ational Junior College Mathematics Department 2015

National Junior College

2015 – 2016 H2 Mathematics

Topic 9: Differentiation and its Applications

Key Questions to Answer:

1. What does the derivative tell you about the behaviour of the graph ?
- What does differentiation by first principles mean?
- How do you differentiate polynomials by first principles?
- What is the geometrical interpretation of f ( x) ?
dy d
2. What are the meanings of and f ( x) ?
dx dx
dy
- Is a fraction?
dx
dx dx
- Does exist? If it does, what does mean?
dy dy
3. How do you differentiate the following functions
- polynomial functions,
- trigonometric functions,
- exponential functions,
- logarithmic functions,
- as well as constant multiples, sums and differences of any combination of the above functions?

4. What are the rules that are useful in differentiation and how do you use them?

5. Under what circumstances would you need to use implicit differentiation, parametric
differentiation or logarithmic differentiation?
d2 y
6. What does mean?
dx 2
2
d dy dy
- Is this the same as or ?
dx dx dx
7. How do you relate the concavity of the graph with the first and second derivative?
1
- Is the graph of y an example of a graph that is concave upwards? Why or why not?
x
8. How do you identify a local maximum or minimum on the graph?
- What is the difference between a local and a global maximum/minimum?
- What is the first derivative test?
- What is the second derivative test? Why does it work? Does it work all the time?
- When should you use the first derivative test instead of the second derivative test?

9. How do you find the equation of the tangent?

- What is the relationship between the gradient of the tangent and that of the normal?
- How do you find the equation of the normal?

10. What do you see in common between chain rule, implicit differentiation, parametric
differentiation and connected rates of change?

Note: This topic is a build-up from the basic calculus knowledge acquired under the O-level
Additional Mathematics syllabus. Knowledge of O-level calculus is assumed.
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§1 Differentiation Techniques

1.1 Differentiation by First Principles

Recall that the gradient of a straight line is the rate of change of y with respect to x, i.e.
change in y
.
change in x
For example, the line y 2 x has gradient 2, which means that every unit change in x results in 2
units change in y or equivalently, the rate of change of y with respect to x is 2.

For a curve, recall that the gradient is found by differentiation. For example, for the curve y x2 ,
dy
2 x.
dx
Hence the gradients of the curve y x 2 at x = – 2 and x = 1 are – 4 and 2 respectively. We can see
that the gradient of a curve differs for different points on the curve.

dy
How do we find in the first place?
dx

Recall that the gradient of a curve at a given point is equal to the gradient of the tangent to the
curve at the same point, as seen from the graph below:

dy dy
Gradient of l1 2.
Gradient of l2 4. dx
dx x 2
x 1

To find the gradient of the tangent to the curve at a general point P(x, f(x)) on the curve y x2 ,
consider the following diagram (left):

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δy ( x δx)2 x 2
Gradient of the chord PQ .
δx ( x δx) x
As Q P along the curve, i.e. δx 0
the chord PQ tangent at P (see above diagram (right))
gradient of the chord PQ gradient of tangent at P.

Therefore the gradient of tangent to the curve at P is given by

dy δy
lim
dx δx 0 δx

( x δx) 2 x 2
lim
δx 0 ( x δx) x
x2
2 x δx (δx) 2 x2
lim
δx 0 δx
lim(2 x δx)
δx 0

2 x.

In general, we have the following definition.

Definition 1.1.1 (Derivative of a Function)

If f is a function, the gradient of the curve y f ( x) is defined to be

dy f ( x δx) f ( x)
f ( x) lim
dx δx 0 δx
if this limit exists. We call this limit the derivative or the gradient function of f ( x).

f ( x δx) f ( x)
The process of obtaining the derivative by finding lim is known as differentiation
δx 0 δx
by first principles.

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Example 1.1.2

Find the gradient function of the following curves from first principles.
1
(i) y , (ii) y sin x, (iii) y ex .
x

Solution:

(i) Using first principles,

1 1
f ( x δx) f ( x) x δx x
f ( x) lim lim
δx 0 δx δx 0 δx
x x δx
lim
δx 0 x δx x δx
δx
lim
δx 0 x δx x δx
1
lim
δx 0 x δx x
1
.
x2

(ii) Using first principles,

f ( x δx) f ( x) sin x δx sin x
f ( x) lim lim
δx 0 δx x 0 δx
2 x δx δx
2 cos sin
2 2
lim
δx 0 δx
δx
sin
δx 2 sin δx
lim cos x lim Note: lim 1.
δx 0 2 δx 0 δx δx 0 δx
2
cos x.

(iii) Using first principles,

δx
f ( x δx) f ( x) ex ex
f ( x) lim lim
δx 0 δx δx 0 δx
δx
e e 1
x

lim
δx 0 δx
e x
1
eδx 1 Note: lim 1.
e lim
x δx 0 δx
δx 0 δx
e.
x

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1.2 Differentiation of Functions using Standard Results

The following basic derivatives and differentiation techniques are assumed knowledge from the
‘O’-level syllabus:

y dy
Basic Functions
dx
1
Polynomials xn nx n
n n 1
(n ) ax b an ax b
sin f ( x) f ( x) cos f ( x)
cos f ( x) f ( x) sin f ( x)

Trigonometric tan f ( x) f ( x) sec2 f ( x)

Functions cosec f ( x) f ( x) cosec f ( x) cot f ( x)
sec f ( x) f ( x) sec f ( x) tan f ( x)
cot f ( x) f ( x) cosec2 f ( x)
f ( x)
Logarithmic and ln f ( x)
f ( x)
Exponential Functions
ef ( x ) f ( x) e f ( x )

If y f (u) and u f ( x) , then

Chain Rule dy dy du
.
dx du dx
If y = uv where u, v are functions of x, then
Product Rule dy du dv
v u .
dx dx dx
u
If y where u, v are functions of x and v is non-zero, then
v
Quotient Rule du dv
v u
dy dx dx .
2
dx v

Refer to Appendix B for ways to use your graphing calculator to

evaluate the derivative at a point, and
plot the graph of the derivative function without doing the actual differentiation.

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The following are additional results for the A-levels. For proofs, refer to Appendix A:

y
dy
dx
1
sin 1 x , x 1
1 x2
f ( x)
sin 1
f ( x) , f x 1
2
1 f ( x)
1
cos 1 x , x 1
Inverse 1 x2
Trigonometric f ( x)
Functions cos 1
f ( x) , f x 1
2
1 f ( x)
1
tan 1 x
1 x2
1
f ( x)
tan f ( x) 2
1 f ( x)
ax a x ln a
Logarithmic and af ( x) f ( x) af ( x ) ln a
Exponential Functions f ( x)
log a f ( x) log a e
f ( x)

Relationship between dy 1 dn y 1
. However, in general.
dy dx dx dx dx n dn x
and
dx dy dy dy n

Example 1.2.1

dy 1 x
Find if (a) y sin 1 2x , (b) y tan 1
1 , (c) y 54 x ,
dx 2
1
(d) y cos x2 1 , (e) y log 4 x 2 .

Solution:
dy 2 2 dy 1
2
(a) . (b) 2
2 2
.
dx 1 1 2x
2
4x 4x 2 dx 1 x
2 1 x 4x 8
dy dy 2x 2x
(c) 4 54 x ln 5. (d) .
dx dx 1 (x 2
1) 2
2x 2
4 x4
dy 1
(e) log 4 e.
dx x 2
Alternatively, convert to natural logarithm
ln( x 2)
before differentiating: log 4 x 2 .
ln 4

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1.3 Implicit Differentiation

So far, we have dealt with functions that are mostly explicit (e.g. y x3 3 and y tan x ).
However, the dependent variable y may not always be expressed in terms of the independent
variable x explicitly (e.g. 5xy 2 x3 y 3 0 ).
dy
In such cases, we will use the chain rule to find . Such a process is known as implicit
dx
differentiation.

Example 1.3.1

Differentiate the following with respect to x.

2
dy dy
(i) y, (ii) y2, (iii) xy, (iv) , (v) .
dx dx

Solution:

d dy d 2 d 2 dy dy
(i) y . (ii) y y 2y .
dx dx dx dy dx dx

d dy d dy d2 y
(iii) xy x y. (iv) .
dx dx dx dx dx 2
2
d dy dy d 2 y
(v) 2 .
dx dx dx dx 2

In general,
d n d n dy dy
(a) (y ) y ny n 1 , where n is a rational number.
dx dy dx dx
d d dy dy
(b) (f ( y)) f y f ( y) .
dx dy dx dx

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Example 1.3.2
dy
Find in terms of x and y if (a) x 2 y3 xy, (b) 3x2 7 y 2 4 xy 8x 0,
dx
(c) cos 1 y x y, (d) y tan 1 ( y x).

Solution:
(a) x 2 y 3 xy.
Differentiate implicitly w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy
2x 3y2 x y
dx dx d 3 d 3 dy dy
Note: (y ) (y ) 3y2 .
dy 2 x y dx dy dx dx
.
dx x 3 y 2

(b) 3x2 − 7y2 + 4xy − 8x = 0.

Differentiate implicitly w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy
6 x 14 y 4x 4y 8 0
dx dx
dy 6 x 4 y 8 3 x 2 y 4
.
dx 14 y 4 x 7 y 2x

(c) cos 1 y x y .
Differentiate implicitly w.r.t. x, we get Alternatively,
1 dy dy
1
1 y 2 dx dx cos 1 y x y
y cos( x y).
1 dy
1 1
1 y 2 dx Differentiate implicitly w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy
dy 1 sin( x y ) 1
1 dx dx
dx 1 dy sin( x y )
1 y2 .
dx 1 sin( x y )
1 y2
.
1 y2 1

(d) y tan 1 y x tan y y x.

Differentiate implicitly w.r.t. x,
dy dy
sec 2 y 1
d x dx
dy
sec 2 y 1 1
dx
dy
tan 2 y 1
dx
dy
cot 2 y.
dx

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Example 1.3.3
dy x
Find in terms of x and y if (a) y x x , x 0, (b) y ln x .
dx

Solution:
(a) y xx (b) y ln x
x

ln y x ln ln x
Taking “ln” on both sides, we get
ln y x ln x Differentiate implicitly w.r.t. x,
Differentiate implicitly with respect 1 dy 1 1
1 ln ln x x
to x, we get y dx ln x x
1 dy 1 dy 1
x (1) ln x y ln ln x
y dx x dx ln x
dy 1
y 1 ln x x x 1 ln x . ln x
x
ln ln x .
dx ln x

Note: If the expression to be differentiated is defined explicitly, the derivative should be in explicit
form as well.

Note: The process of taking “ln” on both sides before carrying out implicit differentiation is called
logarithmic differentiation.

In general, logarithmic differentiation is useful for expressions of the form u v , where both u
and v are non-constant expressions of x and/or y.

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1.4 Parametric Differentiation

We have seen curves defined by a pair of parametric equations. We shall look at how to evaluate
the gradient function in such cases.

dx
f (t )
x f (t ) dt
Given a set of parametric equations: , we may evaluate
y g(t ) dy
g (t ).
dt

dy
dy dy dt dt g (t ) dx 1
The gradient function can be found as: . . Note:
dx dt dx dx f (t ) dt dt
dt dx

Note that the gradient function will also generally be in terms of the parameter t.

Example 1.4.1

Find the gradient function for the following curves defined parametrically.
1
(a) x t 3 , y t 2 t , (b) x t, y cos t , (c) x t 2 , y t .
t

Solution:
dy dx dx 1 12 1 dy
(a) 2t 1 , 3t 2 (b) t , sin t
dt dt dt 2 2 t dt
dy dy
dy dt 2t 1 2 1 dy dt sin t
. 2 t sin t.
dx dx 3t 2 3t 3t 2 dx dx 1
dt dt 2 t

dy 1 dx
(c) 1 , 2t
dt t 2 dt
dy
dy dt 1 t12 t 2 1
.
dx dx 2t 2t 3
dt

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Example 1.4.2

It is given that x sec tan and y cosec cot . Show that

1 1
x 2sec and y 2cosec .
x y
dy 1 y2
Hence show that .
dx 1 x2

Solution:
1 1
x sec tan
x sec tan
2
sec tan 1
sec tan
2
sec tan 2 2sec tan 1
sec tan
2
2sec 2sec tan
sec tan
2sec sec tan
sec tan
2sec (shown).

1 1
y cosec cot
y cosec cot
2
cosec cot 1
cosec cot
2
cosec cot 2 2cosec cot 1
cosec cot
2
2cosec 2cosec cot
cosec cot
2cosec cosec cot
cosec cot
2cosec (shown).

dy
cosec cot cosec2 cosec cot cosec .
d
dx
sec tan sec2 sec tan sec .
d

1 1
y y
dy cosec cot cosec 2 y 1 y2
(shown).
dx sec tan sec 1 1 1 x2
x x
2 x

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§2 Geometrical Results of the Gradient Function

2.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

A function is said to be strictly increasing (resp. strictly decreasing) when the value of f ( x)
increases (resp. decreases) as the value of x increases. Mathematically, we have:

Definition 2.1.1 (Increasing and Decreasing Functions)

A function f is said to be strictly increasing (resp. strictly decreasing) if a b implies that
f (a) f (b) resp. f (a) f (b) .

Examples: (Strictly increasing functions) y x, y x3 x.

(Strictly decreasing function) y 2 x 1.

For differentiable functions that are neither strictly increasing nor strictly decreasing, we can still
determine the interval (say I) such that the curve is upward or downward sloping on I. For
example, consider the following graph of y f ( x) .
y
f ( a) 0
y f ( x)
•

f ( x) 0
f ( x) 0
f ( x) 0

x
a b

•
f (b) 0

Value of
Range of values Gradient of curve On I, function
dy On I, curve is…
of x, I f ( x) or y f ( x) is f is…
dx
x a or x b 0 positive upward sloping strictly increasing
downward
a x b 0 negative strictly decreasing
sloping

Hence we can conclude that

dy
(a) If f ( x) 0 or 0 for all x in an interval I, then f is strictly increasing on I.
dx

dy
(b) If f ( x) 0 or 0 for all x in an interval I, then f is strictly decreasing on I.
dx

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2.2 Stationary Points

dy
Stationary points are points on the curve where f ( x) 0 .
dx

A C1
c2 b
x
a c1
C2
B

There are 3 types of stationary points – local minimum, local maximum and stationary point of
inflexion.

From the above diagram, A is a local maximum point.

B is a local minimum point.
C1 and C2 are stationary points of inflexion.

A and B are called turning points, because the sign of the gradient to the curve changes at these
points (either from negative to positive or vice versa), and hence the curve “turns” at these points.

In general, we have the following definition:

Definition 2.2.1 (Local maximum and minimum points)

A point k , f (k ) lying on the curve y f ( x) is said to be a local maximum (resp.
minimum) point if f (k ) is greatest (resp. least) value of f ( x) in an immediate
neighbourhood of k, i.e. for a small interval of values of x containing k.

In the above definition, f (k ) need not be the greatest (least) value of f ( x) for all x in D f and
hence the word “local”. On the other hand, we look at all the values of f ( x) in D f to identify the
global minimum/maximum point.

WONDER
Must the global minimum/maximum be a stationary point?
Answer: No.
WONDER
Can a graph have no global minimum/maximum point?
Answer: Yes. For instance, consider f(x) 2 x, 0 x 1.
Note that 0 and 2 does not lie in the range of f.

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2.3 Determining the Nature of Stationary Points

If a point is known to be stationary, we can use the following methods to determine if it is a local
maximum, a local minimum or a stationary point of inflexion.

First Derivative Test (Sign Test)

dy
Check the sign of just before and just after a stationary point. The following table shows all
dx
possible outcomes.

x a a a b b b c1 c1 c1 c2 c2 c2
dy
Sign of + 0 − − 0 + + 0 + − 0 −
dx

Shape of curve

Nature MAXIMUM MINIMUM INFLEXION INFLEXION

UNDERSTAND
What values should you choose to test for the nature of stationary point at x = 2?
Answer: To be safe, choose x = 1.99 and x = 2.01
(or values that are even closer to x = 2).

Second Derivative Test

d2 y
Check the sign of at the stationary point. The following shows all possible outcomes.
dx 2
d2 y
Sign of at stationary point Negative Positive Zero
dx 2
Nature MAXIMUM MINIMUM Inconclusive!

Notes:
1. The choice of first / second derivative test depends on the equation of the given curve and the
relative ease of doing each test.
2. Note that some points of inflexion are non-stationary; hence please do not simply write “point
of inflexion” but rather “stationary point of inflexion”.

UNDERSTAND
Why does the 2nd derivative test work?
Answer: Refer to 1st derivative test and consider the gradient of y f ( x) .
QUESTION
d2 y
Why does the 2nd derivative test fail when 0 at a stationary point?
dx 2
Answer: Consider and sketch the graphs of y x 4 and y x4 ,
which has a stationary point at x = 0.

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2.4 Concavity / Curvature

Recall that
d2 y d dy dy
rate of change of with respect to x,
dx 2 dx dx dx

d2 y dy
i.e. 2
is the gradient function for . Hence we have the following results:
dx dx

Concave downwards Concave upwards

y y

dy y = f(x) y = f(x)
0
dx dy
0 dy
0
dx dx dy
0
dx
x x
O O

As x increases, the gradient of the curve As x increases, the gradient of the curve
decreases, i.e. f '( x) is decreasing. increases, i.e. f '( x) is increasing.
f '( x) is decreasing f ''( x) 0 . f '( x) is increasing f ''( x) 0 .

Therefore, if f '' x 0 (resp. f '' x 0 ) for all x in an interval I, then curve of y = f(x) concave
downwards (resp. concave upwards) on I.

Example 2.4.1

Determine the concavity of y = f(x) x3 3x2 1 for (a) x 1, (b) x 1.

Solution:

f(x) x3 3x2 1 f '( x) 3x2 6 x and f "( x) 6 x 6.

(a) x 1: f " x 6x 6 0 curve is concave upwards on (1, ).

(b) x 1: f " x 6x 6 0 curve is concave downwards on ( , 1).

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Example 2.4.2
Determine the largest set of values of x for which the graph given below is:
(i) strictly increasing, (ii) strictly decreasing, (iii) concave upwards,
(iv) concave downwards.
y
y f ( x)

x
1 0 1

Solution:
exclusive of the boundary points!
(i) (0, 1) (1, ), (ii) ( , 1) ( 1,0),
(iii) ( 1, 1), (iv) ( , 1) (1, ).

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2.5 Graph of the Derivative Function, y f ( x)

Graph of Graph of
y f ( x) y f ( x) Mathematical Verification
Stationary x-intercepts The x-intercepts of y f ( x) occurs when
points f ( x) 0, i.e. at the same x-values for the
stationary points on the curve y f ( x) .
Points of Turning points
inflexion d d2 y
f ( x) 0
dx dx 2
y f ( x)

d d2 y
f ( x) 0
dx dx 2
Thus, it’s still x-intercept d2 y
At a point of inflexion, the sign of changes
dx 2
from positive to negative (or vice versa), hence
f ( x) changes from strictly increasing to strictly
decreasing (or vice versa). This implies that
y f ( x) has a turning point.
Gradient of y f ( x) is d
y f ( x) 0 same as f ( x) 0 .
y f ( x) above the x-axis. dx
is positive. [ y f ( x) 0 ]

d
Gradient of y f ( x) is y f ( x) 0 same as f ( x) 0.
dx
y f ( x) below the
is negative. x-axis.
[ y f ( x) 0 ]
y f ( x) y f ( x) has Vertical asymptote(s) implies that the limiting
has vertical vertical value of f ( x) is infinite and undefined.
asymptote asymptote x a .
x a.

y f ( x) y f ( x) has As the curve approaches a horizontal

has horizontal asymptote, the gradient of the curve gradually
horizontal asymptote y 0 . reduces to zero.
asymptote
y b.

y f ( x) y f ( x) tends As the curve approaches an oblique asymptote,

has oblique to m. the gradient of the curve gradually tends to m.
asymptote
y mx c .

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CHECK
Will the axial intercepts in the graph of y f ( x) remain in the graph of
y f ( x) ?
Answer: Generally not. (One exception is when a stationary point
is also an x-intercept). Can you think of any other exception(s)?

Example 2.5.1

The following is a sketch of the curves y f ( x) and y g( x). Sketch, on separate diagrams, the
graphs of y f ( x) and y g ( x).

Solution:
y
x 2 y
y f ( x)
2
3 , 83 y g( x)
( 1,1) 2

x x
−2 O 2 −2 O
(1, 1.5)

y
y f ( x) x 2 y

x x
1 O 1 −2 O 2
3 y g ( x)

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§3 Tangents and Normals

3.1 Equations of the Tangent and the Normal of a Curve at a Point (a, b)

From the ‘O’-level syllabus, we have the following: y

1
For a given point (a, b) on a curve y f ( x), Gradient of normal =
f (a)

Equation of tangent y b f (a)( x a) b

y f ( x)
1
Equation of normal y b= (x a)
f (a ) x
O a
Gradient of tangent = f (a)

Example 3.1.1

The normal to the curve y ( x 1)2 at the point P(2,1) cuts the curve at another point Q.
(i) Find the equation of the normal.
(ii) Obtain the coordinates of the point Q.

Solution:

dy
(i) 2( x 1).
dx

1
At P(2,1) , gradient of curve = 2(2 – 1) = 2. Thus gradient of normal at P = .
2
1
Equation of normal: y 1 ( x 2) 2y 4 x
2

(4 x) 3
(ii) When the normal cuts the curve again, ( x 1)2 x2 x 1 0
2 2
1
( x 2) x 0.
2
1
Thus x 2 or x .
2
1
Therefore x-coordinate of the point Q is .( x 2 corresponds to P)
2
2
1 1 9
Substituting x into the equation of the curve, we get y 1 .
2 2 4
1 9
Thus, coordinates of Q is , .
2 4

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Example 3.1.2
3
1
Find the euatqions of the tangents to the curve y x 1 which are parallel to the line
2
3
y x 5.
2
Solution:
2
dy 1 1
3 x 1 .
dx 2 2
2
3 3 1 3
Gradient of tangents = x 1
2 2 2 2
2
1
x 1 1
2
1
x 1 1
2
x 0 or 4.
When x = 0, y = −1. When x = 4, y = 1.

Equation of tangent at (0, −1) is Equation of tangent at (4, 1) is

3 3
y 1 ( x 0) y 1 ( x 4)
2 2
3 3
y x 1. y x 5.
2 2

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Note that the results hold even if the curve y f ( x) is defined parametrically or implicitly, which
we will observe in the following examples.

Example 3.1.3 (Involves Implicit Differentiation)

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y3 2 xy 2 3x 2 3 0 at the point (2 ,3).

Solution:
Differentiating implicitly w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy dy 2 y2 6x
3y2 4 xy 2 y2 6x 0 .
dx dx dx 3 y 2 4 xy

dy 2(3)2 6(2)
When x = 2, y = 3, 2.
dx 3(3)2 4(2)(3)

Equation of tangent is y 3 2( x 2) y 2 x 1.

Example 3.1.4 (Involves Implicit Differentiation)

dy
Given that x2 2 xy 2 y 2 4 , find an expression forin terms of x and y. Hence find the
dx
coordinates of each point on the curve at which the tangent is parallel to the x-axis.

Solution:

x2 2 xy 2 y 2 4 --- (1)

Differentiating implicitly w.r.t. x, we get

dy dy dy 2 y 2x y x
2x 2x 2y 4y 0 .
dx dx dx 4 y 2x 2y x

dy
For tangent to the parallel to the x-axis, 0 y x --- (2)
dx

Substitute (2) into (1), we get

y2 2 y2 2 y2 4
y2 4
y 2 or y 2
x 2 or x 2
Required coordinates are (2, 2) and (−2, −2).

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Example 3.1.5 (Involves Parametric Differentiation)

Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the curve defined parametrically as

y t 3 1, x t 2

at the points where the curve cuts the line x = 4.

Solution:

dy dy
y t3 1 3t 2
dt dy dy dt dt 3t 2 3
. t.
dx dx dt dx dx 2t 2
x t2 2t
dt dt

When x = 4, t 2 or t 2

Thus, y 7 or y 9

dy dy
And 3 or 3
dx dx

Equation of tangents:
y 7 3( x 4) or y 9 3( x 4)
y 3x 5 or y 3x 3

Equation of normals:
1 1
y 7 ( x 4) or y 9 ( x 4)
3 3
1 25 1 31
y x or y x .
3 3 3 3

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Example 3.1.6 (Involves Parametric Differentiation)

A curve is defined parametrically as

x 2 t, y 1 t 2 .
Show that the normal to the curve at the point with parameter t has equation
x 2ty 2t 3 t 2 .
The normal at the point T, where t 2 cuts the curve again at the point P, where t p . Show that
4 p 2 p 18 0 and hence deduce the coordinates of P. The graph represents the relationship btn x and y,
but the qn implies that the graph of the normal
when t=2 is the same as when t=p.
Solution:
dy dy
y 1 t2 2t
dt dy dy dt dt 2t
. 2t.
dx dx dt dx dx 1
x 2 t 1
dt dt

Equation of normal at point with parameter t:

1
y (1 t 2 ) ( x (2 t ))
2t
2ty 2t 2t 3 x 2 t
2t 3 t 2 x 2ty (shown).

Equation of normal when t = 2,

2(2)3 (2) 2 x 2(2) y
16 x 4y --- (1)

When t = p, y 1 p 2 and x 2 p.

Substitute into (1), we get

16 2 p 4(1 p 2 )
4 p2 p 18 0 (shown).

Solving, we obtain (4 p 9)( p 2) 0 .

9
Thus, p 2 (point T ) or p (point P) .
4

1 65
Coordinates of P is , .
4 16

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§4 Practical Problems involving Differentiation

4.1 Maxima & Minima

We can apply differentiation to maximise or minimise a quantity given some restrictions /

limitations.

For example, a farmer wishes to find out how to enclose a rectangular piece of land with his fixed
amount of fencing, say, 1000 m on all sides of the rectangle (restriction). How would you advise
him to obtain the largest area (quantity) for his herd to graze the land?

Such problems exist in the real world especially in the fields of economics, sciences and
manufacturing sectors as we always try to minimise cost and/or maximise profit.

Example 4.1.1 (Function of a single variable)

Triangle ABC has a right angle at C. The shape of the triangle can vary but the sides BC and CA
have a fixed total length of 10 cm. Find the maximum area of the triangle.

Solution:

Step 1: Express the quantity to be maximised as a function of one variable.

Let side BC be x, hence side CA 10 x .

A
Therefore area (P) of right-angle triangle is
1 x2
P 10 x x 5 x .
2 2

Step 2: Differentiate w.r.t. the variable.

C B
dP
5 x.
dx

Step 3: Find stationary value(s) of the variable.

dP
For stationary values, 0 5 x 0 x 5.
dx
When x 5cm, P 12.5cm2 .

Step 4: Check whether stationary value gives a maximum.

d2 P
Using the 2nd derivative test, we get 1 0.
dx 2
Hence the triangle has a maximum area of 12.5cm2 when x is 5 cm.

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Example 4.1.2 (Function of 2 variables)

A closed cylindrical can has height h and base radius r and its volume is 0.01 cubic units. Show that
1
the surface area S is given by S 2πr 2 . Hence find the value of r for which S is a minimum.
50r

Solution:

S 2πr 2 2πrh --- (1)

r
We can see that S is a function of 2 variables, r and h.
We now use V = 0.01 units3 to remove the variable h. h

V 1
V πr 2 h h .
πr 2 100πr 2

1
Substituting h = in (1), we get
100πr 2
1
S 2πr 2 2πr
100πr 2
1
S 2πr 2 (shown).
50r

To minimise S, we consider
dS 1
4πr .
dr 50r 2

For stationary values of S,

dS 1 1
4πr 0 r .
dr 50r 2 3
200π

Using the second derivative test,

d2 S 1
4π 0 (since r 0).
dr 2 25r 3

1
Thus, S is minimum when r 3
.
200π

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Example 4.1.3

An opened rectangular tank of capacity 1203 cm3 is to be constructed using materials of negligible
thickness. The length of the tank is to be three times its breadth (which is denoted as x cm). If the
material needed for making the tank is denoted as A cm2 , show that

3208
A= 3x 2 .
x
Find the value of x for which A will be a minimum.

Solution:

Let h cm be height of the tank.

1203 401
h .
3x 2 x2
x
401 401 3208 3x
A 3x( x) 3x 2 (2) x 2 (2) 3x 2 (shown).
x x x

dA 3208
6x
dx x2
3208
6x 0
x2
x 8.12.

Using the second derivative test,

d2 A 6416
6 0 since x 0 .
dx 2 x3

Therefore min A 592.9 cm2 .

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4.2 Connected Rates of Change

In this section, we consider problems involving the rates of change for two related variables.

For example, if the area of a metal frame, say A, is related to the temperature of the metal frame, x,
by A f ( x), how can we find the rate of change of A at a certain time t, given the value of x and the
rate of change of x at time t?

To solve such problems,

dA
(i) Determine the rate of change to be found: .
dt
dx
(ii) Identify what you are given: .
dt
(iii) By the Chain rule, we know that the given rate of change and the rate of change to be found are
related by the identity
dA dA dx
.
dt dx dt
dA dA
Hence we need to find f ( x) at the value of x at time t and find using the above relation.
dx dt

Example 4.2.1
4 3
[The volume and the surface area of a sphere with radius r are V πr and A 4πr 2
3
respectively.]

A spherical balloon is being inflated, and at the instant when its radius is 10 cm, its surface area is
increasing at a rate of 6.4 cm2 s–1.
Find the rate of increase, at the same instant, of (i) the radius, (ii) the volume.

Solution:

dA 4 3
(i) A 4πr 2 , 6.4 cm2s 1
(ii) V πr
dt 3
dA dA dA dr dV
Since 8πr and , 4πr 2 .
dr dt dr dt dr
dA When r 10,
dr dt 6.4 dV dV dr
(when r 10) 4π 10
2
0.025465
dt dA 8π 10
dt dr dt
dr
32 cm3 s 1.
0.0255 cm s 1 (to 3 s.f.)

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Example 4.2.2

A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a vertical wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled away along
the ground from the wall at a constant rate of 0.4 ms 1 . How quickly will the top of the ladder be
falling when the bottom of the ladder is 3 m from the wall?

Solution:

h2 x2 25 h 25 x2 .

dh dh dx
dt dx dt h 5
d
25 x 2 (0.4)
dx
x x
0.4.
25 x 2

dh 3 0.4 1.2
When x = 3 m, 0.3 ms 1.
dt 25 3 2
16

The top of the ladder will be falling at a rate of 0.3 ms 1 .

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Appendix A: Proofs of Results on Differentiation in Section 1.2 (Page 6)

d 1
1. sin 1 x , x 1.
dx 1 x2

Proof: Let y sin 1 x. Note that for sin 1 x to be defined, x 1 . Then sin y x.

dy dy 1
Differentiating implicitly w.r.t. x, cos y 1 . (1)
dx dx cos y

Since sin 2 y cos2 y 1, cos2 y 1 sin 2 y cos y 1 sin 2 y 1 x2 . (2)

dy 1 1
Substituting (2) into (1), , x 1 (shown).
dx cos y 1 x2

QUESTION

In (2), why do we consider only the positive square root 1 x 2 and not the
negative square root 1 x2 ?

Answer: The range of principal values of y sin 1 x is y .

2 2
This means that cos y is non-negative.

d 1
The proof for cos 1 x , x 1 is similar, and is left as an exercise.
dx 1 x2

d 1
2. tan 1 x .
dx 1 x2

Proof: Let y tan 1 x. Then tan y x.

dy
Differentiating implicitly w.r.t. x, sec2 y 1.
dx
dy 1 1 1
(shown).
dx sec2 y 1 tan 2 y 1 x2

d x
3. a a x ln a
dx

d x d x ln a
Proof: a e e x ln a ln a a x ln a (shown).
dx dx
Note that a x e x ln a for any positive rational number a.

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d 1
4. log a x log a e .
dx x

d d ln x
Proof: log a x (by Change of Base Law for logarithms)
dx dx ln a
1 d
ln x
ln a dx
log a e 1
(by Change of Base Law for logarithms)
log a a x
1
log a e.
x

For results 1 to 4 above, the variants of the results (by replacing x with f ( x) ) follow from the Chain
Rule. For example, if we let y = f ( x) , then
d 1 d
sin f ( x) sin 1 y
dx dx
d dy
sin 1 y
dy dx
1 d
f ( x)
1 y 2 dx
f ( x)
.
2
1 f ( x)

dy 1
5. .
dx dx
dy

d
Proof: Note that ( x) 1.
dx

By treating x as a function of y and differentiating implicitly w.r.t. x, we have

d dy dx dy
( x) 1 1
dy dx dy dx
dx dy
1
dy dx
dy 1
(shown).
dx dx
dy

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Appendix B: Use of GC involving derivatives

The graphing calculator can be used to determine the numerical derivative at a point on the curve.
The tables below show two methods to obtain the gradient of y x 2 at x 1 .
Method 1
Steps Screenshot

Make sure you are at the home screen.

Press .

Press .

Then press .

The numerical value of the derivative of the function

will appear on the next line.

Method 2
Steps Screenshot

Sketch the graph of the function you are interested in.

For example, Y1 X 2 .
Press .
Look for [6: dy/dx]
Press

dy
If you are interested in the value of ,
dx x 1

press in the next screen.

Then press .

dy
The value of is 2.
dx x 1

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Suppose that we are given the equation y f ( x). The graphing calculator can be used to show the
graph of the derivative function y f '( x) without actually doing differentiation to find f '( x) . As an
illustration, consider
1 3 1 2
f ( x) x x 3x 1, x .
6 4

Steps Screenshot
1 3 1 2
Enter the function Y1 x x 3x 1 in your GC.
6 4

At Y2 enter the derivative function by pressing

You may want to distinguish the two graphs by

adjusting the thickness of the curves. (Scroll to the left
until the cursor reaches the “slanted line” besides the
function and hit ENTER repeatedly.)

Graph the two functions.

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