10.
1 Institutional Set-up
Key to successful and sustainable IWRM is that it is based on a participatory process being both
bottom-up (i.e. stakeholder/beneficiary-driven) and top-down (facilitated and supported by
central, regional and district local governments).
The Directorate of Water Resources Management (DWRM) has therefore de-concentrated
its regional functions to Water Management Zones (WMZ) as a way of moving closer to the
stakeholders at community level. The country has been divided into four WMZs (Victoria, Albert,
Kyoga and Upper Nile) based on hydrological (water) basins and this is a regional level framework
through which water resources will be managed and developed (see Figure 10.1).
The local level institutions include Catchment Management Organisations (CMOs), which are based
on water sub-basins or catchments. They form parts of WMZs. CMOs will be the local level bottom-
up frameworks through which stakeholders will participate in water resources management.
Districts are the other institutions where implementation of catchment based water resources
management plans will be implemented.
Figure 10.1: Map of Uganda showing the Water Management Zones and sub-basins Source: Water and
Environment Sector Performance Report 2011
Upper Nile WMZone
( 6) The Aswa Basin discharging into
Albert Nile towards Sudaneses border
(7) Catchments contributing to the
Albert Nile within Uganda
(8) The Kidepo Basin at the extreme
northwestern Uganda
UN
Albert WMZone
(4) Catchments discharging into
Lake Edward and Lake George
(5) Catchments downstream of Lake KZ
Edward discharging into Lake
Albert
Kyoga WMZone
AZ (2) Downstream of lake Victoria
discharging to Lake Kyoga
(3) Catchment contributing to the
Kyoga Nile downstream the lake
VZ
Victoria WMZone
(1) Lake Victoria include Uganda Part of Lake Victoria
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10.2 Local Government and Communities’ Role in Water Resources
Management
10.2.1 Roles and Responsibilities in WRM
The WMZ will establish and support the Catchment Management Organization (CMO). This
institutional framework consists of two connected and complimentary committees: the Catchment
Management Committee (CMC), and the Catchment Technical Committee(CTC), being the
technical arm of the CMO. To extend the reach of the WMZ planning team and ensure the broadest
possible and practicable participation, the WMZ planning team will establish an informal and ad
hoc stakeholder forum and possibly general public forums.
The Inter-district Steering Forum brings together the chairpersons of district and urban councils,
the district water and sanitation committees and the district environment committees. The forum
also brings together the respective chief administrative officers, important leaders of business
and private sector groups including farmer organizations, fisherman and livestock associations,
etc. This is an important group since it is essential for the WMZ planning team to ensure that key
issues within and across districts is addressed. Local government is likely to play a major role in
implementing the catchment plan including and beyond the provision of water and sanitation
services. Hence, the Inter-district Steering Forum has both an important political and substantive
role in the preparation and implementation of the catchment plan. In general its role might include:
• Enacting and enforcing, local government laws and regulations, policies, ordinances
and bye-laws related to IWRM and wise use and sustainable management of water and
environmental resources;
• Participating actively in the development and implementation of catchment management
plans for the river/lake basins;
• Promoting integrated planning in management of land, water and environmental
resources; promoting and facilitating the mainstreaming of IWRM into district and town
development plans, district environmental action plans, poverty eradication action plans,
district water development plans and other relevant plans;
• Carrying out monitoring and evaluation of IWRM activities in their respective areas;
• Raising public awareness within their jurisdictions on water and environmental issues;
• Encouraging and increasing stakeholder participation in the integrated management of
water resources; and
• In collaboration with the WMZ team and DWRM, resolving conflicts related to use of the
water resources.
More information on Catchment Management Organisations can be found in DWRM’s Guidelines
for Catchment Based WR Planning - Working Draft v7, and the Operational Manual for Catchment-
based Water Resources Management, July 2012.
The DWOs ensure that relevant data collected by Water Authorities and private drillers on water
levels and quality will feed into the DWRM data bank for planning and monitoring purposes. The
DEnOs ensure that wetlands, which are important in the water resources management chain, are
not abused; and that planned and on-going water and sanitation activities meet the requirements
of the relevant environmental laws and regulations.
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In the implementation of IWRM, NGOs and CBOs are expected to implement activities related to
protection of water supplies, e.g.maintaining tree or grass cover in the catchment area of water
sources, reducing stream pollution and abstractions and resolving conflicts arising from sharing
of water, etc.
Unlike other sub-sectors where functions and responsibilities can be linked to physical inputs
and outputs, the case of IWRM is different. At community level, few people can grasp the impact
of IWRM easily. So far, the participation of the community has been experimented through the
Catchment Management Committee whose functions include:
i. Lobbying district councils for issuance of bye-laws related to appropriate management and
conservation of water and environmental resources in the catchment;
ii. Promoting integrated planning within the catchment in management of land, water and
environmental resources; promoting and facilitating the mainstreaming of IWRM into district
and town development plans, district environmental action plans, poverty eradication
action plans, investment plans and other relevant plans;
iii. Approving catchment management plans prepared through a participatory process;
iv. In collaboration with DWRM, mobilising resources for implementation of catchment
management plans;
v. Overseeing implementation of catchment management plans including enforcement of
existing bye-laws related to water and environmental resources management;
vi. Raising public awareness within the catchment area on water and environmental issues;
vii. Encouraging and increasing stakeholder participation in the IWRM process; and in
collaboration with DWRM, resolving conflicts related to use of the water resources of a basin.
Otherwise, the participation of communities in water resources management is through the
community based maintenance of their individual water sources.
10.2.2 Roles and Responsibilities in the Production of Water Source
Protection Plans
Protection of small point sources (such as hand pump boreholes and spring catchments) is
important for protecting the health and livelihoods the population particularly in rural areas.
Water Source Protection Guidelines help the users to identify the risk to their water source and to
engage the people and organisations responsible for the problem in a positive way that leads to a
mutually beneficial outcome. People in charge of the water source are responsible for producing
a Water Source Protection Plan for their source based on the mentioned Guidelines. While each
Water Source Protection Plan will set its own specific aims, they should work towards the general
aims and objectives set out in Table 10.1:Table
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10.1: Over-arching objectives for Water Source Protection
Aim Objectives
1. Improved Water Quality 1.1. Health: Minimise the risk to human and livestock health
1.2 Equipment: Minimise risk of damage to pumps and water services
equipment (e.g. through corrosion)
2. Reliable Water Quantity 2.1 Yield: Ensure adequate yield to meet water supply demand
2.2. Reliability: Minimise seasonal disruption or halt long term declines
in water flows/levels
3. Better Livelihood Opportunities 3.1 Sustainable Land Management: Increase level and reliability of
household income from better farming and forestry practices.
3.2 Poverty Reduction: Develop new sources of income and socio-
economic security through better catchment management.
The role of the DWO is to monitor, assist and regulate the production of the Plan. At the time of
writing this District Implementation Manual, only the draft guidelines were available. A final set
of the guidelines will be placed on the Ministry’s website (www.mwe.go,ug) as soon as they are
operational.
10.2.3 Roles and Responsibilities in Water Quality Testing
Water quality testing is intended to ensure that water from improved water sources is suitable
for human consumption before the facility is commissioned. Water is tested for specific physical,
chemical and bacteriological parameters. In the case of boreholes and shallow wells, water
should be tested prior to pump installation. For piped water supplies (GFS or motor pumped),
the sources must be tested at the design stage and relevant treatment methods specified before
implementation of the project begins.
The Uganda Water Quality Standards and Guidelines are available. The National Water Quality
Management Strategy gives recommendations for environmental protection of a water source (i.e.
environmental protection plan and protection zones). The National Water Quality Management
Strategy is also availabe, summarised in chapter 3.
The District Water Office’s role with respect to water quality management (as defined in the
National Water Quality Strategy is to:
i. Design and implement Water Quality Monitoring Programmes in collaboration with DDHS
and CDO.
ii. Monitor water sources and take appropriate measures. Carry out routine water quality
analysis (bacteriological and physical) and sanitary surveys.
iii. Monitor activities that have an impact on water quality.
iv. Set local priorities and bye laws
v. Train stakeholders in carrying out sanitary surveys and remedial action on contaminated
sources.
vi. Provide feedback to WUCs and communities.
vii. Ensure compliance to the National Interim Water Quality Guidelines and ensure
implementation of preventative action for non-complying cases.
viii. Collect physical and chemical water quality results from water source developers in the
District.
ix. Establish and maintain a water quality database.
x. Report on the water quality situation to DWD (in quarterly reports) and the DWSCC.
xi. Use results of the above in planning and decision-making.
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Testing of the water is usually included in the contract with the company constructing the water
point. When feasible, independent water sampling may be carried out by the DWO. Water quality
issues usually result from the natural environment but may also be the result of a technical failure
of the contractor. For that reason, it is important to have a competent drilling supervisor on site.
The contractor cannot be held accountable for naturally occurring water quality issues. In case a
contractor drills a well that has water of unacceptable quality due to natural causes, the borehole
will not be installed with a handpump, but the contractor will be paid for a successful borehole
drilled. However, in case of unacceptable water quality as a result of a technical failure, the borehole
will not be installed and the contractor will not be paid for the works.
Water should be sampled from each new borehole at the end of the test-pumping exercise. Only
boreholes where the water quality test indicates that the water is fit for drinking should be installed
with a hand pump. The National Drinking Water Standards are given in Table 10.2. The minimum
parameters that should be tested prior to commissioning of a water source include appearance,
temperature, pH, conductivity, colour (apparent), turbidity, carbon dioxide (dissolved), alkalinity
(total), hardness (total), iron (total), and coliforms (faecal presumptive).
These parameters should also be monitored subsequently. It should be noted that although
fluorides and chlorides are not on the list, these should be tested in areas where this is known, or
observed to be a problem. The National Water Quality Management Strategy (2006) recommends
that water sources are monitored monthly. However, given the financial constraints, the Rural
Water Supply and Sanitation Department of MWE/DWD recommends that twice a year would be
adequate. Boreholes, if well constructed, are not easily contaminated. Water quality data should
be submitted as part of the DWSCG annual reports.
During emergency situations, for example flooding, water sources may become contaminated. The
sector guidelines for the Conditional Grant provide for a percentage of the grant that may be used
for emergency issues; these funds can be used for water quality testing.
A Water Safety Plan (WSP) is a comprehensive risk assessment and risk management approach
that encompasses all aspects of the water supply chain from ‘Catchment to Consumer’, including:
• preventing contamination of the water resources,
• treating the water to reduce or remove contamination that could be present to the extent
necessary to meet the water quality targets, and
• preventing re-contamination during storage, distribution, and handling of drinking water.
This tool was developed and promoted by World Health Organization. The National Water Quality
Management Strategy (2006) adopted this tool for assessment of rural/small community water
supplies. In 2008, it was incorporated as part of the national drinking water and bottling water
standards. The WSP tool is partly implemented in the large towns under National Water & Sewerage
Corporation, and not yet at the rural level. As an example, a possible template for a rural water
safety plan can be accessed from: Water Safety Plan Template.
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Table 10.2: National water quality guidelines for untreated drinking water (2006)
Parameter Guideline Values / Acceptable Values Maximum Acceptable Concentration (MAC)
Hardness (CaCo3) 600 mg/l 800 mg/l
Iron total (Fe) 1 mg/l 2 mg/l
Manganese (Mn) 1 mg/l 2 mg/l
Chloride (Cl) 250 mg/l 500 mg/l
Fluoride (Fe) 2 mg/l 4 mg/l
Sulphate 250 mg/l 500 mg/l
Nitrate (NO3) 20 mg/l 50 mg/l
Nitrite (NO2) 0 mg/l 3 mg/l
TDS 1000 mg/l 1500 mg/l
Turbidity 10 NTU 30 NTU
PH 5.5 – 8.5 5.0 – 9.5
E. Coli 0 / 100 ml 50 / 100 ml
10.3 Climate Variability and Change
In the last century, Africa warmed by 0.7°C. Precipitation in East Africa also increased. In this 21st
century; projected warming for Africa will range from 0.20C per decade (low scenario) to > 0.50C
per decade (high scenario). Increase in precipitation from December-February (wet months) is
estimated at 5-20%, and decrease in precipitation from June-August (dry months) at 5-10%. For
Uganda, the fastest warming regions are in the Southwest of the country where the rate is of
the order of 0.30C per decade. Pressures and threats on water resources due to climate change
and variability, poor land use practices and catchment degradation have led to declining water
levels, drying up of water sources and pollution of water resources. This situation poses serious
problems with far reaching social, political, economic and environmental consequences. The
situation also threatens to undo many decades of development efforts and to frustrate poverty
eradication programmes, as well as the MDGs through destruction of infrastructure and diversion
of development funds to relief operations.
Climate change has manifested itself in Uganda through increased frequency of high temperatures,
droughts (leading to food insecurity), scarcity of water resources, and wild fires. It is predicted that
the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events will continue to increase with increasing
climate change. Uganda experienced seven drought episodes in one decade (1991-2000). Droughts
significantly affected water resources, hydro power production and agriculture and many others.
The past experience in Uganda shows that El Nino and Lanina episodes are the principal causes of
the most severe climate change related disasters in Uganda.
The climate change problem can be turned into an opportunity by implementing appropriate
mitigation measures and adaptation measures, for example:
i. Promoting Sustainable Water Storage: Because sub-Saharan Africa is subject to more
extreme climate variability than other regions, it needs improved water storage capacity.
Some experts say that large dam projects would create a more sustainable reserve of water
resources to combat the burden of climate fluctuations, but others disagree, stating the
harmful environmental impact of large dams.
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ii. Promoting Trans-Boundary Water Treaties and Dialogue: Many experts say more water
treaties are needed. More dialogue on water shed management, understanding the issues,
options and strategies at a regional, national and river basin level will facilitate emergency
of appropriate policy and actions for peaceful co-existence. Partnerships and coordination
platforms for water, weather and climate are encouraged.
iii. Promoting Green Water Technology and Small-Scale Agricultural Improvements: The
key concept is the use of green water as opposed to blue water. Blue water is the water
we see in streams. Green water is the water we don’t see in the soil, whereas green water
accounts for two-thirds of the water supply. Farmers can access green water through
drip irrigation (systems that slowly and consistently deliver water to plants’ root system),
supplemental irrigation (supplementary to natural rainfall rather than the primary source of
moisture during periods of drought) and rainwater harvesting (the collection of rainwater
for crops, which reduces reliance on irrigation). Crops can grow poorly even during rainy
seasons, and most farms in Africa suffer from nitrogen and phosphorus depletion in soil. One
way to assuage water stress in terms of food scarcity is to increase water-holding capacity
with organic fertilizers that would increase availability and efficacy of green water.
iv. Promoting Energy Efficiency. Energy efficiency can be achieved through use of water
saving technologies, instilling sense of responsibility to end users, encouraging use of water
efficient electronic accessories and policies.
v. Tree Planting: 50% of precipitation in sub-Saharan Africa is the result of the presence of
trees and forests. Since trees remove carbon dioxide, they mitigate climate change.
vi. Tapping and Storing Water during Floods: this is very important especially in regions that
are semi arid such as northern Uganda. Building dams that tap water, reduce flooding in
regions like in the northern Uganda can help solve the problem of lack of water in these
areas during the dry season.
vii. Climate Change Proof Infrastructure16: water infrastructure should be built and
constructed with the design element to resist and withstand extreme climate events. During
the design of shallow wells and protected springs, care has to be taken so that flooding of
water points is avoided during extreme rainy seasons.
Implementing appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can be most appropriately done
in an IWRM context. For more information, refer to the Draft National Strategy Framework for
adaptation to climate change from water resources perspective (MWE, 2008)
To guide Uganda’s immediate climate change adaptation actions, a National Adaptation
Programme of Action (NAPA) was developed in 2007. The Climate Change Unity (CCU) under MWE
coordinates all climate change mitigation and adaptation actions in Uganda. In FY 2011/12, draft
Climate Change mainstreaming guidelines were produced by the Climate Change Unit to support
all sectors and district local governments, to integrate climate change into their investment and
development plans and budgets; once these are final and published, they can be downloaded
from MWE’s website.
16
Adaptation to climate change in the engineering context implies accounting for climate change factor in the design of
water supply technologies. For example, while designing and abstraction system which is based on river water the low flow
frequency duration curve is constructed in such a way that it accounts for climate change.
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