201}

Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Umer Mangrio

350 CHEMISTRY-XI
CHAPTER NO. 4

STATE OF MATTER () GAS

MATTER:
Definition of Matter:
Anything which has a mass and occupies space is called matter.
e.g: Glass, Water, Alcohol, Air, Sugar..
Gas
The state of matter neither definite shape nor definite volume is called gas.
e.g: air, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen etc.
Properties:
The word gas is derived from {Greek Khaos, which,meanmgMptiiesS on gap.
Gas molecules move in all directions. Gas can be kept in Ncontainer. It can be
compressed or expanded. It acquires the shapa of its uontafner Yh gaseous state, the
particles (atoms or molecules) are widfly PAfatedrom each other therefore
intermolecular forces are very weak,gases aredetelnto mono atomic such as Ha, Ne,
Ar diatomic such as H, Oz N2 andPetnatómie-such as mathematic CH, ethanal CH2
CO, CHs etc.

KINETIC MOLEGULATR PHEORY OF GASES:

Introdnctio
htheory was given by John Bernoule (1738) and extended by Kelvin,
Maxwel and Boltzman explained the behavior of gasses and developed a model for their
physical structure after several experimental studies. They assumed certain postulates
which are given below;
After that Rudolf classis is 1837 derived an equation on the basis of K.M.T of
gases which provided base for gas law.

Postulates:
1) In gaseous state the molecules are widely separated from one another, therefore
they have large empty spaces between their imolecules, so they can be compressed
and have negligible volume.
2) The gas molecules are in continuous motion in random directions. They travel in
straight path, until they collide or wall of container molecule.
3) The gas molecules collide with one another and with the walls of container, there
collisions are perfectly elastic, resulting no change in energy. The average distance
between collisions is called mean free path.
4) When gas molecules collide with walls of_container, the pressure of gas is
developed.
5) In an ideal gas, there is no force of attraction or repulsion between molecules, thus
each molecule is free as it in alone.
6) The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to absolute
increases.
temperature when temperature increases, kinetic energy of the molecules

Composed By Azhar Ali

 Prof. Muhammad Umer Mange
derived
kinetic equation,
Lec.Shoaib Ahmed R.J Clasius
postulates
of above
On the basis
PymNe
molecules
of gas and C2
m=
mass of single molecules C*, mean

pressure, v =volume, N of moles of gas

Where p
of gas molecules,
=no.
m e a n square
velocity m e a n square
molecules.
s a m e velocity
so,
square velocity ofthe gas
molecules don't posses velocity, n2
At given condition, gas molecules possess C
If no
calculated as;
for the above equation. velocity can be
velocity is taken then m e a n of square
molecules with velocity C2
and so no

(C N, C, +Na +C+N, C3..

Pressure:-
The force, exerted per unit area is called pressure mathematically;
F
Pressure= Force or P= A
Area 2 l 0 0

Atmospheric Pressure:
The pressure, exerted by air (atmosphere) is calledatmos EBie pressure.

Unit:-
S.I unit of it is pascal (Pa) orNm GP unit of atmospheric pressure are
mm and, Psl the pressture of air at sea level is
called standard
atmospheric, torr,
atmospheric pressure and is euualoneatmospheric. The pressure of air is measured by
barometer and gaseous pressurgs cafculated by monometer.

force of one Newton applied at an area of one square meter is

calle oneRascal. Certain alternative units of pressure and their relations are given
below
101325 pas= 1 atm= 760 mm Hg= 14.7 PSI

Example:-
The pressure of gas filled in automobile tire is generally measured is converted
32.8 Psi into (i) atmosphere (ii) Kpa = kilo passel Psi (iii) torr.

i) Psi to atmosphere
14.7psi = 1 atm
Since

32.8psi= . =2,23 atm= 4.976 atm

14.7
(ii) Psi to kilo Pascal
Since 14.7psi 101.325 Kpa
32.8 psi 101.325 32.8 226.085 Kpa
14.7
(iii) Psito Torr
Since 14.7 psi= 760 torr

32.8 T60x 32.8 1695.8 torr

14.7

Volume:
The space occupied by a gas is called volume.

Unit:
Cubic decinmeter (dm'), cubic centimeter (cm'), litter, ml etc
Composed By: AzharAli 2
Lec. Shoaib Ahmed
Prof. Muhammad Umer Mangrio
Temperature:-.
The
intensity of heat pressure in a body is called temperature.
Or
he
property which determines the degree of hotness and coldness of a body is
called
temperature. The device, used for the measurement of temperature 1s called
thermometer.
Scale of Temperature:-
he common scales of temperature is centigrade of Celsius but S.I scale is
Kelvin (K) or Absolute. Ok is called absolute zero, it is equal to -273°c. At absolute zero,
the volume of all gases is considered to be Zero.

Standard Temperature & Pressure (.T. P)

Or
Normal Temperature & Pressure (N.T.P): ;
Standard pressure is the average pressure of atmosphere at seanlevel(ich is1
atmosphere pressure.
Standard temperature is freezing point of water which is7AKOSr O°C.
0°C temperature and 1 atmospherepresute ellectiyely called as standard
temperature and pressure (S.T.P) or normal tepenitaeland pressure (N.T.P).

BRIEF RECALL ORBOKLER AND CHARLES'S LAW

BOYLES'SA UUU
Introdaetions
ORobert Boyle in 1662 studied the cffect of pressure on volume of a gas at constant
temperature and put forward a law, called Boyle's Law
Statement:
"At constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure exerted on it"
Mathematically Representation:
Let V= Volume ofa given mass of gases
P=Pressure exerted
T Temperature

According to the Boyle's law;

Va(Tkept constant)
Or

V=Kz , where K is constant,

Or
PV K

Composed By Azhar Ali

 Prof. Muhammad Umer
Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Man
and P2, V, is final state then;
If P. V, is initial state
PV=K
PV=K
Or
PV P2V
Graphically Representation:-
V 20 P= 15
V2 =
40 V2 =
30

60
VI = 50 P = 10 50- Directly a
V2 20 P, =20 40-
40-
V xP= 50 x 10 500 constant
V Vo x 25 500 constant
30
30
20 20
10
10

10 25 20 40 10 20
1/p 40 50
50

If volumes are plotted against the values of pressurétheA PRatagolic Curve 1s

obtained, which shows that P and Vare inversely proportionat

But if volumes are plotted against the values of p thena Saraigholine is obtained, which
indicates that V is directly proportional t e l

CHARLES' S LAW:
Introduction:-
n U
A Frençh sgienfistta charles in
in 17
1787 showed the relationship between the
feharles

volume of a gasanditsabsoldte
ofute temperature at constantpressure
r0
State
Statement
A Constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature".

Mathematically Representation:
Let V=Volume of given mass ofa gas.
T Absolute temperature."
P=Pressure.
Then according to the Charles's law.
Va TC'p" left constant)

Or V KT (Where K is constant)

'

Or

IfV,, T, is initial state and V2, and T2 is final state then.

-K
And T
K
There fore
T T

Composed By Azhar Ali

Lec. Shoaib Ahmed
Graphical Representation:- Prof. Muhammad Umer Mangrio
When the volume of a gas is plotted
time is
formed. If this line is extra
against the absolute temperature, a straight
plotted, will be seen that it intercepts the temperature
it
axis at-273.16°C or OK. It shows that the volume
OK, which is called absolute zero. of a gas would be zero at -273.16'C or

-273°C -100°C 0°C 100°C 200°C

OK 173K 273K 373K
TASCrence hkerciwa
Interconversion of Celsius and Kelvin scale is given below K

AVOGADRO'S LAW:
Introduction:-
In 1811, an Italiag ssien(is Amadeó Avagadro gave a relationship between
volume and number ofmoleculas pt)a gas at fixed temperature and pressure called as
Avagadro's lawo
Stateme
EOrvolume of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contains the
samembEr of moles" or "The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of
moles ofthe gas at constant temperature and pressure".
Mathematically Representation:
Van (Tand P, kept constant) or V Kn or =K or = K, 2 =K or
n2

-problem from. .......

n n2
According to this law, 22.4dm of any gas at S.T.P contains 6.02x1025
molecules. This volume is called molar volume.

IDEAL GAS:
Definition
The gas which always all gas law under any condition of temperature and
pressure".
An ideal gas has no physical existence .It is an imaginary gas. Ideal gas has two
significant properties.
1) The molecules of ideal gas do not occupy volume.
2) The ideal gas molecules do not attract each other.

Gas like hydrogen and oxygen do not deviate greatly from the ideal behavior at
moderate temperature and pressure. The pressure of inter molecular force in the real
gases is the main cause of deviation from ideal behavior.

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Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Umer
Man
IDEAL GAS EQUATION:
Boyle's law, Charles's law and Avagadro's law may he combined together to
given a general relation between volume, pressure, temperature and no: of moles of a gas
and this relation is called ideal gas law or ideal gas cquation. This if values for any three
ofvariables P, V, T and in know the value of fourth can be calculated by using ideal gas
equation.
V=Volume of a given mass of a gas.
P=Pressure.
T-Absolute temperature.
N=Number of moles.

Then according to
Boyle's law Va (T, kept constant)

Then according to Charles's law Va T (P is kept constant) and

According to Avagadro's law Van (P and T,
kept consarko
Combining above gas laws, we get
Or >Gen :gas equation constant)

P
PV nRT (1)
s general gas equation or ideal gas equation
for one mole of a gas (n = 1), then equation (1) will be
PV RT
Or
PV R 2)
T
IfP1, V1, Ti, is initial state and P2, V2, T2, are final state then eq:(2) will be.
P =R
T
And Py2 =R
T2
Then
T T
This is another from of General Gas equation.
Equation II reveals that gas constant is the ratio of products of pressure and
volume to the absolute temperature. Its numerical value can be determiner at STP.

Derivation for the value of "R":

1) When pressure in atom and volume in dm*
We knows mole of an ideal gas at STP atom pressure 2173k ocupies 22.4 dm'.

Composed By: Azhar Ali

Lec. Shoaib Ahmed
Data: Prof. Mulhammad Umer Mangrio
n= Imole
T 273 k
P 1 atmospheree
V 22.4 dm
R=22
Solution:
Since PV =nRT
Or
PV
R=
nT
By putting values
R= atmospherex 22.4dm
R
Imolex 273K
0.0821 atms.dm'.mole'.K
2) Vaue of R, when
When pressure is in N
Gienceyaerabak
and volume is m (S t
m
For one mole gas at S.T.P
Data
n=I mole
T 273 K coege
or
P 101300 Pa er Nm1O .

V= 0.0224 m
erior

Solution
Since PV nRT
Or
R P
nT
By putting values
R= 101300Nn* x 0.0224m3
Imolex 273K
R 8.31 N.m.moleK,
There fore R 8.31 J/mole K
Since 1 cal=4.25J, these values ofR may be written as
R cal/
4.2
mole K
R 1.99 cal / mole K

Application of Ideal Gas Equation:-

It is used to determine the molecular mass and density of gas
(a) Molecular Mass:-
According to ideal Gas Equation
PV nRT (i)
n mass in gram (m)
Molecular mass (M)

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Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Umer Mang
To put the value of n in Ideal Gas Equation
PV RXT or PVM= nRT
M
M ="*XRxT]|

PV (iv)
It is the equation to calculate the molecular mass of a
gas.
By using eq.(iv), we get
(b) Density of Gas:-
M-mx Rx7.
PV
Or PxM XRXT but d =
By putting the volume of we get
V

PxM=dRT
d x M laerabag
RxT
It is the expression to find out the density of gas
U
Q. Calculate the density of NHs gas at 0 EWhegas is f+lled in cylinder at 2.64
atmospheric pressure?
Data:
d=?
TR 50°C+278aKu
082dm amJdm' molr".k"
P 2.64utmu
M ofNH14 +3 17 g.mol"
Solution:
Since d= Pm
RT
2.64x17
d =

0.0821x323
44.88
d.
26.518
d= 1.69 g/ dm

DEVIATION FROM IDEAL GAS:

A gas which
follow general gas
equation and all gas laws (Boyle's law,
Charles's law and Avogadro's law), under all
conditions of temperature and pressure equation
is called ideal gas. But more of the
known gas
exactly follow the ideal gas law and called às
real gas. In reality, there is
no gas is ideal but (b)
real gas show variation/ deviation at
law
temperature and high pressure (L.T.H.P). Effect of pressure on the
volume of gas

ComposedByAzhar Ali 8
Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof, Muhammad Umer Mangrio
GRAPHICAL EXPLALANATION OF DEVIATION OF REAL GASES
n
order to understand, the non-ideal behavior of gases, graphically the
generd
gas equation can be written as,
PV Z (nRT)
Or
Z P V

nRT
For one mole of gas
Z Pxv
RTn
Where P is a pressure, V is a volume, of gas, R is a universal gas constant and t
is a temperature while Z is called compressibility factor (A factor which explain effect of
pressure on gas) or
It is also define as the ratio of multiplication of pressure and volume temperature
is called compressibility factor. It gives an ideal of deviation
Its value is unity (1).
lfcompressibility factor (Z)> real gas show +vedexiatiga I lesthan
real gas show-ve deviation and Ifz=l show an ideal behavio

N
2.8

He

At Low Zenberaiiue

Platm)

CO

09
Ldual Ga
20 Yoo (oo

P(atin)
Deviation of real gases from ideality at low and at high pressure

Composed By: Azhar Ali

Lec. Shoaib Ahmed
Prof.
Muhammad Umer Man
CAUSESWeOF DEVIATION FROM IDEALITY:
have used the general gas equation to check the non-ideal behavior pf gases
General gas equation is based upon the postulates of kinetic theory of gases. Actually two
postulates of kinetic theory of gases are faulty. It means that general as equation is
1aulty. Those two postulates of kinetic theory of gases are as follows.
(1) There are no forces of attractions among the molecules of gases.
(2) The actual volume of gas molecules is negligible as compared to the volume of the vessel.

HIGHPRESSURE AND FAULITY ASSUMPTIONS:

when the pressure of the gases is low, molecules are away from each other. The
less The forces of attraction are less and the postulates of the
collisions are frequent.
kinetic theory of gases are correct. When the pressure of the gas is high, the molecules
come close to each other. The collisions become frequent. The forces of attraction
become dominant. The actual volume does not remain negligible and so the postulates
become wrong. It means that these postulates are true at low pressure, but þecom wrong
at high pressure.
When the temperature of gases are high (thennmplecules
ab mao vu
e more

LOWTEMPRATURE AND FAULTY ASSUMPTIONS:U

energetically. The force of attraction becpme less dominant" Moreover, gases show
expansion at high temperature and actualvolme df gas taolecules remains negligible.
When the
is
temperatHre isdon, action forces dominate. Moreover, less volume
occupied by the gasand apuaofume does not remain
negligible as compared to the
volume of the vesse
U
VANDERWAANSEQUATION OF GASES:
Introduetion?-
The two postulates of kinetic theory of
gases are challengeable. Hence, vender
Waal modified general gas equation
keeping view the nature of the gas. A Dutch
in
chemist Vander Waal (1873) gave a
mathematical solution for the correction of two
faulty assumptions that is called Vander Waal equation, has performed
twó corrections.
) Volume Correction:-
Volume of the gas molecules cannot be
ignored in the vessel. They do occupy
certain space. Because the molecules of real gas are
rigid spherical particles which
possess a definite volume. Hence the actual volume of molecules cannot be ignored in the
highly compressed gas. This volume is called effective volume of molecules. If we have
taken initially one mole of the gas then the effective volume is represented by h.
High Pressure

b C
A gas at low *Volume occupied by
*A gas at high pressure
pressure molecules and volume occupied by
molecules is not negligible
Composed By: Azhar Ali 10
Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Mulhammad Unmer Mangrio
FREE VOLUME:-
The volume available to the gas molecules is the volume of the vessel minus the
volume of gas molecules. This
available volume is also called free volume.
Where V= free volume, n
= of moles b excluded volumme.
no. =

VfreeVessel nb- - - - - - (1)

"b is also called excluded volume. It depends upon the rize of the gas molecules.

CAUTIONS:
The excluded volume "h" is not equal to the actual volume of the gas molecules.
In fact, it is four times the actual volume of molecules.
b4 Vm ----- (2)
Where Vm is the actual volume of the gas molecules.

(i) PRESSURE CORRECTON:

Molecules in the interior of the gas is attracted by other moleculgsSeaASides.
These forces of attraction cancel the effect of each other. Whenamoledulés strikes the
wall of a container, it experiences a force of attraction towards otherumolecules in
in aa gas.
In this way, this molecules cannot hit the walls of theesswithtiatmuch
much force with,
which it should have done so in the absençes atAtac i
a TorCes.
r C e s a

(onl
l
Molecuar|
ardpuT
nn
attractions||
balanced

(a) (b)
Pressure of molecule which strike on the wall is less than ideal gas pressure

In this diagram, the molecules "A" is unable to create pressure on the wall due to
the pressure of "B": type molecules.
Let the observed pressure on the walls of the container is P. The pressure is
being recorded by the gauge and this pressure in our general gas equation. This pressure
is less than the actual pressure Pi by an amount P". Pi is the pressure of the ideal gas in
the absence of attractive forces. P is that pressure which has been lessened due to
attraction forces.
PobPideal PL- -- (3) P=observed
P ideal1
Or then eq: will be
PL less
P =P1+P2---- --(11) Or P - P +PL

Composed By Azhar Ali 11

 Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Umer Mans
We should introduce the Pi in the general gas equation. The value of p is the
quantitative measurement of attractive forces present among the molecules ofthe gas. pl
IS expressed in terms ofa constant "a". This factor "a" accounts for the factor. The value
a
ofthe P' for one mole of a real gas is equal toThis is called coefficient of attraction.

p
Proof:
Pis the pressure lessened
due to attractive forces between A and B type
molecules. Let the concentration of A and B
attraction is proportional to
type molecules are Ca and Cp. The force of
Ca and Ca. So, P" a CaCB.
Suppose
n is the number of moles of A and B separately nlv is the moles dm ofa and B
separately. Here V is volume of vessel containing the gas.
So,
eeenCeM0erapa0
P'a,4
n0

2
Putting value ap} Rgamoh: 4 for one mole of gas (n=1)
a
(5)
Onealue of corrected pressure equation and corrected volume
substituted\ih general gas equation for are mole of gas. equation are

P V-h) =RT- ----

(6)
For 'n" moles ofa real gas
(P+77)(V-h)=RT-- (7)
This equation 6 is called vender Waal's
equation.
Vander Waal's constant for some common real gases
Hydrogen 03247 0.0266
Nitrogen 1.390
Oxygen 0.0391
1.360 0.0318
Methane 2.253 0.0428
Carbondioxide 3.590
0.0428
Ammonia 4.170
0.0371
Sulphur dioxide 6.170 0.0564
Chlorine 6.493 0.0562
Partial pressure:
The pressure exerted by a gas molecule in the non
reacting mixture of gases is
called partial pressure of the gas.
Or
Individual pressure of each non reacting gas in mixture of gases is called
pressure.
partial
Composed By: Azhar Ali 12
Lec. Shoaib Ahmed
Prof. Mulhammad Umer Mangrio
DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE:
Introduction:
In 1801 John Dalton, an English chemist studied the
pressure and total pressure of gases and relationship between partial
presented a law, known as Dalton's law of partial
pressure.

Statement:-
The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of partial pressure of all
gases present in that mixture.

Mathematically Representation:
where
Pr-Pat Pa +P¢ --
PT= Total pressure of mixture of gases.
PA=Partial pressure of gas A.
PB Partial pressure of gas B.
PcPartial pressure of gas C.
2
Explanation
Take three vessels of equal rize, in the first vessegas present with pressure
of 0.4 atmosphere and in the second vesselcgas RiAOS atmosphere pressure and in
third vessel gas C with 0.6
atmosphereptessurerhese three are combined in a single
vessel of the same volume, at the same temperture, then the total pressure of mixture
would he 0.15 atmosphere his ptdyes D%lton's Law of partial
pressure.
Pc PT
0.5atm 0.6atm 0.15atm

Oo

Since in the mixture all gases behave in dependently and molecules of each
collide with walls of container and exert its own pressure, their pressure can be calculated
by an ideal gas.

Equation:
Pa x V= "RT

PA Rr
V ---(1)
Or
PBx ng R.T
P "Rr ------- (2)

Or
PcXV=nc R.T
Pc=R.T
---- (3)

Since R, V and T are constants so the above equations can be written as

PAa DA, Pp « ng and Pc a nc
Above expressions indicate that partial
pressure of each gas is directly
proportional to no: of moles of gas.

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Lec.Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Umer Man
For the mixture of gases the general gas equation may be written as.
,RT
PxV=n, RT or P,= (4)
Driving equation 1 and equation (4), we get.
(5)
Driving equation 2 and 4, we get.
-- (6)
More fraction is the ratio of no; of moles of gas and total no; of moles of mixture
of gas. It is denoted
by.
Xg
n nr
So, equation; 5 and 6 can be written as

P PaXB
MGerapa
PA-PXAPP, Xs
Above expression indicates that product o otal prdssure öfmixture of non-reacting
gases and it's moles fractions of each gas, yallie ofmote jtaction is always equal to one.
APPLICATION
There are
OF DALONES\eAWOFÉARTIAL PRESURE:
variqusapplieatns of Dalton's law. Some of them are given below.
i) Pressure of asescolectetover water:-
When theUimsoluble gas collected over water, Dalton's law helps to calculate
total presSrod gas is the resultant of sum of water vapours and
is gemeratefand the pressure of the gas that
pressure due to water vapour is called aqueous tension and the
which is mixed with water is called moist gas. The total pressure can he gas
calculated by
P total= P dry gas tP moist gas.
P dry gas= P total- P moist gas.
* ***********************

**** ***** ******

Oxygen and
Water vapours

***

H20

Pressure of gas collected over water is equal to the sum

of pressure of dry gas and
vapours

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 Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Umer Mangrio
ii) Maintenance of oxygen pressure of
The pressure of air
high attitude:
on high altitude is lower due to decrease in Number
molecules of gases. ot
Respiration depends upon difference between the partial pressure or
Oxygen in the air. i-e (159 torr) and the lungs i-e (116 torr) that's why it is difficult to
respire at high altitude.
iii) Balance of oxygen pressure for
deep sea diverse:-
The total pressure of oxygen increases at the depth of 40m. Pressure increase
ve times which causes problem in respiration that's why deep sea divers use the
SCUBA, (self contained under water breathing apparatus), such type of apparatus
contains 96% of Helium and 4% of oxygen.
ExampleA (1):
20 dm' cylinder is filled with 4.25 moles of oxygen gas and 12 moles of
helium gas at 25".c. Calculate the total pressure of gas mixture and partial presure of
Oxygen and helium gases in the eylinder.
Solution:
V= 20 dm
n oxygen= 4.25 moles
n helium=12 moles
n n oxygen + n helium
n =4. 25 +12 16. 25 moles(
T 25c= 25+2707288R
P=?
P oxygên?

FREUngto general gas equation.

P=
16.25x 0.0821x 298
P 20
P-19.88atm
Now the partial pressure of gas in the mixture can be calculated by substituting
the moles and total pressure in given formula of Dalton's law.

(oxygen) noP
xPnt

P oxygen 4.2x 19.88 5.19 atm

16.2
Similarly,
Phelium 1219.88
16.25
19.88

P helium 14.68 atm

Result:
Total pressure = 19.88 atm.

= 5.19 atm.
P.P of O2
P.P of Hee = 14.68 atm.

Examples (2) nitrate

Oxygen gas is produced by heating potassium
2kNO3 2KNO2 +O2
Coinposed By: Azhar Ali 15
Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Unmer Man
The gas is collected over water. If 225cm of gas are collected at 25°C ana
8mm Hg total pressure, what is the mass of O2 gas collected? (Pressure of vapours at
25°C is 23.8 mm Hg).
Solution:
According to Dalton's law, the total pressure of mixture is equal to the sum of
partial pressure of 02 and vapours thus

Hence,
P02) 785 -23.8= 761.2 mm Hg
Convert the units of
pressure from mm Hg to atm and unit of volume from cm' to dm'.
p = 1.001atm
760
V =
225cm= 225 0.225dm
1000
T 25C =25+ 273 298K =

We can use
general gas equation to determine the number of moles
alh af ye
a
PV nRT n= Pv
RT
1.001x0.225
0.082x 298
-
9.2 x 10 moles
Now, mass of O-9.2 x10 201=0.294
.

DIFFUSIQN OFGASES
The mininofHoi-teacting gases to form a uniform mixture is called diffusion
of sR OD
OR
Diferent gases diffuse with different speed, lighter gases diffuse rapidly
behavior. than the
.*

Rate of Diffusion:
The distance covered by a gas for the purpose of diffusion is called rate of
diffusion.
Or
The volume of gas
diffused in the unit time is called rate of diffusion.
Rate of diffusion = Volume of gas diffused
Sec
dm
Sec

GRAHAMS'S LAW OF DIFFUSION:-

Introduction:
In 1881, Thomas Graham after studying the rate of diffusion of
densities, put forward a law, known as Graham's law of gases and their
diffusion.
Definition:
"Rate of diffusion of gas is
a
inversely proportional to the square root of the
density or molecular mass of that gas provided the temperature and pressure are same for
two gases".

Composed By: Azhar Ali 16

Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Umer Mangrio
MATHEMATICAL REPRENTATION:-
If'r is rate of diffusion and 'd' is density of gas then according to this law.

r ay
a
or =
K
Va
If r rate of diffusion of 1 gas.
2 rate of diffusion of 2"" gas.
d density of 1gas.
And d density of 2" gas.
Then
-- (1)
or

eieorCiceMoeieoau K
Similarly
1 of
d
Comparing eq:1 and eq:2, we get

Or
- (3)
d
hence eq: 3 may be written
as.

SinceqeTKonagas is proportional
to its molecular mass

r a and t a M .
M
M

Application of Graham'slaw: mass and densities as well as it is

used to
It is used to determine the molar diffusion.
different m a s s e s and rate of
because Isolopes, having
separate Isolopes
Example:1 diffusion of helium (H) and
methane (H4) gases.
Compare the rate of
Solution:
Mass of He = 4a.m.u

rHe MCH
rCH MHe

rHe 16 = Ans
CH, V4
two times as fast as CH4.
Thus Helium gas diffuses

relative
Example:-2 A and B is 1.5: 1.If the
The ratio of the rates of diffusion of two B?
gases

of relative molecule mass of gas

molecules mass

Composed By:AzharAli
17
Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Muhammad Umer Ma
Solution:

According to Graham's Law

=M
| MA

16

By applying the square root on both sides.

(- l6)
Mg(1.5)x 16
Mg2.25 x 16
Mp 36
Example:3 h
At specific temperature and pressure, it takes
a

gas to effuse through a 290s TO sqmsample of He

porous membrane. Under similarogorditions if 1.5dm° of in
known gas "X" takes of gas 1085s to an
effusercalculate thenolar mmass of gas X?
Solution:

M
X
MHie
VHite
Vxilx
4M
1.5/290 M
1.5/1085
1085
2
9
Squaring on both sides, we get:
(1085 M
29
Mx 56g/mole.
Liquefaction of Gases
A process in which
gases are converted into liquid, state. It is carried out
increasing It's pressure or by lowering temperature is called by
high temperature and low pressure molecules come close to liquefaction
of Gases. Gas at
of each other due to which force
attraction created which convert Gas into liquid state. It has been
can convert into liquid state at specific noticed that Gases
AT WHICH A GAS CAN temperature "THE HIGHEST TEMPER1TURE
CONVERT INTO LIQUID STAE IS CALLED CRITICAL
TEMPERATURE". Its is denoted by "Te" where T denotes
denoted critical. While pressure temperature and subscripts
is known as critical
required at critical temperature to convert
gas into liquid
pressure it is denoted by Pe, volume of one mole of gas at critical
Temperature and critical pressure is called critical volume. Critical
critical pressure are the parameters temperature and
which gives knowledge
following is the taste which gives knowledge for liquefaction about liquefaction of gases
of Gas..
Composed Bv Azhar Ali 18
Le ShoaibAhmed
Prof. Mulhammad Umer Mangrio
Gas Critical
Oxygen =02 takentemperatureTc
in ('C) scale Critical pressure Pc (atm)
-118.75 49.7
Nitrogen=N2 -147.06 33.5
Argon Ar
-122.26 48
Freen C cl F2 111.54 39.6

There are various Methods for liquefaction some of them, are given below.

Joule-Thomson Effect:
This Effect Explainconversion of Gas in to liquid state i.e liquefaction. It is state
that "When highly compressed gas (Region of lower pressure is allowed to expand
suddenly (Region of lower pressure the temperature of falls down and gas Become Cool
Lnc l a l in temperature depend is upon difference in pressure.
B\w compresSed and

expanded gas.
LhaGeral

) Linde's Method of liquefaction: for liquefaction of

Hampton Linde in 1842 1934 ExplainJoule Thnson effett from region
gases According to him when gas allowedto
is Band iracdosed system
of Air or any gas taken
of higher pressure to region of very low pressuretheiauefication
place.

Explanation: 200 atmosphere in

then gas is compressed to
In this ehod fresh Aíret any
contains water,
andomprèssed air is allowed to pass through pipe which air is
compressea as water and heat of compressed
werehhoisture present in air is condensed the expansion of gas
gas is passes through copper spiral coil caused Jetdecrease
absoredany atmosphere. It causes the
in temperature
occurs due to reduced one
pressure i.e
and moves up and cool thee
in the expansion chamber
formed
of air and cooled air is from expansion chamber
for
air and unexpended gas pumped
incoming compassed followed by expansion is repeated many
this process of cooling and comparison
recycling chamber and removed.
air is collected at the bottom of expansion
time until liquid

Liquid Air and its Uses: cooled by lowering

When ordinary air compressed by
high pressure or

there are various applications of

and known as liquid air,
temperature, the air liquefies below:
some of them are given
liquid air or liquefied gases
Liquid air is mainly
used for the cooling purpose.
i)
is used as a fuel.
ii) Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
(CNG) is used as a
fuel.
ii) Compressed natural gas mixture of butane and other hydrocarbon
gas (LPG)
is a
iv) Liquefied petroleum and oven.
and used as a fuel for engines
dioxide are used to cool other substances.
v) Ammonia and liquid sulphur
is used in medical science.
vi) Liquid nitrogen
vii) Compressed oxygen is used
for wielding purpose.

19
Composed By:Azhar Ali
Lec. Shoaib Ahmed Prof. Miuhammad Umer Mangrio
Fourth State of Matter Plasma:
Plasma is taken from Greek word Plassien' which means moldable substance.
Plasma was first introduced by William Crooks in 1879 while he was working on
discharge tube experiment. He called it radiant substance but Lather on in 1920s
Longmuir used the word plasma. Plasma may be defined as; the mixture of ionized
molecules, electron, positive ions and atoms natural plasma can exist at high temperature
or low temperature vacuums. It does not break down or react rapidly but it is hot over
20000C its energy is enough to vaporize any matter over all it is neutral B/c No. number
of tve ions and -ve ions are same in plasma. Plasma has neither definite shape nor
definite volume. Plasma shows characteristics glow in discharge tube depending upon
nature of gas, eg: hydrogen glow green, oxygen red etc.

Uses of Plasma:
Plasma has various uses in
various field someof them are given below:
i Plasma lightens the surroundings when light of fluorescent bulb grnéohnsigns is
turned on.
ii) It is used in television and computer chips.
ii) Plasma is used in cleaning the environnedest Hg hiological hazards and
heading wounds.
iv) It is use to sterilize some medicalproducis.
v) It is used in theprocessimg of semiconductors.
vi) Itis used imlaserop Rower, switches and diamond coated films.

Composed By Azhar Ali 20