but education
gravity operated cistern. waste in urinal flushing and that caused programmes in schools help produce a
by taps being left on. new generation with an awareness of
the problem.

77
Resource efficient design Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

iii. Metering of supplies is a technique that Economical products BRE has developed a water efficient
has social, political and financial To help in the selection of water economical specification for new housing which meets
implications. Presently, the majority of products, water-use labelling of appliances is the Water Regulations requirement and is
domestic water used in the UK is charged being adopted in Australia. It is analogous to given below.
on a tariff that was related to the rateable fuel consumption figures for motor cars. A BRE water efficiency specification:
value of a building. A charge based on prospective purchaser is able to compare the i. WCs (6 litre)
the volume of water consumed is an relative amounts of water that different ii. Dual flush WCs (6/4 litre) or (6/3 litre)
alternative to the rate method; this appliances use. This scheme would require iii. Low volume baths
requires some form of metering. the testing of appliances to an agreed iv. Water butts (for garden irrigation)
Commercial and industrial buildings are standard and would add to the cost of the v. Spray taps on handwash basins
generally metered. product. Currently, products that are covered vi. Reduced flowrate taps on handwash
iv. Long pipe runs are to be avoided in the Australian scheme include: basins
because water contained in them may i. Shower heads vii. Water efficient dishwasher
have to be run off before the water viii. Water efficient washing machine
ii. Taps ix. Water efficient showerhead.
reaches the desired temperature. The
insulation of hot water pipes can reduce iii. Flow restrictors
Water metering
this problem. iv. Dish washing machines Metering trials have been conducted in
It is common practice to run water from v. Clothes washing machines twelve areas in England. These sites cover
hot taps to waste until it is up to a range of geographical areas and social
vi. WCs
temperature and then add cold water. If groups; a total of approximately 56,570
the initial cooler water was utilised vii. Urinals
households. A survey carried out by Ofwat
reductions could be achieved. Other viii. Domestic garden equipment. indicated that there was a high level of
ways of reducing water wasted in pipe acceptance of water metering by 72% of
In the UK, the Bathroom Manufacturers
runs would be to use point of use water those questioned. The installation of water
Association, represents many sanitaryware
heaters, and to use unvented hot water meters and their use for the charging of
manufacturers.
systems which operate on higher water water on a volume used rather than on a
pressures than traditional vented water Toilet rebate programmes flat rate basis could be used to encourage
heaters and can be used with smaller Toilet rebate programmes have been used to water conservation. The actual tariff
bore piping. great effect in parts of the USA. They involve system adopted for metered dwellings will
v. One of the most popular techniques offering payments to users who exchange affect the potential water savings that can
presently used for saving water is to use their existing WC for a low-water-use WC be achieved. The relative contributions to
rainwater for tasks where drinking water from a specified list. Not only does this result the total water bill from standing charges
would normally be used. These include in water savings but also increased WC and and charges related to the volume of water
WC flushing, garden and window box bathroom suit sales and is an incentive to the used are important for creating financial
watering. industry. Experience in San Simeon, incentives for water conservation.
vi. Recycling of wastewater is possible but California, USA has shown a 39% reduction The majority of metered householders
may give rise to problems. Wastewater in total water-use after a toilet rebate scheme (59%) in the study attempted to reduce
from sinks, baths and basins may be had been implemented. This required the their water consumption by some means.
used for irrigation purposes but if it is replacement of the existing 1198 WCs for This was achieved by a number of
used for WC flushing the cisterns low-water-user WCs (less than 7.2 litre). methods including:
mechanism may suffer due to deposits of A rebate scheme for gas-fired condensing
i. Less plant watering
soap and other contaminants. Other boilers is already operated in the UK by the
problems associated with recycling Energy Savings Trust. ii. Less toilet flushing
wastewater are storage, contamination iii. Taking showers instead of baths
Efficient landscaping
and separation from the existing iv. Using washing machines less
drinkable water supply. Efficient landscaping can reduce the amount
frequently
of water required for irrigation and the
Services watering of plants. Presently the external use v. Sharing baths, bath water, or
of water for gardening runs at between 2% showers.
These are not product based but involve
knowledge that can be applied or utilised. and 3% of total water consumption for Even though installation of meters may be
domestic properties. Many commercial and costly in existing buildings, there are
Audit public buildings have extensive landscaped hidden benefits, such as detecting existing
An audit of water using appliances, areas. Low transpiration plants native to the leaks during installation.
especially in large organisations, may reveal Mediterranean can be used for ornamental Presently, many new buildings are
many areas where savings can be made. gardening. Large areas are also given over automatically fitted with a water meter or
Companies that offer these services usually to recreational uses, such as golf courses. provided with suitable connections for
market devices such as WC dams, tap flow Efficient watering systems that monitor wind installation later, although trends show an
restrictors and are able to offer the audits at speed and air temperature can vary irrigation increase in unmetered water consumption.
negligible cost to the clients. In New York rates so water is more fully utilised and
Evidence from the USA suggests that
City, USA, the use of a voluntary water audit evaporation is reduced.
water savings from the installation of water
in 5200 buildings has shown potential water meters produced savings in the region of
savings of 28 million litres per year. The audit 13% to 45% of supplied water.
consisted of a leak and waste inspection with
free replacement of showerheads, aerating
taps and WC cistern dams.

78
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide Resource efficient design

Since cooling water is a high component of Energy Efficiency Best Practice

water used in industry it should be targeted Programme, General Information Report
20000 for reuse. As cooling water is not normally 88 ‘Solar hot water systems in new
degraded (except for mineral content), it can housing – a monitoring report’.
Millions of litres of water/day

15000 be reused for processes, such as cleaning, BS 6785:1986 Code of practice for solar
which do not require drinking water. heating systems for swimming pools.
Electricity Council, Design of mixed
10000
storage heater/direct systems. Technical
References Information DOM-8. 1980 (revised 1984
5000 and 1989).
The Building Regulations 2000 Approved The Water Supply (Fittings) Regulations
Document L Conservation of Fuel and Power 1999 and Water Byelaws 2000
0
HMSO 2001. (Scotland).
Other agriculture
Domestic use of

Spray irrigation

The Governments Standard Assessment

Power stations
water supplies

Other industry

Fish farming

Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings

BRECSU 2001.
Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme,
General Information Leaflet 59 ‘Central
Figure 6 Uses of abstracted water supplies in Heating System Specifications (CHeSS)’.
the UK
Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme,
Good Practice Guide 284 ‘Domestic central
These trials were carried out between 1955 heating and hot water: systems with gas and
and 1975 and were based on water oil-fired boilers’.
susceptible to differences and variations due BS 1566-1:1984 Copper indirect cylinders for
to particular seasonal requirements. Also in domestic purposes. Specification for double
the USA, the proportion of the water used for feed indirect cylinders.
external purposes (37%) is greater than in
the UK (3%). Therefore there is more scope BS 1566-2:1984 Copper indirect cylinders for
to conserve water used externally for domestic purposes. Specification for single
domestic purposes. feed indirect cylinders.
Reductions in industrial water usage The BS 3198:1981 Specification for copper hot
methods to reduce water consumption in water storage combination units for domestic
industry will be similar to those for domestic purposes.
and commercial buildings. The water used in Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme,
industrial processes can be reduced by Good Practice Guide 302 ‘Controls for
various methods: domestic heating and hot water systems’.
i. The use of a water audit to locate leaks Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme,
and any process which uses more water General Information Leaflet 83 ‘Domestic
than it may require boiler anti-cycling controls’. BRE report BR
ii. The reuse of water (or reclaiming 262, Thermal Insulation: Avoiding risks, 2002
wastewater) edition.
iii. The use of a closed circuit cooling system SERI Engineering principles and concepts for
instead of a once-through system active solar systems Solar Energy Research
Institute 1988 ISBN 0- 801 16 855 9
iv. The use of efficient cleaning processes (Hampshire Publishing Corporation).
which utilise less-clean water first.
BS 5918:1989 Code of practice for solar
An audit of process water requirements heating systems for domestic hot water. EN
should also examine the quality of water that 12975:2000 Thermal solar systems and
is needed for each operation. This allows components – Solar Collectors.
effluent from one operation to be matched to
a demand for lower-grade water for another EN 12976:2000 Thermal solar systems and
operation. On-site treatment of wastewater components – Factory made systems.
could also be beneficial in aiding this DD ENV 12977:2001 Thermal solar systems
procedure (also matching output from the and components – Custom built systems.
water treatment plant to water demand BS 6700: 1997 Design, installation, testing
thereby avoiding excessive peaks and the and maintenance of services supplying water
requirement for make-up water from the for domestic use within buildings and their
mains). This can reduce overall water curtilages.
consumption for a process as well as
reducing sewerage charges.

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