Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

Lecture notes for

Unit operation For Environmental Engineering
(ChEg3102)
Department: Environmental Engineering

By: Tayto Mindahun (MSc in Process Engineering)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Chapter 3
Hydro and aero- mechanical separation
Introduction
❑ Hydro-mechanical separation is a process used to separate components or phases within a mixture
using water or other liquids as the medium.
▪ This method relies on the density differences between the components to achieve separation.

❑ Examples of Hydro and aero-mechanical separation unit operations are the following:

➢ Sedimentation
➢ Filtration
➢ Centrifugation
➢ Cyclone separation
❑ Aero-mechanical separation involves the use of air or other gases as the medium to separate
components within a mixture.
▪ This method is based on the differences in aerodynamic properties such as particle size, shape, or
density.
▪ Lighter components are carried away by airflow, while heavier components are collected separately.
Sedimentation
❑ Sedimentation can be defined as a unit operation to perform separation of a suspension into a
supernatant clear fluid and dense slurry containing higher concentration of solids.

❑ Sedimentation: separation of unstable and destabilized suspended solids from a suspension by the
force of gravity.
Sedimentation
❑ In sedimentation process, we have two products; the first is the thick sludge and the
second is the clarified liquid.

❑ The thick sludge is the heavier material that settles at the bottom of the sedimentation tank or
clarifier.
❑ The clarified liquid, also known as the supernatant or overflow, is the clear water that remains after
the settling process is complete.
Factors affecting sedimentation
Type of Sedimentation

❑ Settling in sedimentation refers to the process by which solid particles suspended in a liquid gradually
sink to the bottom of a container due to gravity.

▪ Four types of sedimentation:

1. Discrete settling
2. Flocculant settling
3. Hindered settling
4. Compression settling
Type of Sedimentation (settling)

Figure 1: Discrete settling

➢ In discrete settling individual particles settle independently.
➢ It occurs when there is a relatively low solids concentration.

Figure 2. Flocculant settling

➢ In flocculant settling, individual particles stick together into
clumps called flocs.
➢ This occurs when there is a greater solids concentration and
chemical or biological reactions alter particle
Type of Sedimentation (settling)

Figure 3. Hindered settling

➢ In hindered settling particle concentration is great
enough to inhibit water movement.
➢ Water must move in spaces between particles.

Figure 4. Compression settling

➢ Compression settling occurs when particles settle by
compressing the mass below.
Sedimentation zones in sedimentation tank

Discrete settling

Flocculent settling

Hindered (Zone ) settling

Compression settling
Sedimentation Rate Stages
❑ To analyze sedimentation in greater detail, the events occurring in a small-scale experiment conducted
batch-wise as shown in Figure.

❑ Progressive settling in a measuring cylinder: (A) clear liquid, (B) sludge at initial concentration, (C) transition zone,
and (D) thick sludge at compression zone.
Sedimentation rate graph
❑ A graphic representation of the sedimentation process can be prepared as shown in Figure
given below.

❑ The plot shows the difference in interface height plotted against time, which is proportional to the rate
of settling as well as to concentration.
Batch sedimentation process

❑ Batch sedimentation is a process in which particles in

a column of suspension are separated through
gravity, from their suspending liquid, to form a
sediment.
Batch sedimentation process

𝐇 = 𝐇𝐎 𝐇 = 𝐇𝟏 𝐇 = 𝐇∞
Batch sedimentation process
❑ The following important information can be obtained from the batch sedimentation experiment:
1. Time required for achieving the desired level of sedimentation.
2. The effect of concentration of slurry on the time required for sedimentation.
3. The effect of temperature on rate of sedimentation

▪ By doing material balance on sedimentation tank

(cylinder):
CO HO = Ci Hi
Where:
𝑪𝒐 - initial concentration of slurry (g/L)
𝑯𝒐 - Height of clear interface at 𝒕 = 𝟎
𝑪𝒊 - concentration of slurry at 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒊 .
𝑯𝒊 - is height of clear interface at 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒊
 Example 1
A height–time curve for the sedimentation of a suspension, of initial suspension concentration 0.1, in
vertical cylindrical vessel is shown in Figure. Determine:
A. The velocity of the interface between clear liquid and suspension of concentration 0.1;
B. The velocity of the interface between clear liquid and a suspension of concentration 0.175;
C. The velocity at which a layer of concentration 0.175 propagates upwards from the base of the
vessel;
D. The final sediment concentration.
Example 2
The figure given below depicts a height-time curve for the sedimentation of a suspension in a vertical
cylindrical vessel. The initial solids concentration of the suspension is 180 kg/𝒎𝟑 . Determine:
A. The velocity of the interface between clear liquid and suspension of concentration 180 kg/𝑚3 .
B. The time from the start of the test at which the suspension of concentration 380 kg/𝒎𝟑 is in
contact with the clear liquid.
C. The velocity of the interface between the clear liquid and suspension of concentration 380
kg/𝒎𝟑
D. The velocity at which a layer of concentration 400 kg/𝒎𝟑 propagates upwards from the base
of the vessel.
E. The concentration of the final sediment.
F. At what time will the concentration of suspension in contact with the clear liquid is no longer
equal to the initial suspension concentration of 180 kg/𝒎𝟑 , will the suspension concentration
increase or decrease when it changes from its initial concentration of 180 kg/𝒎𝟑 , justify your
answer.
Batch settling test results in terms of height-time curve
 Example 3
A batch settling test on a slurry gave the following results, where the height z in meters between the
clear liquid and the suspended solids is given at time t hours.

The original slurry concentration is 250 kg/𝑚3 of slurry. Determine the velocities of settling and
concentrations and make a plot of velocity versus concentration.
Operating Principles: Design and Selection Factors

❑Sedimentation equipment can be divided into:

1. Batch-operated settling tanks and

2. Continuously operated thickeners or clarifiers.

▪ The operation of the former is very simple and their use has recently diminished.
▪ They are still used, however, when small quantities of liquids are to be treated.
▪ Most sedimentation processes operate in continuous units.
 Thickeners
❑ Industrially, sedimentation operations may be carried out batchwise or continuously in an equipment
called a thickener.
▪ A thickener consists of a relatively shallow tank from the top of which a clear liquid is taken off and
the thickened liquid is withdrawn/removed from the bottom.

▪ In majority cases, the concentration of the suspension is high and

hindered settling takes place.

▪ The rate of sedimentation can be artificially increased by the addition of

coagulating agents such as alum, etc. which causes the precipitation of
colloidal particles and the formulation of flocks.
▪ The suspension is also frequently heated which causes reduction in the
viscosity of the liquid.

▪ Further, the thickener is frequently provided with a slow stirrer which

helps in the consolidation of the sediment and also reduces the apparent Schematic diagram of a thickener
viscosity of the suspension.
 Types of Thickener

1. Batch Thickener:

A batch thickener usually consists of a cylindrical tank provided

with openings for a slurry feed and product discharge.
➢ The bottom of the cylindrical tank is conical. The tank is
filled with a dilute slurry, and the slurry is allowed to settle.
➢ After the sedimentation has proceeded for an adequate
time, the clear liquid is decanted until sludge appears in
the draw-off and the thickened liquid (sludge) is withdrawn
from the bottom opening as indicated in Figure given
below.
 Types of Thickener

2. Continuous Thickener

▪ A continuous thickener, such as the Dorr thickener consists of a flat

bottomed, large diameter shallow-depth tank.
▪ It is provided with slow-moving radial rakes driven from a central shaft
for removing the sludge.
▪ The slurry is fed at the center of tank at a depth of 0.3 m to 1 m below
the surface of the liquid, with a very little disturbance.
▪ The clarified liquid is continuously removed from an overflow which
runs around the top edge of the tank (a launder) and the thickened Dorr thickener
liquor is continuously withdrawn from the outlet at the bottom.
 Function of Thickener

The two functions of the thickener are :

1. To produce a clear liquid, and

2. To produce a given degree of
thickening of the suspension.

▪ For the production of clear liquid the upward velocity of the liquid must always be less than the settling
velocity of particles.
▪ Thus, for a given throughput, the diameter of the tank determines the clarifying capacity of the
thickener.
 Thickeners: working principle
▪ Solids concentration increases downward in an operating thickener giving stability to the process.
▪ The settling solids and some liquid move downward.
▪ The amount of the latter depends on the underflow withdrawal rate.

❑ In the thickener the entering slurry spreads radially

through the cross section of the thickener and the
liquid flows upward and out the overflow.
❑ The solids settle in the upper zone by free settling.

▪ Most of the liquid moves upwards into the overflow, and is collected in a trough around the periphery of the basin.
▪ A typical thickener has three operating layers: clarification, zone settling, and compression.
 Thickeners: operating layers
❑ A typical thickener has three operating layers: clarification, zone settling, and compression.

(a) circular-basin continuous thickener, (b) deep-cone thickener

Design of thickeners: flux methods
❑ In thickener design using flux methods, the key formulae involve the calculation of settling flux and
the determination of the solids flux curve.
1. Settling Flux Calculation:
▪ The settling flux Gs is calculated as the product of the settling velocity of solids (Vs) and the local solids
concentration (C):
𝑮𝑺 = 𝑽𝑺 𝒙𝑪
2. Solids Flux Curve:
▪ The solids flux curve is determined by plotting the settling flux (Gs) against the solids concentration (C). This
curve provides insights into the sedimentation behavior of the slurry and is crucial for thickener design.
▪ The flux curve can be obtained using methods such as the Coe and Clevenger method or the Kynch method,
which involve conducting batch tests at different initial concentrations to determine the settling velocity and
concentration, and then plotting the flux curve based on the obtained data.
▪ he formula that relates thickener area (A) to settling flux (Gs) is based on the principle of mass balance in the
sedimentation process.
𝑘𝑔
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠 𝑄
𝐴= =
𝑘𝑔 𝐺𝑆
𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑠 ( 2 . 𝑠)
𝑚
Design of thickeners: Coe and Clevenger Method

▪ In the Coe and Clevenger method, a series of batch tests are performed at different initial values of
solids concentration (C).
▪ The initial settling velocity (Vs) of the slurry is determined, and a plot of settling flux (Gs​=Vs×C)
against solids concentration is created to obtain the solids flux curve.

▪ These batch methods play a crucial role in understanding the sedimentation behavior of slurries,
determining settling characteristics, and developing flux curves essential for thickener design and
optimization.
▪ By utilizing batch methods effectively, engineers can make informed decisions regarding thickener
operation and design parameters for efficient sedimentation processes.
Example 4
Calculate the minimum area and the diameter of a thickener with a circular basin to treat 0.2 𝑚3 /s of a
slurry of concentration 150 kg/ 𝑚3 . A value of 1200 kg/ 𝑚3 for the under flow concentration was
measured from a detention time test and the results of batch settling tests are as follows:

Example 5
Describe in detail the design and working of a clarifier (sedimentation tank). Also mention separately the
design calculations of a: i) circular sedimentation tank ii) rectangular sedimentation tank Make the
calculation diagrams as the diagrams and the calculations may help anyone requires to design a
sedimentation tank for wastewater treatment.
 Filtration

▪ Filtration is the removal of solid' particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through a filtering medium
on which the solids are deposited.

▪ Oversize particles in the feed cannot pass through the lattice structure of the filter, while fluid and small
particles pass through, becoming filtrate.
Terms used in filtration
Process of Filtration
Application
1. Water Treatment: Purifies water by removing impurities and contaminants.
2. Air Pollution Control: Cleans air by trapping particulate matter and pollutants.
3. Wastewater Treatment: Removes solids and pathogens from wastewater.
4. Soil Remediation: Separates contaminants from soil for purification.
5. Indoor Air Quality: Enhances air quality by filtering indoor pollutants.
6. Oil and Gas Industry: Filters fluids to remove impurities during extraction and
production.
7. Food and Beverage: Clarifies liquids and sterilizes fluids in processing.
8. Biopharmaceuticals: Purifies biologics and sterilizes fluids in manufacturing.
9. Environmental Monitoring: Collects and analyzes pollutants for assessment.
10.Mining and Minerals: Dewatering and controlling pollutant release in
processing.
Mechanism of filtration
Mechanism of filtration
Principle of filtration
Principle of filtration: factors affecting the rate of filtration
Types of filtration
Types of filtration
Types of filtration
 Filter media

➢ The most important characteristics of the filter media includes: they are:
 Selection of appropriate filter media
❑ The septum in any filter must meet the following requirements:
Classification of filter media
Classification of filter media
Classification of filter media
Classification of filter media
Filter aids
Filter aids
Classifications of filtration equipment
Classifications of filtration equipment
Selection of filters
Design equation for batch filtration: Principles of cake filtration
❑ Filtration is a special example of flow through porous media. The chief quantities of interest are the flow
rate through the filter and the pressure drop across the unit.

▪ As time passes during filtration, either the flow rate diminishes or the pressure drop rises. In what is called
constant-pressure filtration the pressure drop is held constant and the flow rate allowed to fall with time;
less commonly, the pressure drop is progressively increased to give what is called constant-rate filtration.
Pressure drop through filter cake
❑ In cake filtration the liquid passes through two resistances in series: that of the cake and that of the
filter medium.
▪ The filter-medium resistance, which is the only resistance in
clarifying filters, is normally important only during the early stages
of cake filtration. The cake resistance is zero at the start and
increases with time as filtration proceeds.
▪ The overall pressure drop at any time is the sum of the pressure
drops over medium and cake.

Section through filter medium and cake,

showing pressure gradients; p, fluid pressure; L,
distance from filter medium.
Pressure drop through filter cake
▪ The Figure given below shows diagrammatically a section through a filter cake
and filter medium at a definite time t from the start of the flow of filtrate. At this
time the thickness of the cake, measured from the filter medium, is L,. The filter
area, measured perpendicularly to the direction of flow, is A.
▪ Consider the thin layer of cake of thickness dL lying in the cake at a distance L
from the medium. Let the pressure at this point be P.
▪ This layer consists of a thin bed of solid particles through which the filtrate is
flowing.
▪ In a filter bed the velocity is sufficiently low to ensure laminar flow.
Accordingly, as a starting point for treating the pressure drop through the cake,
Kozeny-Carman equation can be used, given by:

▪ Noting that ∆p/L = dp/dL. If the velocity of the filtrate is designated as u, the above
equation becomes:
Pressure drop through filter cake
▪ The volume of solids in the layer is A(1 - ∈) dL, and if 𝜌𝑝 is the density of
the particles, the mass dm of solids in the layer is:
dm = 𝜌𝑝 (l - ∈)A dL
▪ Eliminating dL, introducing 𝑘1 in place of the coefficient 4.17, the equation
becomes:

▪ The linear velocity u is given by the equation:

▪ where V is the volume of filtrate collected from the start of the filtration to time t. Since the filtrate must pass
through the entire cake, V/A is the same for all layers and u is independent of L.
Compressible and incompressible filter cakes
Incompressible Filter Cake:
➢ Maintains volume and structure under pressure.
➢ Typically formed by rigid particles like sand or activated carbon.
➢ Generally has higher porosity and permeability.
➢ Offers consistent filtration performance over time.
➢ Less prone to clogging.
➢ Efficient for solid-liquid separation in various industries.
Compressible Filter Cake:
➢ Deforms or compresses under pressure.
➢ Formed by more malleable particles like sludges or colloidal suspensions.
➢ Lower porosity and permeability due to compression.
➢ Filtration performance may vary as cake compresses.
➢ More prone to clogging and blinding of filter media.
➢ Requires careful monitoring and control for effective filtration.
Compressible and incompressible filter cakes
▪ In the filtration under low pressure drops of slurries containing rigid uniform particles, all factors on the
right-hand side of Equation given in the previous slide except m are independent of L, and the equation
is integrable directly, over the thickness of the cake.
▪ If m, is the total mass of solids in the cake, the result is:

▪ A specific cake resistance 𝛼is defined by the equation:

 Compressible and incompressible filter cakes
▪ The cake resistance a may also be expressed in terms of the particle size Dp' with a new coefficient k2 :

➢ For incompressible cakes a is independent of the pressure drop and of position in the cake.

➢ Most cakes encountered industrially are not made up of individual rigid particles.
➢ The usual slurry is a mixture of agglomerates, or floes, consisting of loose assemblies of very small
particles, and the resistance of the cake depends on the properties of the floes rather than on the
geometry of the individual particles.
➢ Such a filter cake is called compressible.
➢ In a compressible cake, 𝛼 varies with distance from the septum, since the cake nearest the septum is
subject to the greatest compressive force and has the lowest void fraction.
 Filter-medium resistance
❑ A filter-medium resistance Rm can be defined by analogy with the cake resistance 𝛼𝑚𝑐 ,/A. The
equation is:

▪ The filter-medium resistance Rm may vary with the pressure drop, age and cleanliness of the filter
medium, but since it is important only during the early stages of filtration.
▪ When Rm is treated as an empirical constant, it also includes any resistance to flow that may exist in
the pipes leading to and from the filter.
▪ Finally we may have the following expression for pressure drop:

▪ To use the above equation, it is convenient to replace u, the linear velocity of the filtrate, and mc, the total mass of
solid in the cake, by functions of V, the total volume of filtrate collected to time t. And the governing equation
becomes:
Note: If c is the mass of the particles deposited in the filter per unit
volume of filtrate the mass of solids in the filter at time t is Vc and
 Constant pressure filtration

➢ Thus a plot of 𝒕/𝑽vs. V will be linear, with a slope equal to 𝑲𝒄 /𝟐 and an intercept of 𝟏/𝒒𝒐 . From
such a plot and Equation, the values of 𝜶 and 𝑹𝒎 may be calculated.
Constant rate filtration
 Example 6
A leaf filter has an area of 0.5 𝑚2 and operates at a constant pressure drop of 500 kPa. The following
test results were obtained for a slurry in water which gave rise to a filter cake regarded as
incompressible:

Calculate:
A. The time need to collect 0.8 𝑚3 of filtrate at a constant pressure drop of 700 kPa;
B. The time required to wash the resulting cake with 0.3 𝑚3 of water at a pressure drop of 400 kPa.
 Example 7
▪ A laboratory leaf filter has an area of 0.1 𝑚2 , operates at a constant pressure drop of 400 kPa and
produces the following results during a test on filtration of a slurry:
Centrifugation
❑ Centrifugal separators make use of the common principle that an object whirled about an axis or center
point at a constant radial distance from the point is acted on by a force.

Sketch of centrifugal separation: (a) initial slurry feed entering, (b) settling of solids from a liquid, (c)
separation of two liquid fractions.
Centrifugation

▪ If the object being rotated is a cylindrical container, the contents of fluid

and solids exert an equal and opposite force, called centrifugal force,
outward to the walls of the container.
▪ This is the force that causes settling or sedimentation of particles through a
layer of liquid or filtration of a liquid through a bed of filter cake held
inside a perforated rotating chamber

❑ The centrifugal force is usually so large that the force of gravity may be neglected.
❑ The liquid layer then assumes the equilibrium position with the surface almost vertical The particles settle
horizontally outward and press against the vertical bowl wall.
 Solid–Gas Separations: Cyclones
▪ Cyclones are by far the most common type of gas–solids separation device
used in diverse industrial processes.
▪ They have no moving parts, are inexpensive compared to other
separation devices, can be used at high temperatures, produce a dry
product, have low energy consumption, and are extremely reliable.

➢ Cyclones represent techniques that make use centrifugal force as a means of

performing separation.

❑ Cyclones are extensively used in the processing industry to reduce particle load to
safe levels in dry milling, as well as in classification of particles in closed-circuit
grinding operations.
❑ They are also employed in recovering fines from spray drying and fluidized bed
drying processes.
End of chapter 3