Geotechnical

engineering

Geotechnical engineering, also known as geotechnics, is the branch of civil engineering

concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics to solve its engineering problems. It also relies on knowledge
of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.

Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical

challenges in an urban environment.
 Precast concrete retaining wall

A typical cross-section of a slope

used in two-dimensional analyzes.

Geotechnical engineering has applications in military engineering, mining engineering,

petroleum engineering, coastal engineering, and offshore construction. The fields of
geotechnical engineering and engineering geology have overlapping knowledge areas.
However, while geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, engineering
geology is a specialty of geology.

History
Humans have historically used soil as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial
sites, building foundations, and construction materials for buildings. Dykes, dams, and canals
dating back to at least 2000 BCE—found in parts of ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia, the
Fertile Crescent, and the early settlements of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa in the Indus valley—
provide evidence for early activities linked to irrigation and flood control. As cities expanded,
structures were erected and supported by formalized foundations. The ancient Greeks
notably constructed pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations. Until the 18th century,
however, no theoretical basis for soil design had been developed, and the discipline was more
of an art than a science, relying on experience.[1]

Several foundation-related engineering problems, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa,

prompted scientists to begin taking a more scientific-based approach to examining the
subsurface. The earliest advances occurred in the development of earth pressure theories for
the construction of retaining walls. Henri Gautier, a French royal engineer, recognized the
"natural slope" of different soils in 1717, an idea later known as the soil's angle of repose.
Around the same time, a rudimentary soil classification system was also developed based on
a material's unit weight, which is no longer considered a good indication of soil type.[1][2]

The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773
when Charles Coulomb, a physicist and engineer, developed improved methods to determine
the earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct
slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and suggested that the maximum shear
stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion, , and friction
, where is the normal stress on the slip plane and is the friction angle of the
soil. By combining Coulomb's theory with Christian Otto Mohr's 2D stress state, the theory
became known as Mohr-Coulomb theory. Although it is now recognized that precise
determination of cohesion is impossible because is not a fundamental soil property, the
Mohr-Coulomb theory is still used in practice today.[3]

In the 19th century, Henry Darcy developed what is now known as Darcy's Law, describing the
flow of fluids in a porous media. Joseph Boussinesq, a mathematician and physicist,
developed theories of stress distribution in elastic solids that proved useful for estimating
stresses at depth in the ground. William Rankine, an engineer and physicist, developed an
alternative to Coulomb's earth pressure theory. Albert Atterberg developed the clay
consistency indices that are still used today for soil classification.[1][2] In 1885, Osborne
Reynolds recognized that shearing causes volumetric dilation of dense materials and
contraction of loose granular materials.

Modern geotechnical engineering is said to have begun in 1925 with the publication of
Erdbaumechanik by Karl von Terzaghi, a mechanical engineer and geologist. Considered by
many to be the father of modern soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Terzaghi
developed the principle of effective stress, and demonstrated that the shear strength of soil
is controlled by effective stress.[4] Terzaghi also developed the framework for theories of
bearing capacity of foundations, and the theory for prediction of the rate of settlement of clay
layers due to consolidation.[1][3][5] Afterwards, Maurice Biot fully developed the three-
dimensional soil consolidation theory, extending the one-dimensional model previously
developed by Terzaghi to more general hypotheses and introducing the set of basic
equations of Poroelasticity.

In his 1948 book, Donald Taylor recognized that the interlocking and dilation of densely
packed particles contributed to the peak strength of the soil. Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth,
with the publication of On the Yielding of Soils in 1958, established the interrelationships
between the volume change behavior (dilation, contraction, and consolidation) and shearing
behavior with the theory of plasticity using critical state soil mechanics. Critical state soil
mechanics is the basis for many contemporary advanced constitutive models describing the
behavior of soil.[6]

In 1960, Alec Skempton carried out an extensive review of the available formulations and
experimental data in the literature about the effective stress validity in soil, concrete, and rock
in order to reject some of these expressions, as well as clarify what expressions were
appropriate according to several working hypotheses, such as stress-strain or strength
behavior, saturated or non-saturated media, and rock, concrete or soil behavior.

Roles

Geotechnical investigation
Geotechnical engineers investigate and determinate the properties of subsurface conditions
and materials. They also design corresponding earthworks and retaining structures, tunnels,
and structure foundations, and may supervise and evaluate sites, which may further involve
site monitoring as well as the risk assessment and mitigation of natural hazards.[7][8]

Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to

obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock underlying, and adjacent to, a
site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for the repair of
distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. Geotechnical
investigations involve both surface and subsurface exploration of a site, often including
subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of soil samples retrieved. Sometimes,
geophysical methods are also used to obtain data, which include measurement of seismic
waves (pressure, shear, and Rayleigh waves), surface-wave methods and downhole methods,
and electromagnetic surveys (magnetometer, resistivity, and ground-penetrating radar).
Electrical tomography can be used to survey soil and rock properties and existing
underground infrastructure in construction projects.[9]

Surface exploration can include on-foot surveys, geologic mapping, geophysical methods,
and photogrammetry. Geologic mapping and interpretation of geomorphology are typically
completed in consultation with a geologist or engineering geologist. Subsurface exploration
usually involves in-situ testing (for example, the standard penetration test and cone
penetration test). The digging of test pits and trenching (particularly for locating faults and
slide planes) may also be used to learn about soil conditions at depth. Large-diameter
borings are rarely used due to safety concerns and expense but are sometimes used to allow
a geologist or engineer to be lowered into the borehole for direct visual and manual
examination of the soil and rock stratigraphy.

A variety of soil samplers exists to meet the needs of different engineering projects. The
standard penetration test, which uses a thick-walled split spoon sampler, is the most
common way to collect disturbed samples. Piston samplers, employing a thin-walled tube,
are most commonly used for the collection of less disturbed samples. More advanced
methods, such as the Sherbrooke block sampler, are superior, but expensive. Coring frozen
ground provides high-quality undisturbed samples from any ground conditions, such as fill,
sand, moraine, and rock fracture zones.[10]

Geotechnical centrifuge modeling is another method of testing physical scale models of

geotechnical problems. The use of a centrifuge enhances the similarity of the scale model
tests involving soil because the strength and stiffness of soil are very sensitive to the
confining pressure. The centrifugal acceleration allows a researcher to obtain large
(prototype-scale) stresses in small physical models.

Foundation design
The foundation of a structure's infrastructure transmits loads from the structure to the earth.
Geotechnical engineers design foundations based on the load characteristics of the structure
and the properties of the soils and bedrock at the site. In general, geotechnical engineers first
estimate the magnitude and location of loads to be supported, before developing an
investigation plan to explore the subsurface and also determining the necessary soil
parameters through field and lab testing. Following which, they may begin the design of an
engineering foundation. The primary considerations for a geotechnical engineer in foundation
design are bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations.[11]
Earthworks

A compactor/roller operated by U.S.

Navy Seabees

Geotechnical engineers are also involved in the planning and execution of earthworks, which
include ground improvement,[11] slope stabilization, and stope stability analysis.

Ground improvement
Various geotechnical engineering methods can be used for ground improvement, including
reinforcement geosynthetics such as geocells and geogrids, which disperse loads over a
larger area, increasing the load-bearing capacity of soil. Deep soil injection is a method used
to reinforce the ground beneath structures by injecting high-density polymers into the soil to
fill voids and compact it.[12] Through these methods, geotechnical engineers can reduce
direct and long-term costs.[13]

Slope stabilization

Simple slope slip section.

Geotechnical engineers can analyze and improve the stability of slopes using engineering
methods. Slope stability is determined by the balance of shear stress and shear strength. A
previously stable slope may be initially affected by various factors, making the slope
unstable. Nonetheless, geotechnical engineers can design and implement engineered slopes
to increase stability.

Slope stability analysis

Stability analysis is needed for the design of engineered slopes and for estimating the risk of
slope failure in natural or designed slopes by determining the conditions under which the
topmost mass of soil will slip relative to the base of soil and lead to slope failure.[14] If the
interface between the mass and the base of a slope has a complex geometry, slope stability
analysis is difficult and numerical solution methods are required. Typically, the exact
geometry of the interface is not known and a simplified interface geometry is assumed. Finite
slopes require three-dimensional models to be analyzed, so most slopes are analyzed
assuming that they are infinitely wide and can be represented by two-dimensional models.

Sub-disciplines

Geosynthetics

A collage of geosynthetic products.

Geosynthetics are a type of plastic polymer products used in geotechnical engineering that
improve engineering performance while reducing costs. This includes geotextiles, geogrids,
geomembranes, geocells, and geocomposites. The synthetic nature of the products make
them suitable for use in the ground where high levels of durability are required. Their main
functions include drainage, filtration, reinforcement, separation, and containment.

Geosynthetics are available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly
different end-use, although they are frequently used together. Some reinforcement
geosynthetics, such as geogrids and more recently, cellular confinement systems, have
shown to improve bearing capacity, modulus factors and soil stiffness and strength.[15] These
products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in many civil and
geotechnical engineering applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments,
piled embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, landfills, bank protection
and coastal engineering.[16]

Offshore

Platforms offshore Mexico.

Offshore (or marine) geotechnical engineering is concerned with foundation design for human-
made structures in the sea, away from the coastline (in opposition to onshore or nearshore
engineering). Oil platforms, artificial islands and submarine pipelines are examples of such
structures.[17]

There are a number of significant differences between onshore and offshore geotechnical
engineering.[17][18] Notably, site investigation and ground improvement on the seabed are
more expensive; the offshore structures are exposed to a wider range of geohazards; and the
environmental and financial consequences are higher in case of failure. Offshore structures
are exposed to various environmental loads, notably wind, waves and currents. These
phenomena may affect the integrity or the serviceability of the structure and its foundation
during its operational lifespan and need to be taken into account in offshore design.
In subsea geotechnical engineering, seabed materials are considered a two-phase material
composed of rock or mineral particles and water.[19][20] Structures may be fixed in place in the
seabed—as is the case for piers, jetties and fixed-bottom wind turbines—or may comprise a
floating structure that remains roughly fixed relative to its geotechnical anchor point.
Undersea mooring of human-engineered floating structures include a large number of
offshore oil and gas platforms and, since 2008, a few floating wind turbines. Two common
types of engineered design for anchoring floating structures include tension-leg and catenary
loose mooring systems.[21]

Observational method
First proposed by Karl Terzaghi and later discussed in a paper by Ralph B. Peck, the
observational method is a managed process of construction control, monitoring, and review,
which enables modifications to be incorporated during and after construction. The objective
of the method is to achieve a greater overall economy, without compromising safety, by
creating designs based on the most probable conditions rather than the most unfavorable.[22]
Using the observational method, gaps in available information are filled by measurements
and investigation, which aid in assessing the behavior of the structure during construction,
which in turn can be modified in accordance with the findings. The method was described by
Peck as "learn-as-you-go".[23]

The observational method may be described as follows:[23]

1. General exploration sufficient to

establish the rough nature, pattern,
and properties of deposits.
2. Assessment of the most probable
conditions and the most
unfavorable conceivable deviations.
3. Creating the design based on a
working hypothesis of behavior
anticipated under the most-probable
conditions.
4. Selection of quantities to be
observed as construction proceeds,
and calculation of their anticipated
values based on the working
hypothesis and under the most
unfavorable conditions.
5. Selection, in advance, of a course of
action or design modification for
every foreseeable significant
deviation of the observational
findings from those predicted.
 6. Measurement of quantities and
evaluation of actual conditions.
7. Design modification in accordance
with actual conditions
The observational method is suitable for construction that has already begun when an
unexpected development occurs, or when a failure or accident looms or has already
occurred. It is unsuitable for projects whose design cannot be altered during construction.[23]

See also
Engineering portal

Civil engineering
Deep Foundations Institute
Earthquake engineering
Earth structure
Effective stress
Engineering geology
Geological Engineering
Geoprofessions
Hydrogeology
International Society for Soil Mechanics
and Geotechnical Engineering
Karl von Terzaghi
Land reclamation
Landfill
List of publications in geotechnical
engineering
Mechanically stabilized earth
Offshore geotechnical engineering
Rock mass classifications
Sediment control
Seismology
Soil mechanics
Soil physics
 Soil science

Notes

1. Das, Braja (2006). Principles of

Geotechnical Engineering. Thomson
Learning.

2. Budhu, Muni (2007). Soil Mechanics and

Foundations. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBN 978-0-471-43117-6.

3. Disturbed soil properties and

geotechnical design, Schofield, Andrew
N., Thomas Telford, 2006. ISBN 0-7277-
2982-9
4. Guerriero V., Mazzoli S. (2021). "Theory of
Effective Stress in Soil and Rock and
Implications for Fracturing Processes: A
Review" (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgeos
ciences11030119) . Geosciences. 11 (3):
119. Bibcode:2021Geosc..11..119G (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Geos
c..11..119G) .
doi:10.3390/geosciences11030119 (http
s://doi.org/10.3390%2Fgeosciences1103
0119) .

5. Soil Mechanics, Lambe, T.William and

Whitman, Robert V., Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, John Wiley &
Sons., 1969. ISBN 0-471-51192-7
6. Soil Behavior and Critical State Soil
Mechanics, Wood, David Muir, Cambridge
University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-33782-
8

7. Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G.

(1996), Soil Mechanics in Engineering
Practice 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBN 0-471-08658-4

8. Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), An

Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0

9. Deep Scan Tech (2023): Deep Scan Tech

uncovers hidden structures at the site of
Denmark's tallest building (https://www.d
eepscantech.com/news/deep-scan-tech-u
ncovers-hidden-structures-at-the-site-of-d
enmarks-tallest-building.html) .
10. "Geofrost Coring" (https://www.geofrost.n
o/en/ground-investigations/#Undisturbe
d%20samples) . GEOFROST. Retrieved
20 November 2020.

11. Han, Jie (2015). Principles and Practice of

Ground Improvement. Wiley.
ISBN 9781118421307.

12. "Deep Soil Injection" (https://stratalockus

a.com/deep-soil-injection-process/) .
Stratalock USA. Retrieved 13 May 2024.

13. RAJU, V. R. (2010). Ground Improvement

Technologies and Case Histories.
Singapore: Research Publishing Services.
p. 809. ISBN 978-981-08-3124-0. Ground
Improvement – Principles And
Applications In Asia.

14. Pariseau, William G. (2011). Design

analysis in rock mechanics. CRC Press.
15. Hegde, A.M. and Palsule P.S. (2020),
Performance of Geosynthetics Reinforced
Subgrade Subjected to Repeated Vehicle
Loads: Experimental and Numerical
Studies. Front. Built Environ. 6:15.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.33
89/fbuil.2020.00015/full .

16. Koerner, Robert M. (2012). Designing with

Geosynthetics (6th Edition, Vol. 1 ed.).
Xlibris. ISBN 9781462882892.

17. Dean, E.T.R. (2010). Offshore

Geotechnical Engineering – Principles
and Practice. Thomas Telford, Reston, VA,
520 p.

18. Randolph, M. and Gourvenec, S., 2011.

Offshore geotechnical engineering. Spon
Press, N.Y., 550 p.
19. Das, B.M., 2010. Principles of
geotechnical engineering. Cengage
Learning, Stamford, 666 p.

20. Atkinson, J., 2007. The mechanics of soils

and foundations. Taylor & Francis, N.Y.,
442 p.

21. Floating Offshore Wind Turbines:

Responses in a Sea state – Pareto
Optimal Designs and Economic
Assessment (http://web.mit.edu/flowlab/
pdf/Floating_Offshore_Wind_Turbines.pd
f) , P. Sclavounos et al., October 2007.

22. Nicholson, D, Tse, C and Penny, C. (1999).

The Observational Method in ground
engineering – principles and applications.
Report 185, CIRIA, London.
23. Peck, R.B (1969). Advantages and
limitations of the observational method in
applied soil mechanics, Geotechnique, 19,
No. 1, pp. 171-187.

References

Bates and Jackson, 1980, Glossary of

Geology: American Geological
Institute.
Krynine and Judd, 1957, Principles of
Engineering Geology and Geotechnics:
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Ventura, Pierfranco, 2019, Fondazioni,
Volume 1, Modellazioni statiche e
sismiche, Hoepli, Milano
Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), An
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0
Bowles, J. (1988), Foundation Analysis and
Design, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
ISBN 0-07-006776-7
Cedergren, Harry R. (1977), Seepage, Drainage,
and Flow Nets, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-14179-8

Kramer, Steven L. (1996), Geotechnical

Earthquake Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
ISBN 0-13-374943-6
Freeze, R.A. & Cherry, J.A., (1979),
Groundwater, Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-365312-
9
Lunne, T. & Long, M.,(2006), Review of long
seabed samplers and criteria for new sampler
design, Marine Geology, Vol 226, p. 145–165

Mitchell, James K. & Soga, K. (2005),

Fundamentals of Soil Behavior 3rd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-46302-3
Rajapakse, Ruwan., (2005), "Pile Design and
Construction", 2005. ISBN 0-9728657-1-3

Fang, H.-Y. and Daniels, J. (2005) Introductory

Geotechnical Engineering : an environmental
perspective, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-
30402-4
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering
Command) (1986) Design Manual 7.01, Soil
Mechanics (https://web.archive.org/web/2008
0703155459/http://www.vulcanhammer.net/g
eotechnical/dm7_01.pdf) , US Government
Printing Office
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering
Command) (1986) Design Manual 7.02,
Foundations and Earth Structures (https://web.
archive.org/web/20110521035250/http://vulc
anhammer.net/geotechnical/dm7_02.pdf) ,
US Government Printing Office
NAVFAC (Naval Facilities Engineering
Command) (1983) Design Manual 7.03, Soil
Dynamics, Deep Stabilization and Special
Geotechnical Construction, US Government
Printing Office
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri, G. (1996),
Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice 3rd Ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-08658-4
Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., & Fam, M.A.
(2001), "Soils and Waves: Particulate
Materials Behavior, Characterization and
Process Monitoring", Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-
49058-6
Firuziaan, M. and Estorff, O., (2002),
"Simulation of the Dynamic Behavior of
Bedding-Foundation-Soil in the Time Domain",
Springer Verlag.
External links

Worldwide Geotechnical Literature

Database (http://www.swedgeo.se/te
mplates/SGIStandardPage____184.asp
x?epslanguage=EN)

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