Higher Education and Society

Educational purposes, content of education, processes by which education is imparted

and the institutional system of education are at any point of time, shaped according to
the needs, demands and aspirations of the society. Vice versa, society is deeply
influenced by the education which is provided for its members. Our discussion in the
previous unit has thrown some light on this generative relationship between education
and society, with special reference to higher education. In this unit, we will examine
the relationship between higher education and some specific aspects of society, for
example, higher education and the State, higher education and the economy, etc.

In the previous unit, we already discussed the aims of higher education in different
historical contexts and how these have kept changing with developments in different
sectors of social life. In this unit, we shall discuss the linkages between education and
other subsystems within the broader societal system and examine how they influence
the aims and role of higher education at a particular point in time. This will be followed
by a discussion on the university as a social institution.
After you have read through this unit, you will be able to
interpret the inter-connectedness among various subsystems in society;
appreciate the idea that 'university is a social organism'.and understand its
obligations to the society at large;
recognize the importance of characteristics like 'autonomy',. 'academic freedom'
and 'accountability' for higher education institutions in fulfilling their obligation
of higher education.

Higher education and other.systems

Education has always played an important part in preparing men for life in society
and moulding them accordingly, whether directly or indirectly, overtly or covertly.
Improvement of the human mind with its potential powers of rational thought and ability
to discover knowledge about nature and its laws, to be came regarded as the key to
human progress during the enlightenment. Rather than regard the learning of skills and I
1 knowledge as a virtuous pastime or merely to carry out important political and civil
operations (as in the case of Egyptian Greek and Roman scribes), men of enlightenment
I
saw cognitive development and the pursuit of knowkdge as essential not only for Higher Education and
Society
survival, but also for the advancement of society itself. Education in the modem sense,
as a formal and deliberate process by which the cultuml and normative heritage of a
society is transmitted from generation to.generation, and through which that heritage
is improved through scientific discovery, had its roots in the enlightenment. The
precursors of the modern school and university, with their presumed functions relating
to progress became established during this period, however, formal institutions for
education existed in ancient societies as well. Clearly the development of writing
represented a major breakthrough in the development ofcivilization and the acquisition
and use of this important skill was soon institutionalized.
From the beginning, it appears that schools and their Skilled products were seen as
serving the State and the society as a whole. Even in Greece and Rome where much
learning was admired for its own sake, the advantages to the State of an educated
citizenry were recognized. Plato, in particular was concerned with education, for only
through proper training could the State be assured of a layal citizenry and talented
leaders. Although the nature of relationship between edueation and society is a subject
of debate, Sociologists like Durkheim have argued t h t changes in society always
precede changes in the educational system. Durkheim emphasized that 'educational
transformations are always the result and the symptoms ~f the social transformations
in terms of which they are to be explained'. (1977, 166)

Higher education and econmny

There has been a close relationship between education and economy in all historical
periods. In the days of subsistence economy, or when humms had to struggle to produce
just enough food for their consumption, education consisting of traditional knowledge
and skills was passed on from generation to generation ih an informal manner. When
improved production lead to the availability of leisure for at least some people, more
formal schooling came into existence. Right from that day, the State, such as it was
perhaps tribal chiefs reigning through some advisory groqps, came to have influence
over what was to be taught and how.
Some aspects of relation between education and the economy are quite obvious, for
example, small countries with agricultural or plantation economy are not likely to have
steel mills or an aircrafts industry and hence they will pro$ably not have education in
metallurgy or aeronautics. In India, when the setting up of technical institutions was

70
first proposed at the end of the last century, the colonial overnment turned it down
saying that there b a s no industry in the country to ab rb the product?of such
institutions. But, in spite of all this and the fact that the economically advanced
countries have all a high level of education available to thkir people, two tendencies
have strongly prevailed for quite some time, and even now there are many wlib accept
these positions. One is that education's role in cultivating the individual is so much
emphasized that concern for the social impact of education apd hence economic impact
is ignored or underplayed. Education for the sake of education, education and educated
living in an ivory tower distant fromthe mundane problems df Ufe, and hence education
as a social service provided by the government - it can spare any resources for the
purpose - all these views are correlates of each o+r. The'second is that economists
like to measure the benefits of education by statistical means and by qualifying the
monetary benefits in terms of life-time earning capacity of the individual. This totally
ignores the non-monetary benefits, such as social influence by,virtueof better education,
or the enhanced capacity of society to be master of its own destiny by virtue of
education. In the context of Indian education, a clear policy statement in the National
Policy on Education (1986) says that education is an investbent in the future of the
nation. Economic studies are available to show that in the lon$er run, every rupee spent
on education brings greater returns than a rupee invested elsewhere.
 -- - -.-
High? @l.w&bn: The relationship between education and economic p w t b is like a mo-edged sword.
Retrospects and Prospeckt There is little doubt that in some contexts education can be an extremely important
motor for economic growth. On the other hand education does have limits in what it
can do for an econom). Education contributes to economic growth b~ ~roducingskills
and knowledge which promote it and make it possible: on the other hand. economic
growth potential!) contributes further to educational e~pansionand eficienc? through
increases in national producti~in. accumulation of capifalgnd savings for rein\ estment
into the system, and in the improt ernerlt of human resources. Irnpro\.emen? of human
resources is not limited to the incutcatiorl of skills and h o n ledge. but includes ha\ ing
attitudes. \ alues. and moth es consistent n ith the goals and methods of de\ eloprnent
plans. Here education is again inextricabt linked u ith development since it is the major
vehicle f i r bringing about the social and psychological changes. necessaq for the
improb ement of produni\ e labourer.
In the contest of globatization. the relationship henxeen econo~n>and education assumes
a significant dimension. Because globalization affects ernplo?ment. it touches upon one
of the priman traditional goals of education: preparatioll for xwrk. Educational
institutions will need to reconsider rhis mission in the light of changing Sob markets in
a nen en\ ironment {Post Fordist) nen b h i l l s arid the flekibilit: to adapt to changins
job demands and. for thar matter. changin? jobs during a lifetime. and dealing iiitll
an increasingly competiti~e internatio~~al labour pool. Yet educational institutrons do
not limit themspl\es to preparing-studen?s as producers but also heIp shape consumer
attitudes and practices as HcII. leading 10-increasins coinrnercialization of the
educational em ironmem.
Meanwhile due to changes in the ecbnomy s i n e the 1980's resulting in a shift in
financing of miversities, the university system is undergoing a change. Renrltantl>. the
&owing proximity between rhe corporate sector and the unhersity svstem. has
redefined its role, processes and image. This'shift encourages university's support of
tecbnologhl cbnnge and private sector development as the dominant guiding iision
of fbture higher education policy. This has \the folio\\ ing significant implications for
the natue of universities and its role in societ?:

-Thechanging university agenda

Until now central i m p t a n c e has been given to the production of social knowledge.
the creation of curricula to meet academic objectives the organization of administration
to support academic b b j d e s and the pure reseatch base, with the universities response
to the private pod& sector, the agenda shifts; and academiccontrol of agen& wavers.
T h e corhmodification of knowledge
Providing a bmad fmus on the diverseneeds of society and developing research which
produces knowledge to be socially used to be available to all, has beeo at the heart of
the university's agenda By contrast the pull to divert knowledge into the market place
through the development of marketable products encourages research which is
specifically targeted to these ends for knowledge to be exploited throygh the
marketplace, it must be turned into 'the appropriate commodity fonn. in other words
into private property'

Institutional ch?nges
The university - cqomte linkages also leads to certain changes u ithin the institufions
- chief among them are
- the d r n c k s prPctices of madtgement within the university are changing
m order to accommodate the new agenda;
.
- the need for a centraked bqmanerncy to manage all new offices of technolop-
 transfer, centers of excellence, etc reduces and alters the influence of the academic Higher Education and
depkmental structures; . Society

I The major consequence of this corporate university I'nkages is the emerging image of
the university as a business corporation rather t l p a public social institution.

Self-assessment
1. Discuss the relationship between education, employment and the economy.

2. Hour IIUSthe image and role of the Universi!y changed with recent changes in the
econonlic policies.

State, government and hig.her education

The relati'onsliip between tlie State and higher education can be seen in terms of the
interplay of the dyna~ilicsgenerated by the economy, the dominant state bureaucracy
and political institutions and interests. The modern economy, first of all is fuelled by
an ever evolvilig mix of manpower and scientific lu~owledgeand ideally, would require
the education systenl to train and research the appropriate educational products
necessary for optimum economic advance. However, intervening between the economic
dynamic and its potential impact upon education is the central bureaucracy of the State
and tlie political institutions and interests, each with its own identity and concerns. To
tlie best of its ability each interprets and channels tlie demands from the economy in a
way which suits the dynamic inherent in its own intereds and policy preferences.
What exactly is tlie nature of the State's interest in higher education? In the view of
Halsey and Trow (1971), the State's interest derives from the fact that the universities
are a crucial foundation of the economy, have been codceived as integral to a higher
educatioli system wliich supplies, scientific manpower arid technological innovation for
eco~iolnicgrowth atid widening opportunities to a risiniproportion of the population.
Tliey are thus of crucial political importance and we in any case pressed into
responsibility, or at least respolisiveness to the State as &ager of economic growth,
and tlie dispenser of individual opportunity for particiption.
Let 11snow try to understand why the State needs higher'education and therefore why
higlier educatioli possesses the power that it does?
Higher education offers a unique blend of two resources essential for economic and
social development: knowledge and status. At the apex ef the educational hierarchy,
higher education makes the decision on how knowledge should be organized and what
status shouid be attached to different knowledge areas. Likewise any significant change
in the contait or boundar)l of a knowledge area has to be'sarctioned by higher education
if it is to cdrry lasting weight. Further within higher education, universities act as the
custodians of the selection process through their control of the examination system.
Society only accepts that an individual, has acquired a pvicular body of knowledge
if tlie possessio~iof that knowledge has been certified by an appropriate institution.
Not only that, uliiversities also strongly influence the form and content of certificates
awarded b i il~stit~~tio~islower down the educational hierarch$ In effect, they thus define
the coiitest i l l which much inditidual w-ial mobility takes p e . In acquiring the mantle
.- - ---- -
Higher Edhcation: of university respectability an occupation also gains access to a high status culture
Retrospects and Prospects which judiciously employed, will enhance its claims to professional respectability.
Besides recognizing that the universities perform a key social function by controlling
the individual and occupatiohal mobility for social change, the State also recognizes
that the universities also promote particular set-of values which it would also like to
control. In other words, if the-socio-political power of the universities was to be
harnessed and directed within an overalk@licy-framework for higher education, State
intervention had to be justified before it could be implemented. For instance, the
economic ideology of education is to enable students to become part of the "efficient
distribution of human capital and so facilitate linkage, between economic demand and
human supply". The rise of the New Right's view of education as a market place where
educational products should be bought and sold and where supply and demand should
be left to resolve distribution problem has now challenged the right and the duty of
State organizations to intervene in higher education.
In the current scenario, relations between the State and the universities can best be
described as an attempt on the part of the government to create a managed market
financed essentially by public money. Therein the universities are given wide
constitutional control over their own affairs while operating within centrally defined
and regulated parameters that are managed by funding agencies.

Self-assessment
2 . In what way is higher,education important to the State?
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Higher education and social c h s muartre

Coming as I do from the lowest order of the Hindu society I know what is
the value of education. The problem of moving the lower order is deemed
to be economic. This is a great mistake. The problem of raising the lower
order in India is not to feed them, to clothe them and make them serve the
higher order as is the ancient idea of this country. The problem of the lower
order is to remove from them that inferiority cotnplex which has stunted
their growth a n d made them slaves to others t o create in them the
consciousness of 'the significance of their lives for themselves and for the
country, of which they have been cruelly robbed by the existing social order.
Nothing can achieve this except the spread of higher education.
Dr. ,B. R. Ambedkar
Such was the importance accorded to education by Dr. Ambedkar, the foremost leader
of the socially backward classes in India. But, does education fulfil the aspirations of
changing the social structure?
Let us now discuss the relationship between education and social classes. We can notice
the relationship betwken education and social and economic class structure from the
earliest beginnings of education. In slave societies, slaves were not only deprived of
education, but they were also prohibited from entering the system. In feudal society
too, education was confined to the gentry whereas only occasionally people belonging
to fanning families ok farm workers received some edukation but rarely did they reach
higher levels of education. The process and content of education corresponded with
its social function; it tended to further the interests of the upper classes either by
pa~ntingthem as tlie custodians of refinement and culture or allowing notions of caste Higher Education and
and class superiority to be popularized. Education did not encourage questioning of Society
social structure or distribution of privilege by making itself more accessible or relevant
to the masses. In order to forestall such questioning it adopted an "ivory tower" point
of view - i.e. lack of concern for current social, economic or political issues, and
.
concentrating on abstract or "neutral" concepts under the excuse of being non-partisan.
In India, the lower castes remained deprived or deficient in education for so long that
special provision had to be made in the Constitution to give them "concessions" in
education and then in employment. These were not essentially concessions because the
handicap of centuries of unfair treatment was being partially rectified.
After the Second World War and the liberation of dozehs of countries from colonial
dependency, education, started slowly being perceived as a catalyst of social
transformation. Efforts by the respective nationalist goven$ments to improve the quantity
and quality of education for tlie socially disadvantaged did not however yield impressive
results. Distribution of education continued along lines of caste, class, gender and ethnic
inequality. In India, for instance, let us take the case of the Dalits, they got access to
education and their access broke the traditional linkage between caste, education and
occupation, yet it could only transported them from mehial occupations in the caste
feudal structure to menial lows status, low - paying and low skilled jobs in the modern
occupational structures. (Velaskar, 1998) Thus despite impressive gain in improving
access, empirical evidence points to education, by and large, continuing to legitimize
power structure, social status quo and colonial policies even in post colonial India.
But does this mean that education privileging the elite is something intrinsic to its
function? Can education bring about social change? Moving away from viewing the
education system to legitimize and reproduce dominant forms of knowledge and skills
and its distribution in a manner that conforms to the structures of stratification in an
unequal society, is another view of education which opposes the functionalist stance
of reproduction and takes into account the resistance and challenges to hegemonic
structures by oppressed groups, classes and social movtments. I11 this context, for
instance, Padma Velaskar (1994) argues that despite limitations and constraints, the
acquisition of higher education by the Dalits has resulted in positive social, political
and cultural images which are manifested in a variety of tangible and intangible forms.
Therefore, even though education may not contribute totmobility - both social and
economic, in a big way, its contributions to positive gains politically and culturally
can hardly be overemphasized.

Self-assessment
. 4 . Discuss how, in the Indian context educrrtion has injluenoed social change?
I

5 . How does education 'privelege the elite'? Give exarnplesjfrom the Indian context.

Higher education, culture and social inieegra~ion

-%'

As discussed earlier, education, from the point of view Bf society, is a process of

transmission of culture. By culture, here we mean a great,deal more than mere art,
music or literature! It refers to the total way of life of a soci&ty-- its' knowledge, beliefs,
Higher Education: attitudes, values, skills and behaviour patterns. Education can be considered as the
Retrospecb and Prospats mechanism by which society inducts its members into its ways of life and beliefs. It
is partially responsible for the transfer from one generation to the next of society's
beliefs, values, sentiments, knowledge and patterns of behaviour. This process of
socialization is conservative in that it perpetuates current cultural patterns and
discourages deviation from them. However, ways of life, concepts of decency, and
beliefs are not monolithic; they may change with region or historical origin of a group
of population; they may also be different for the various classes in the same social
groups. The question whether education should endeavour to promote a common culture
or help diverse groups to develop their own different cultures is a vexed one, not least
in relation to those minority, ethnic groups that are to be found in most societies
(Jeffcoats, 1984; Kelley, 1986). Since there is no unanimity regarding what culture
is and therefore what the content of education should be, educational provisions for
different social and ethnic groups and a need for diversity rather than uliiformity of
educational provision is called for. It becomes important in a class, poverty,
unemployment and disaffection ridden society such as ours, that the content of
education is relevant to the lives of its citizens and their 'outside - the school
experiences' so that alienation from and rejection of education does not take place.
The other important issue to be considered is that most societies are in a change of
flux, technological change in particular brings about changes in the norms, the values,
the beliefs and the customs of a society. Rapidity of the social change and the need
for people to be .equipped to cope with it and even exercise some degree of control -
over it suggests that education should prepare individuals for the fact of social change
itself, to adapt to and to initiate changes in the norms and values of the community.
Thus more recent views have stressed that culture must be seen as the total environment
within which an individual develops and learns and which he / she must be helped to
come to terms with, to operate effectively in 1 and to gain some control over it.
Individuals learn, it is claimed, by making sense and constructing meaning through
interaction with their environment and their culture. The task of education is to help
individuals towards this form of learning, to negotiate 'meaning in a manner congruent
with the requirements of the culture' (Bruner and Haste, 1987: 1). In this sense, culture
is viewed as supporting cognitive growth by providing 'cultural amplifiers' through
yhich pupils develop those ' modes of representation', access to public structures
through which the meaning of experiences can be not only internalized and understood
but also shared. In this kind of analysis, learning is interactive and the relationship
between culture and education is two-way.
In recent times education has been under tremendous pressure to ensure social
integration. Social integration is considered dependent on a founding system of norms
and values shared by the vast majority of a society. Consequently, an appeal is made
to educators to make sure (future) members of society embrace and internalize those
values. However, in the context of rapidly changing pluralistic societies, the 'shared -
values' view of social integration causes problems. An alternative view of social order
defines social integration as emergent at the level of the social system and relates it to
its individual members through the dynamics of communication instead of the status
of 'value - endorsement'
As discussed, education cannot contribute to the integration of society by passing on
norms and values to the next generation. Rather its contribution should consist of
developing n a m t i v e skills and a sense of connection (namely, the ability to
reflectively position oneself in a complex and changing environment and the inclination
to assume liability for the outcome). Communication and reflectivity are the two main
components of this kind of narration. Therefore as discussed earlier, the rgle of
education should be an enabling one by imparting the necessary skills.
tu
 A write-up urging greater university community interface Higher Education and
Society
Stakes and Ladders
Involve Public in Higher Education
-
By- Oipankar Gupta faculty must demonstrate its competence not only to
its pekrs, but to the public as wdll. If truth be told,
universities in I n d i a are ivory tower intellectuals are not intellectuals at all.
institutions. They are just about tolerated by the that do not have a sense ofengagement
public because lhey hand Out degrees that are often with theii surroundings eventually produce the most
prerequisites for getting salaried jobs, or for getting ordinary drivel in the most bombastic fashion.
married. There is little expectation that students will
A sense of engagement does not mean
excel in Indian universities, nor are faculty members identificafion with political parties either. In fact, this
taken seriously as knowledge producers.
is the m a t tempting, and also the most dangerous,
Universities are where one goes to in one's youth choice. Once teachers are seduced into taking this
with a narrow ~~tilitarian motive, but are otherwise option, itcmakes it easy for politicians to march in
not considered as vibrant public spaces. Though most
through t b front door. For academics to pursue their
universities are viewed with disdain by the public, intellectu81 agenda in a meaningful manner, they
there are some stellar exceptions to this rule. Yet,
must have the and not the politician, on their
these universities too get tarred and feathered with side. But this public can be won if universities are
the same brush a very public. This able to cobmunicate their scholarship to them in a
is primarily because all universities in India, without
meaningtd way.
exception, have no time t o relate to the non-
When the public is an important stakeholder of
specidised world outside. Cnnsequently, they do not
the univer?ity system, the university will also devix
have the public in their comer. which is why they 'are
ways of rdeeting public expectations, and even
constantly at the whim of politicians, big and small.
raising p d l i c aspirations. New courses will be
Most Indian universities do not appreciate the designed keeping in mind the changing needs of the
importance of linking up with the rest of society in
an ongoing fashion. They stand
. day, and special attention will be
given to those who, for one reason or
aloof in the belief that the mountaip
another, cannot make it a s regular
will always come to Mohammed.
full-time students. None of these
In the initial, years after'
would entail a dilution of standards.
Independence, when universities They would demand instead greater
enjoyed a certain degree of prestige
imagination, and a inore profound
in the country, teacher activists did
intellectual engagement with the
not pay attention to the public and
world around.
instead aimed their guns at
Once the public is accepted as a
politicians. Indeed they won the
legitimate stakeholder, university
early rounds, but their isolation
teachers and researchers have a solid
from the public is now hurting
bulwark to protect them from
them.
political pre$ators. Further by accepting that the
Politicians have intuitively sensed this and are,
public has an integral role to play in the intellectual
therefore, emboldened to impose all manner o f
life of the uiiversity, there is the constant pressure
outrageous curricula ~nodificationswithout fearing
to upgrade rtsearch and teaching standards. Only
any public backlash. For universities to be able to
politicianscan trade bad research for patronage and
function as true centres o f higher education, they
support. The bublic, in general, is more demanding
have to win the public to their side. This does not
and fair. I
mean dilution of standards, but rather an elevation of
It is t ~ t M
e not every good researcher will have
research and teaching programnies that are then
a ready public support base, but the very act of taking
meaningfully communicated outside the portals of
collectively the public into confidence on research
the university.
programmes,'and inviting them as students and
Indeed. without an appreciative audience, it is
participants ib intellectual gatherings, raises the
impossible to raise resources for universities. This
general appreciption of universities in the society. The
holds true for both private and public grants.
valuable real estate on which most universities are
Universities in India have to realise that the public is
situated are eyed hungrily by politicians. One sure
an imprtant stakeholder. This w o ~ ~ fundamentally
ld
way of makink all this real estate appear as valid
alter the way institutions of learning are run in this
possession is td open the grounds and the buildings
country. Faculties must recognise that their core
to the public when teaching is not taking place.
competence in universities is to advance knowledge
This is how the university becomes true public
through critical research. These advances must be
property outside the reach of petty politicians. A
made available to pirblic through lectures. science
stakeholder apkroach to university management
exhibitions, popular literary festivals, aesthetic
recognises that jt is not by defying the public and
displays, and so on.
making peace with politicians that institutions of
The community around irniversities would then
higher learning tan prosper. On the other hand, it is
feel a sense of belonging with the institution, which,
only by relying bn public goodwill that universities
ultimately, is the best guarantor for an unbiased and
can guard its core competencies.
unprejudiced advance of knowledge. It politicians
and their pet projects are to be kept at bay, then the -
Source: The Times ofIndia 18 September 2003.
Higher Education:
Retrospects and Prospects Self-assessment
6 . In what way, you, ar a teacher, will prepare learners for social integration?
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UnivmerSIty
ar a social entity
In the preceding discussions, we have seen how the role and functions of higher
education have centred around the individual, society and knowledge. The higher
educational system, howsoever important it may be, is only one part of the larger socio-
economic system. Its students come from various strata of society, with hopes and
aspirations related to possibilities of careers and life as a whole in the given society,
it draws its financial and administrative support from society, its alumni have to look
for employment in the society. This intricate relationship requires the higher educational
system to be a living and dynamic entity. If it turns passive and only carries out the
orders of those who at any time are at the helm of affairs in society, it will fail in
providing positive impulses for changing the society for the better. If the society or
government interfere with the natural academic freedom of the university, they deprive
themselves of what good the university could have done to them. It has become a
cardinal principle in all enlightened societies to ;espect the academic freedom of
university life, in.particular freedom of speech and expression, freedom in framing
cuiricula, establishing teaching methods and choosing problems for research.
This relationship between the society and university has however undergone a change.
Eric Hobsbawm (1994) has characterized the twentieth century as the age of extremes
unable to-say what the future holds, though hopeful that it might yet be better than
the past. .Hobsbawm is-clear on two things an era has ended (with the collapse of
commuriism) second, although no one can know how history will unfold, the past is
no longer a guide to the future. The same can be said of higher education as can be
a
ssii'd for-the c e n t u j as whole; an era has ended; what has gone before no longer
provides 3 credible inodel for the future.
As mentioned.e&lier, liniversities are undergoing a redefinition of their role and purpose.
I11 the'changing context higher education institutions can make themselves relevant to
the society by being more flexible and open. Universities engaged in meeting lifelong
education needs of people in employment and redefining teaching, learning with the
use of new information technology are likely to draw more public support. New ideas,
new ways of thinking and learning will help universities to redefine their position vis
a vis society. For example helping societies to 'learn their way out' of the problems
of the society which sustains them is an important source of university - society linkage.
Similarly, although universities are no longer the only players in generating new
knowledge through research they still have a vital role in evaluating public policies
and in forming multi - disciplinary teams to tackle societal problems.
Therefore freedom is, undoubtedly, required for higher education institutions to
discharge their true function in society even in the changing contexts. But no
freedom is absolute, freedom of expression and speech has to be within the framework
of reason and responsibility. Irrational, emotional or intolerant thoughts could destroy
- the very fabric of a society. Let us now examine some concepts intrinsic to the
university system.
 Higher Education and
Autonomy Society

University's freedom to exercise its power to achieve its varlous goals set by the society
or to influence change in society itself is called its autonomy. University's autonomy
runs parallel to its commitment and responsibility of discharging its social obligation.
In other words, university is accountable to the society for its acts of omission and
commission. It is in this context we talk of autonomy, academic freedom and
accountability. We will explore these linkages further,
1
When we speak of university autonomy, we mean Its right to goveni its own affair
and particularly its rights to carry out its legitimate activities of teaching and research
without interference from any outside authority. Autonomy implies university's four
essential freedoms - to determine for itself on academjc grounds who may teach, what
may be taught, how it should be taught, and who miy be admitted to study. In other
words, autonomy means the university or college's power of decision-making with
regard to academic programmes and activities, wit@n financial bounds laid down by
Government or by raising funds from interested'sources. Only an autonomous
institution, free from regimentation of ideas, pressure, or power politics can pursue truth
fearlessly and build independent thinking essential-for the development of society. There
are many other spheres of activities in which universities need autonomy. Some of these
are selection of students, appointment and promotion of teachers, determination of
curriculum, methods of teaching, research activities, contents of courses, student
evaluation, other administrative and financial matters and staff appraisal. Autonomy
has to be seen as operating at two levels, viz., external and internal. By external
autonomy of a University is meant, university as a coqbrate entity and its independence
in its activities in relation to other institutions in societj.. Internal autonomy, on the other
hand, signifies the autonomy of individual teachers I koups within the University, with
their accountability to the academic community at lage.
Universities' dependence on public funds makes them increasingly open to scrutiny by
t h e State. It is also interesting to note here that universities tend to face interferences
from the govem~nentin those times and places where their activities are perceived to
be of national importance. In a sense when universities have been least central and
important, their autonomy has been safest and this is -use institutions that are purely
,':Ivory Towers" are of little relevance to the society and external authorities are often
content to leave them alone.
The autonomous status for higher education institutions, thus, in essence, aims at giving
opportunity to the teachers and students to make innovations, utilize their creative talent,
improve the standards of teaching, examination and tesearch and quickly respond to
social needs.

Acadtmic freedom I

Freedom of expression in all its forms, can be justified on two fundamental grounds. C

For the individual, the right to speak and write as one chooses is a form of liberty
that contributes in important ways to a rich and stimulating life. To be deprived of
such !iberty is to lose the chance to participate fully in an intellectual exchange that
helps to develop one's values to make one's meaning ofthe world and to exercise those
qualities of mind and imagination that are most distinctively human. Beyond its
significance to the individual, freedom of speech has traditionally been regarded as
important to the welfare of society. Throughout history, much progress has occurred,
through growth in our understanding of ourselves, our institutions, and the environment
we live in. But experience teaches us that major discoveries and advances in knowledge
are often highly unsettling and distasteful t o the existing order. Only rarely do
- ,
Higher Education: individuals have the imagination and intelligence to conceive such ideas and the courage
Retrospects and Prospects to express them openly. If we wish to stimulate progress, we cannot afford to inhibit
such persons by imposing orthodoxies, censorship, and other artificial barriers to
creative thought.
Universities should be unreserved in the exercise of this liberty because freedom of
expression is critical to their central mission.
While university autonomy relates to the freedom of the university as an institution
with certain functions to fulfil, academic freedom is nothing more or less than the ,

professional freedom of the teacher as a member of the university or college where he

or she teaches. Academic freedom is generally defined as a freedom of members of
the academic community, assembled in colleges and universities, which underlies the
effective performance of their functions of teaching, learning, practice of the arts and
research. Further elaborated, this means that it would be regarded as an infringement
of academic freedom for a university to impose any censorship on the utterance of any
member of its staff on any subject, whether or not it relates to the field of his expert
knowledge and whether of. not it deals with religion or politics or it is made in the
classroom.
Even though interpretation of what academic freedom is largely depends on subjective
values, modified over a period of time. It is however not difficult to offer the following
classification as levels for academic freedom: (Becher and Kogan, 1985) (Tight 1985)
i) The
,' personal level
This level concerns the standard of behaviour and ethics we adopt and develop
for ourselves (Passmore 1984). The focus here is both individual and outward
looking. It concerns the use which we make of academic freedom, both personally
and in consort with others in pursuing understanding and truth, in investigating
subjects of interest, in creatively seeking possible 'solutions to problems and in
communicating our findings to others.
ii) The professional level
At the professional level, the values embodied are of democratic functioning in
the higher education system and the belief that each individual is as worthy of
attention and opportunity as any other.
iii) The institutional level
Within the institutional value system the concept of the uriiversity remains supreme
and it is primarily within the institution that personal and professional value
systems are expected to come together and be exercised.
iv) The societal level
Finally, there are general societal values which influence and cushion the operation
of higher education. The values involved here are that a particular view or a set
of practices is good / beneficial for society. Societies' values have changed
considerably in recent years - from acceptance of higher education as being good
for its own sake and emphasizing on long-term benefits, the view now seems to
have settled around seeing higher education as an investment seeking an immediate
pay-off in terms of outputs like saleable skills, etc. The prevalent societal values
constitute an importit~itinput of academic fieedom.
Each of these four value systems more & less underlie what constitutes academic
freedom. The nature of academic freedom accorded depends, on the specific
circumstances under consideration; institutional contexts, professional judgements, etc.
In this context, emphasizing on the importance and the sphere where academic freedom
is exercised, the Education Commission (1964-66) states, "we would like to emphasize
the freedom ofteachers to hold and express their views, however, radical, within the Higher Education and
Society
classroom (and outside), provided they are careful to present the different aspects of
a problem without confusing teaching with 'propagabda' in favour of their own
particular views". In cqncrete terms it may mean:
that a teacher cannot be forced to teach something which goes against his 1 her
conscience or his / her concept of truth;
freedom to hold and express views, however radical provided teaching is not
converted to propaganda;
freedom to speak and write about and participate in &bates on significant national
/ inter~iationalissues
facilities and encouragement in his 1 her work of teaching and research even when
his 1 her views are in opposition to those of his / her authority.
Academic freedom is not to be seen as merely a reflection of society's commitment to
free speech as stated earlier, it is a safeguard essential tp the aims of the university
and to the welfare of those who work within it. Teachers and scholars have a vital
stake in continuing to enjoy the liberty to speak and write as they choose, because their
lives are entirely devoted to developing and expounding ideas. Universities, in turn,
have a critical interest in preserving free expression, for without that freedom they
will be hampered in appointing the most creative scientists-andscholars and will suffer
from forms of ce~~sorship that will jeopardize the search for knowledge and new
discoveries that represents their most distinctive contribution.
Obviously, the extent and kinds of academic freedom enjqyed by teachers depends to
some extent on social and political realities, and to some qxtent on how teachers use
these freedoms. Natural consolidation may be a goal or a p s k identified by a society
for its coherence and progress and therefore any teacher tcnding to go against it may
have to be constrained. Teachers neglecting their duties to teach, learn and research;
or those mis-evaluating their students by reason of prejudice, favouritism or sheer
neglect; or engaged in disrupting the system by overemphasizing privileges and benefits
and underplaying responsibility and duty, may be inviting outside interference in the
affairs of educational institutions. If there is self-discipline, then no rules of diiipline
would be in evidence; but if there is no such internal conshaint then "authority" and
"enforcement of discipline" become necessary for universities to play their characteristic
role in society, but they call for an immense sense of responsibility on the part of
i~istitutionsand individuals.

7. Why is academic freedom important for the individuals m the university system as .
well us the society?

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t I

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8. What, in your opinion, constitutes academicfreedom? i
I Higher Education:
Retrospects and Prospects Rehtiomhip between ac&icfieedom and
institutional autonomy
Academic freedom and institutional autonomy are closely related, the distinction
between the two concepts is that while academic freedom relates to academics, that is
to individuals, institutional autonomy relates to institutions, their employers. Institutional
autonomy guarantees academic freedom to some measure but cannot be construed as
a sufficient condition. Is academic freedom possible without institutional autonomy?
The answer is 'yes' but with reservations. Where institutional autonomy is virtually
non existent, as in centrally controlled institutions, academic freedom is less likely to
exist or be maintained. It seems reasonable to conclude that while it is possible to have
academic freedom wifhout institutional autonomy, and vice-versa, the two concepts tend
to be mutually supporting and it is desirable that both should be encouraged if each is
to flourish (Tight, 1990, 123).

Accountability
While academic freedom may be assumed as a privilege by academics or as a
necessary part of their job, this carries with it an inevitable quid pro quo in terms of
expectation, responsibility and accountability. There are two levels of responsibility
required of academics in their exercise of academic freedom: those internal to academe
and those external to it. The internal responsibilities involve a due regard for the
academic freedom of ot$er academics, the positive encouragement of academic
developments and an accdptance of the procedures adopted for safeguarding academic
freedom. External accountability which may be formal or informal, direct or indirect,
is owned to society because society is the majo; funder of higher education as well as
its major beneficiary.
What now, does it mean to be accountable? "To be accountable", is "to be answerable
legally or morally for the discharge of some duty, trust or debt". Applied to higher
education, this means that higher education should give an account of its performance
in terms of the extent of fulfillment of its social expectations and accept tesponsibility
for its failures. It would also mean that society can intervene in the affairs of higher
education when the latter fails to discharge its obligations. The question of giving an.
objective and adequate account of the performance of higher education, making the
system or any part of it responsible, and deciding on who should have the right to
intervene, are however highly complex issues. In whatever way these issues are decided,
the fact remains that higher education should strive to fulfil all its individual and social
obligations.
There has long been a tension between the demands for academic freedom in higher
education and the demands of its funders for accountability. One thing however has
changed in recent times and that is more stringent funding procedures accompanied
by specificity in funding arrangements resulting in increased accountability of higher
education institutions. It is difilcult to judge whether the increased accountability is
reasonable or whether it goes too far infringing academic freedom. A system which
embodies greater accountability may turn out to be fairer and better able to prevent
abuses of academic freedom. Academics are not only in the business of advancing
knowledge but should also be concerned with sharing their understanding / discoveries
to as many as possible.
For autonomy and accountability'.to be functional and meaningful the government
will have to provide adequate resources to higher education for it to play its role. It
is also required that the government lifts the bureaucratic pressures on universities
and explores more cost effective and credible systems of quality, audit, research,
evaluation, accountability and contr01~Developmentof a national system of credit Higher Education and
Society
accumulation and transfer flexible enough to incorporate the accreditation of prior
learning and of work based learning is also essential in this regard.
As far as the role of universities is concerned, the universities should defend critical
basic research and scholarship as both the life blood of the intellect and the hallmark
of a civilized society. They should articulate, promote and defend their commitment
to democratic values and the responsibility to be engaged directly in major public
debates in modem society. Innovation for local needs generation of income with local
sources needs, to be explored. Opening up the carriculum to engage in more flexible
forms of study exploiting new information technologies and developing better
mechanisms of strategic planning to anticipate change and define appropriate responses
to it is what the universities need to examine to lqeep themselves relevant.
The society too has a role to play so that universities as accountable institutions can
perform better. It has to acknowledge that higher education is part of society and vital
to the development and promotion of the cultural p d moral values upon which modern
society and the quality of people's lives within it ultimately depends. Policies for the
university cannot be detached from discussions about how this society should develop
and change. There has to be a critical space in the public spheres of modern society
where intellectual boiiesty and ceaseless vigilance about social, economic and political
development has to be maintained, free of the patronage of government and other
interest groups, universities have a role to play in the context of a democratic society,
they are not and never should be arbiters of morality; but they do have a part to play
in sharpening up the moral discussions of modernity.
To sum up, autonomy and accountability are the two sides of the same coin. These
are complementary to each other. Autonomy without accountability may lead to
anarchy. Accountability without autonomy may turn into regimentation. A balance or
a "trade off- between the two is necessary - which may depend on prevailing social
climate, and which in any case has to evolve through experience.

- Self-assessment
9. Discuss how autonomy and accountability are two sides gf the same coin in the
university system?

In most modern societies, educational institutions are considered key instruments of

social purpose. The relationship between education and other sectors of society is an
intrinsic one. Education is considered necessary for both order and progress. On the
one hand, education is expected to maintain hallodd traditions: respect for authority,
obedience to the law, patriotism and the like. On the other hand, education is expected
to promote political, economic and social development and change. Educational systems
differ in the extent to which they accommodate wide range of values within society
but the educational functions and uses vis-a-vis the society broadly fall under the kind
of society we are aiming at. The functions and uses of educatien alter as societies go
through economic, political and social Pevelopments. In summary, we have seen that
the various parts of society, however they are defined, are integrated with each other.
Higher Education: These parts are not just interdependent - they are coordinated and complementary.Each
Retrospects and Prospects
part supports the working of the other, as well as the society as a whole. The University
is a part of the society, yet it is an autonomous social entity by itself. Features such
as 'autonomy' 'accountability' and 'academic freedom' give it a unique character and
simultaneously, help it in its discharge of obligations, to itself and to the society at
large.

1. How does education perpetuate inequalities among classes? Think about the
members of the teaching community in your college / university. What kinds of
people occupy the highest position? How many of them are first generation
learners?
2. Make a list of your students in a class. Estimate their socio-economic positions.
Compare these positions with such factors as their performance in class, their extra
curricular activities and their vocational goals. What function of education is
highlighted by this exercise?
3. Read excerpts from John Dewey's 'Democracy and Education' to know his views
on education and society.

1. What do you think of the idea of 'privatization' of universities? Discuss the

positive and negative features of raising the tuition fees for higher education.
2. Should educators see their role as maintainer of the status quo as far as the social
'system is concerned'? Discuss.
3. Initiate a discussion among your colleagues on 'autonomy versus accountability'
with specific reference to your institution. How far is it correct to place autonomy
of a university and its accountability in this equation?
4. Discuss how the privilege of academic freedom enables you to discharge your
obligations smoothly in your college 1 university. What would happen in the
absence of this freedom?

Ashby, Eric. (1966) Universities -British, Indian, Afizcan. Cambridge Mass: Harvard
University Press.
Dreze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1995), India: Economic Development and Social
Opportunity. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Omvedt, Gail (1994), Dalits and the Democratic Revolution " Dr. Ambedkar and the
Dalit Movement in Colonial India. New Delhi : Sage.
Shills, Edward. (1989) ''The Modem University and Liberal Democracy", Minerva.
XXVII. (4) Winter.
U