Aditya college of technology And Science
Branch:- Mechanical (diploma) 2nd Sem
Lab Manual :- Applied Physics –II
Subject code :- 202
INDEX
S.No Name of the Experiment PageNo
1 Verification of Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws. 7-9
2 Verification of ohms law. 10-12
3 To verify series and parallel combination of resistance 13-15
4 To find frequency and time period of cantilever 16-19
5 To find focal length and magnification of convex lens 20-24
6 To convert galvanometer into ammeter . 25-28
7 To convert galvanometer into voltmeter . 29-33
8 To study V-I characteristics of Semiconductor Diode 34-37
9 38-42
EXPERIMENT–1
VERIFICATION OF KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT AND VOLTAGE LAW
AIM:
To verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law(KVL) and Kirchhoff’s current law(KCL) in a
passive resistive network
APPARATUSREQUIRED:
S.No ApparatusName Range Type Quantity
1 RPS
2 Ammeter
3 Voltmeter
4 Resistors
5 BreadBoard
6 ConnectingWires
CIRCUITDIAGRAMS:
CircuittoverifyKVL:
Fig-1KVL
ToVerifyKCL:
Fig-1KCL
PROCEDURE:
To Verify KVL
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 1.
2. Switch ON the supply to RPS.
3. Apply the voltage(say 5v)and note the voltmeter readings.
4. Sumupthevoltmeterreadings(voltagedrops),thatshouldbeequaltoapplie
dvoltage.5.Thus KVL is verified practically.
To Verify KCL
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 2.
2. Switch ON the supply to RPS.
3. Apply the voltage(say 5v)and note the ammeter readings.
4. SumuptheAmmeterreadings(I1andI2),thatshouldbeequaltototalcur
rent(I).5.Thus KCL is verified practically.
OBSERVATIONS:
For KVL
Applied V1(volts) V2(volts) V3(volts) V1+V2+V3(volts)
Voltage
V Theoretic Practical Theoretica practica Theoretica practica Theoretica practical
(volts) al l l l l l
For KCL
Applied I(A) I1(A) I2(A) I1+I2(A)
Voltage
V(volts) Theoretic Practical Theoretica practic Theoretic practical Th
al l al al
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check for proper connections be for switching ON the supply.
2. Make sure of proper color coding of resistors.
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.
RESULT:
PRELABVIVAQUESTIONS:
1. What is current?
2. What is voltage?
3. What
is resistance?
4. What
is ohm’s law?
5. What is KCL and KVL?
POSTLABVIVAQUESTIONS:
1. What do you mean by junction?
2. What directions should be assumed for KCL?
3. What are the positive and negative sign KVL?
4. What is the color coding of resistors?
5. What are the precautions to be taken while doing the experiment?
EXPERIMENT–2
VERIFICATIONOFOHM’SLAW
AIM:
To verify Ohm’s law for a given resistive network.
APPARATUSREQUIRED:
S.No ApparatusName Range Type Quantity
1 RPS
2 Ammeter
3 Voltmeter
4 Resistor
5 Rheostat
6 BreadBoard
7 ConnectingWires
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
Fig–2.1CircuitDiagram
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply to RPS and apply a voltage(say10V) and
take the reading of voltmeter and ammeter.
3. Adjust the rheostat in steps and take down the readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
4. Plotagraphwith Valongx-axisand Ialongy-axis.
5. Thegraphwillbe astraightlinewhich verifiesOhm'slaw.
6. DeterminetheslopeoftheV-Igraph.Thereciprocaloftheslopegivesresistanceofthewire.
Page|10
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No. Voltage(V) Current (mA)
MODELGRAPH:
Fig:2.2VoltageandCurrentCharacteristics
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Takecaretoconnecttheammeterandvoltmeterwiththeircorrect polarity.
2. Makesureofproper colorcodingofresistors.
3. Theterminalofthe resistanceshouldbeproperly connected.
RESULT:
Page|11
PRELABQUESTIONS:
1. Whatiscurrent?
2. Whatisvoltage?
3. Definecharge.
4. Definepower.
5. Whatistheresistance?
6. Whatisohm’s law?
POSTLABQUESTIONS:
1. Whatdoyoumean byjunction?
2. Whatisthecolour codingofresistors?
3. Whataretheprecautionstobetakenwhiledoingtheexperiment?4.Whatisthe
range of ammeters and voltmeters you used in this experiment?5. Whatare the
limitations of ohm’s law?
6. Whatistheconditionofohm’slaw?
Page|12
EXPERIMENT–3
MAGNETIZATIONCHARACTERISTICSOFDCSHUNTGENERATOR
AIM:
TodetermineexperimentallytheMagnetization(or)OpenCircuitCharacteristicsofaD.C.ShuntGenerator and
also to determine the critical field resistance.
APPARATUSREQUIRED:
S.No. ApparatusName Range Type Quantity
1 Ammeter
2 Voltmeter
3 Rheostat
4 Tachometer
5 ConnectingWires
NAMEPLATEDETAILS:
MOTORGENERATOR
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
Voltage(V) Voltage(V)
Current(A) Current(A)
Output(KW/HP) Output(KW/HP)
Speed(RPM) Speed(RPM)
Excitationtype S Excitationtype Shunt
Excitationvoltage(V) Excitationvoltage(V)
Excitationcurrent(A) Excitationcurrent(A)
Fig–3.1Magnetizationcharacteristics(or)opencircuitcharacteristicsofaDCshunt
generator
Page|13
PROCEDURE:
1. Choosetheproperrangesofmetersafternotingthenameplatedetailsofthegivenmachineandmake the
connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keepthefieldrheostatofmotorinminimumpositionandfieldrheostatofgeneratorinmaximumposition.
3. SwitchONthepowersupplyandstarttheM-Gsetbyslowlymovingthehandleofthreepointstarter.
4. Observethespeedofthegeneratorusingatachometerandadjustthespeedtoratedvaluebyvaryingthe motor
field rheostat. Keep the same speed throughout the experiment.
5. Notedowntheterminalvoltageofthegeneratoratzerofieldcurrent.ThisistheE.M.F.duetoresidualm
agnetism.
6. Increase the generator field current I f (ammeter) by gradually moving the jockey of generator
fieldrheostat. For every value of I f, note down the corresponding voltmeter reading. Increase the
fieldcurrent till induced E.M.F. is about 120% of rated value.
7. Repeatthesameprocedurefordecreasingvaluesofthesamefieldcurrents(If)andfinallynotedownthe E.M.F.
generated due to residual magnetism.
8. DrawthecharacteristicsofgeneratedE.M.F.
(Eg)versusfieldcurrent(If)forbothincreasinganddecreasing values of field current.
9. DrawatangentlinetotheinitialportionofCharacteristicsfromtheorigin.Theslopeofthisstraightline gives
the critical field resistance.
OBSERVAIONS:
S. ASCENDING DESCENDING
No.
If(amp) Generated FieldCurren GeneratedVolta
VoltageEg tIf(amp) geEg(volts)
(volts)
Page|14
MODELGRAGH:
Fig–3.2OpenCircuitCharacteristicsofDCshuntgenerator
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Theexperimentshouldbe doneatconstantspeed.
2. Thejockeyshouldbemovedonlyinonedirection.Itshouldnotbemovedbackandforthforobtaining
a particular field current.
3. Atzerofieldthere wouldbesomeEMF duetoresidualmagnetism
4. Avoidparallaxerrorsandlooseconnections
RESULT:
PRELABQUESTIONS:
1. Whatisagenerator?
2. Whatistheprinciple ofoperationofgenerator?
3. Whatarethedifferenttypesofgenerators?
4. Whatisresidualmagnetism?
5. WhatistheFlemings righthandrule?
6. WhatistheEMF equationofgenerator?
POSTLABQUESTIONS:
1. Whatistherating ofgeneratorused?
2. Whatisthemotor ratingused?
3. Whatismeantby starter?
4. Whattypeofstarter isusedinyour experiment?
5. Howyoucanvary thespeedofgenerator?
Page|15
EXPERIMENT–4
SWINBURNE’STESTONDCSHUNTMACHINE
4.1AIM:
Topre-determinetheefficiencyofaDCshuntmachinewhenrunbothasgeneratorandmotor. 4.2
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. NameoftheApparatus Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeter
2 Ammeter
3 Ammeter
4 Rheostat
5 Tachometer
NAMEPLATEDETAILS
MOTOR
Voltage(V)
Current(A)
Output(KW/HP)
Speed(RPM)
ExcitationType Shunt
ExcitationVoltage
Excitationcurrent
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
20AFig–4.1Swinburne’stestonaD.C.ShuntMachine
Page|16
PROCEDURE:
1. Choosetheproperrangesofmetersafternotingthenameplatedetailsofthegivenmachineandmake the
connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keepthemotorfieldrheostattheminimumposition,andstartthemotorbyclosingtheswitchandoperating
the starter slowly.
3. Runthemotorat ratedspeedbyadjusting themotorfieldrheostat.
4. Notedownthevoltage, noloadcurrentand fieldcurrent.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No. VL(V) ILo(A) If(A)
MODELGRAPH:
Fig-4.2Performance characteristicsofDCshunt machine
CALCULATIONSFORSWINBURNE’STEST:
Fromthenoloadtestresults,Supply
voltage = VL Volts.
Noloadlinecurrent =ILoAmperes.
Fieldcurrent=IfAmperes.
ThereforeNoloadArmatureCurrent=Iao=IL-IfAmperes.No
load copper losses are =I2R aoa
WhereRaisthearmatureresistanceNo
load power input=VLIL
Constantlosses=(No loadpowerinput- Noloadcopperlosses)----------------------(1)
Efficiencyasmotor:
Efficiency=output/input=(input–totallosses)/
input.Where total losses = constant losses + variable
losses.Constantlossesareknownvaluefromtheequation(
1)Variable loss = Ia2Ra, where Ia= IL-If
Page|17
Input=VLIL,VLisratedvoltageofthe machine
Assumelinecurrents(IL)as2A,4A,6A,---------andfindcorrespondingefficiency
Efficiencyasgenerator:
Efficiency=output/input=output/
(output+totallosses).Where losses = constant losses +
variable lossesConstant losses are same for both motor
and GeneratorArmature Current = Ia= IL+ If
Variableloss=Ia2Ra
Outputpower=VLIL.VLisratedvoltageofthe machine
Assumeloadcurrents(IL)as2A,4A,6A,---------andfindcorrespondingefficiencies
OBSERVATIONS:
Asa Motor:RatedvoltageVL=RatedspeedN=
S. IL InputP Constan Copperl Totallosses Outputpo η
No. owerPi= t ossesWcu =(Wcons. wer=(Pi–
VLIL losses =Ia2Ra +Wcu) Totallosse
Wconst. s)
AsaGenerator:
RatedvoltageVL= RatedspeedN=
S. IL Output Constan Copperl Totallosses Inputpo η
No. Power t ossesWcu = wer=(Po+
Po=VLI losses =Ia2Ra (Wcons. Totallosse
L Wconst. +Wcu) s)
Page|18
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Runthemotorat ratedspeedandrated voltage.
2. Avoidlooseconnectionsandparallaxerrors.
RESULTS:
PRELABQUESTIONS:
1. Whatistheprinciple ofalternator?
2. Whatismeantby regulation?
3. Whatismeantby synchronousimpedance?
4. Whatismeantby mmf?
5. Howthealternatorsbe rated?
POSTLABQUESTIONS:
1. Howyoudeterminethe synchronousimpedanceinthis method?
2. Howtheinputtoanalternatorbegiveninyourexperiment?
3.WhyDCsupplyonlygiventoFieldwindingofanalternator?4.How
the frequency of an alternator is changes?
5. WhatistheeffectofexcitationonCurrentandPowerfactor?
Page|19
EXPERIMENT–5
OPENCIRCUITANDSHORTCIRCUITTESTSONSINGLEPHASETRANSFORMER
AIM:
Toperformopencircuitandshortcircuittestsonasinglephasetransformerandtopre-determinetheefficiency,
regulation and equivalent circuit of the transformer.
APPARATUSREQUIRED:
S.No. ApparatusName Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeter
2 Voltmeter
3 Ammeter
4 Ammeter
3 Wattmeter
4 Wattmeter
5 ConnectingWires
NAMEPLATEDETAILS:
TransformerSpecificationsAutotransformerSpecifications
CIRCUITDIAGRAMS:
Capacity(KVA) Capacity(KVA)
PrimaryVoltage(V) InputVoltage(V)
SecondaryVoltage(V) OutputVoltage(V)
Phase Phase
Frequency(Hz) Frequency(Hz)
Fig-5.1OpenCircuitTest
Page|20
Fig-5.2ShortCircuitTest
PROCEDURE:
OpenCircuit Test:
1. Connectionsaremadeas perthecircuitdiagram.
2. Ensure that variac is set to zero output voltage position before starting the experiment.
3.SwitchONthesupply.NowapplytheratedvoltagetothePrimarywindingbyusingVariac.4.Thereadi
ngsoftheVoltmeter,ammeterandwattmeterarenoteddowninTabularform.5.ThenVariac is set to
zero output position and switch OFF the supply.
6. CalculateRoandXofromthe readings.
ShortCircuit Test:
1. Connectionsaremadeas perthecircuitdiagram.
2. Ensure that variac is set to zero output voltage position before starting the experiment.
3.SwitchONthesupply.NowapplytheratedCurrenttothePrimarywindingbyusingvariac.4.Thereadi
ngsoftheVoltmeter,ammeterandwattmeterarenoteddowninTabularform.5.ThenVariac is set to
zero output position and switch OFF the supply.
6.CalculateRo1andXo1fromthe readings.
OBSERVATIONS:
OpenCircuitTest ShortCircuit
Test
Voltage Current Power
(Vo) (Io) (Wo) Voltage Current Power
(VSC) (ISC) (WSC)
Page|21
EQUIVALENTCIRCUITOFTRANSFORMER:
Fig–5.3Equivalentcircuitofsinglephasetransformer
MODELCALCULATIONS:
FindtheequivalentcircuitparametersR0,X0,R1e,R2e,X1eandX2efromtheO.C.andS.C.testresultsand draw the
equivalent circuit referred to primary side.
Let the transformer be the step-up transformer (115/230V),
thenPrimary is H. V. side.
SecondaryisL.V.sideFrom
OC test:
cos∅o=Wo
Vo∗Io
Working component of current Ic= Io*cos
φ0MagnetizingcomponentofcurrentIm=Io*sinφ0R
V0
= Where Ic = I0cosφ0
0
Ic V0
X0=WhereIm=I0sinφ0Im
FromSCTest:
W
R2e=SC
I
SC2
VSC
Z2e= =R2e +X2e
22
ISC
22
∴X2e=Z2e−R2e
Thuswewillgettheequivalentcircuitparametersreferredtoprimarysideofthetransformer.Thesecondary side
parameters also calculated by using the transformation ratio K.
R1e=R1e/
K2X1e=X1e/K2
V ratio.
WhereK= 2 =V 1
Transformation
CalculationstofindefficiencyandregulationfromOCandSCtests
TheefficiencyandRegulationcanbePredeterminedatanyload(n)andanypowerfactorusingtheformulas given
below
n∗(VA)∗co∅
s 2
%ɳatanyload=n∗(VA)∗cos∅+W +n ∗Wsc
o
Page|22
Wheren=Fractionoffullloadn =
1 (at full load)
n=½(at halfload)
n=¼(at quarterload)
I
% Re gulation (% R ) = 1R1ecos φ ±I1X 1esin φx 100
V1
WhereV1istheratedVoltage and
I1istheratedcurrentforfullload,andforanyloadI1=n*Irated‘+’ for
lagging power factors
‘-‘forleadingpower factor
Cosφ=1.0
Load Pcu(W) Pi(W) O/P(W) I/P(W) η(%) %R
n =n2*Wsc =Wo =n*(VA)*Cosφ =O/P+Pcu+Pi
Lag Lead
Cosφ=0.8
Load Pcu(W) Pi(W) O/P(W) I/P(W) η(%) %R
n =n2*Wsc =Wo =n*(VA)*Cosφ =O/P+
Pcu+Pi Lag Lead
MODELGRAPH:
Fig–5.4Load vsEfficiencycharacteristics
Page|23
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connectionsmustbemade tight
2. Beforemakingorbreaking thecircuit,supplymust beswitchedoff
RESULT:
PRELABQUESTIONS:
1. Whatisatransformer?
2. Whatistheprinciple oftransformer?
3. Whathappenswhena DCsupplyisgiven toatransformer?
4. Whatarethetypes oftransformer?
5. Whatistransformationratio?
POSTLABQUESTIONS:
1. Howthetransformeris rated?
2. WhyOCandSC testsareconductedon transformers?
3. OnwhichsideofthetransformerOCtestisconducted?Why?
4. OnwhichsideofthetransformerSCtestisconducted?Why?
5. Whatistheconditionformaximumefficiencyoftransformer?
Page|24
EXPERIMENT–6
BRAKETESTON3-ɸSQUIRRELCAGEINDUCTIONMOTOR
AIM:
Todeterminetheefficiencyof3-ɸinductionmotorbyperformingloadtestandtoobtaintheperformance curves
for the same.
APPARATUSREQUIRED:
S.No. Equipment Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeter
2 Ammeter
3 Wattmeter
4 Tachometer
5 ConnectingWires
NAMEPLATEDETAILS:
3-ɸSquirrelCageInductionMotor3-ɸAutoTransformer
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
Voltage(V) Capacity(KVA)
Current(A) InputVoltage(V)
Power(KW/HP) OutputVoltage(V)
Speed(RPM) Phase
Frequency(Hz) Frequency(Hz)
Fig–6.1Braketestonthree–phasesquirrelcageinductionmotor
Page|25
PROCEDURE:
1. Connectionsaremadeas perthecircuitdiagram.
2. Ensurethatthe3-ɸvariaciskeptatminimumoutputvoltagepositionandbeltisfreelysuspended.
3. SwitchONthesupply,Increasethevariacoutputvoltagegraduallyuntilratedvoltageisobservedinvoltmete
r. Note that the induction motor takes large current initially, so keep an eye on theammetersuch that
the starting current should exceed the rated current.
4. Bythetimespeedgainsratedvalue,notedownthereadingsofvoltmeter,ammeter,andwattmeteratno-load.
5. Nowtheincreasethemechanicalloadbytighteningthebeltaroundthebrakedrumgraduallyinsteps.
6. Notedownthevariousmetersreadingsatdifferentvaluesofloadtilltheammetershowstheratedcurrent.
7. Reducetheloadonthemotorandalsobringthevariactominimumposition,thenswitchOFFthesupply.
MODELCALCULATIONS:
InputpowerdrawnbythemotorW=(W1+W2)wattsShaft
Torque, Tsh= 9.81* R* (S1~ S2) N-m
WhereRisthe Radiusofdrumin meters.
2πNTsh
OutputpowerPo= watts
60
Output watts
% Efficiency =
InputPowerinwatts
x100Powe
rin
⎡
−N whereNs =120 x f
%slip=Ns x 100
⎢⎥
Ns ⎤p
⎦
⎣
P
Powerfactorof theinductionmotor cosφ = i3 VI
Page|26
OBSERVATIONS:
S. V I Power Speed Spring Torq Input Output %η
. (A) W N balance ueT Power Power
(Watts) (RPM) (Kg) (N-m) Pi=W1+ Po=(Wat
W2 ts)
W1 W2 S1 S2 S1 (Watts)
~S2
MODELGRAPHS:
Fig–6.2Performancecharacteristicsofthreephaseinductionmotor
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connectionsmustbemade tight.
2. Parallaxerrorsmustbe avoidedwhiletakingthe readings.
3. Pourthewaterin thebrakedrumfor coolingpurpose.
Page|27
RESULT:
PRELABQUESTIONS:
1. Whatistheprinciple ofoperationofinduction motor?
2. Whatismeantby slipofinductionmotor?
3. Whatarethetypes of3-phaseinductionmotors?
4. WhatisLenz’s law?
5. Whatisthedifferencebetweenslipringandsquirrelcageinductionmotors?
POSTLABQUESTIONS:
1. Howinductionmotorspeed canbereversed?
2. Whatyoudoif thewattmetershowsthe readinginreversedirection?
3. Whatistheslip atstandstill?
4. Howlongtheload onthemotorbe increased?
5. Whatistherating ofinductionmotoryou used?
Page|28
EXPERIMENT–7
REGULATIONOFANALTERNATORUSINGSYNCHRONOUSIMPEDANCEMETHOD
7.1AIM:
Tofindtheregulationofathree-phasealternatorbyusingsynchronousimpedancemethod. 7.2
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Equipment Type Range Quantity
1 Voltmeter
2 Ammeter
3 Ammeter
4 Rheostat
5 Tachometer
6 ConnectingWire
s
NAMEPLATEDETAILS:
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
DCMotor 3-ɸAlternator
Voltage(V) KVArating
Current(A) Voltage(V)
Output(KW/HP) Current(A)
Speed(RPM) Speed
ExcitationType Shunt Powerfactor
ExcitationVoltage
ExcitationVoltage
Excitationcurrent
RatedCurrent
Page|29
Fig–7.1RegulationofAlternatorUsingSynchronousImpedanceMethod
PROCEDURE:
OpenCircuit Test:
1. Maketheconnectionsas perthecircuitdiagram.
2. Beforestartingtheexperiment,thepotentialdividernetworkinthealternatorfieldcircuitandfieldregulatorrheostat
of motor circuit is set minimum resistance position.
3. SwitchONthesupply andclosetheDPST switch.TheDCmotor isstartedbymoving starterhandle.
4. Adjustthefieldrheostat ofDCmotorto attainratedspeed(equal tosynchronousspeedof alternator)
5. BydecreasingthefieldresistanceofAlternator,theexcitationcurrentofalternatorisincreasedgraduallyinsteps.
6. Notethereadingsof fieldcurrent,andits correspondingarmaturevoltagein atabularcolumn.
7. Thevoltagereadingsare takenuptoand10% beyondtheratedvoltage ofthemachine.
ShortCircuit Test:
