2/9/2023

Week 1
Matrices and Systems of Linear
Equations

Week 2
Matrices and Systems of Linear Equations Linear Equation System and Gaussian
Elimination

Week 3
Matrix Inverse

Definition of Matrix
Matrix is a set of elements arranged according to regular rows and
columns in a rectangular shape.
Week 1 Elements can be numbers (real/complex), function and others with
notation ( ) or [ ]

Matrices and Systems of Linear Matrix 𝐴 × (m rows and n collumns) can be written
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎
Equations 𝐴=
𝑎
q If m = n → square matrix
𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎
⋮ ⋮q If m ⋱= 1 →⋮ row matrix
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎
q If n = 1 → collumn matrix

Types of Matrices 3. Identity matrix

1. Diagonal matrix scalar matrix where the elements in main diagonal utama are 1,
example
Square matrix with element 𝑎 = 0, for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗, 1 0 0
−1 0 0 0 1 0
example 0 5 0 0 0 1
0 0 1
4. Upper/lower triangle matrix
2. Scalar matrix
square matrix where every element below/above of main
Diagonal matriks where the elements in main diagonal have the diagonal is zero is called upper/lower triangle matrix, example
same value, example 1 2 3 6 0 0
𝑐 0 0 0 5 0 or 1 5 0
0 𝑐 0 0 0 1 0 3 1
0 0 𝑐

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5. Transpose Matrix
Properties of the Transpose Matrix
If A is any matrix m x n, then 𝐴 , defined as a matrix n x m
which is obtained by swapping rows and columns from A, that If 𝑟 is a scalar and 𝐴 and 𝐵 are matrices then
is the first column of 𝐴 from the first row of A, the second
column of 𝐴 from the second row of A, etc. • (𝐴 ) = 𝐴
• (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝐴 + 𝐵
Example • (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴
1 2 3 2 1 1 −2
• (𝑟𝐴) = 𝑟𝐴
𝐴= 1 5 4 −9 → 𝐴 = 2 5 3
3 4 1
−2 3 1 4
2 −9 4

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6. Symmetry matrix Matrix Operations

A matrix is called a symmetry if for every 𝑖 and 𝑗 applies 𝑎 =
𝑎 , if 𝐴 is a symmetry matrix then 𝐴 = 𝐴. 1. The equality of two matrices
Two matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎 and 𝐵 = 𝑏 is equal, if the sizes are the same and
Example the corresponding elements are equal 𝑎 = 𝑏 , 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝐵 = 2 5 4 and 𝐵 = 2 5 4
Example
3 4 1 3 4 1
2 1 2 1 2 1 0
𝐴= ,𝐵 = , and 𝐶 = .
3 𝑥 3 5 3 4 −2
qIf 𝑥 = 5 then 𝐴 = 𝐵, for the other values of 𝑥, matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are
not the same
qNo value of 𝑥 makes 𝐴 = 𝐶.

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2. Addition Matrix Properties of Addition Matrices

Two matrices can be added if the sizes are the same and the ü𝐴+𝐵= 𝐵+𝐴 (commutative)
elements are the same as the sum of the corresponding elements. ü (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) (associative)
𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ü𝐴+0 = 0+𝐴 =𝐴
the zero matrix is called the iden ty matrix to addi on.
Example ü If 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 then 𝐵 =− 𝐴, 𝐵 is called the inverse with
2 1 0 3 −4 3 5 1 respect to the addition of 𝐴
1 1
𝐴 = −1 0 2 4 , 𝐵 = 2 2 0 1 , and 𝐶 = .
2 2
4 −2 7 0 3 2 −4 5
Calculate the following (if any) :
1) 𝐴 + 𝐵 2) 𝐴 + 𝐶 3) 𝐵 − 𝐴

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3. Multiplication Matrix
Matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎 can be multiplied by a matrix 𝐵 = 𝑏 if the Example
number of columns of 𝐴 is the same as the number of rows of 𝐵,
𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵, 4 1 4 3
1 2 4 1
𝑝=𝑞
𝐴= ,𝐵 = 2 2 0 1 .
2 6 0 1 0 −1 3 1
𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑏 2 7 5 2
𝑥=1
Calculate the following (if any) :
with 𝐴 = 𝑎 ,𝐵= 𝑏 , 𝑝 = 𝑞, 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛. 1) 𝐴𝐵
2) 𝐵𝐴

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Properties of Matrix Multiplication 4. Multiplication Matrix by a Scalar

• 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶 (Closed) If 𝐴 × = 𝑎 and 𝑟 is a real number then multiplication of

• (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶) (Associative) 𝐴 with 𝑟 or 𝑟𝐴 is equal to 𝐵 × = 𝑏 , where 𝑏 = 𝑟𝑎 ,
• 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 (Left distributive) 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛.
• (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶 (Right distributive)
• 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴

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Properties of Multiplication Matrix by a Scalar

If 𝑟 and 𝑠 are real numbers, then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are matrices : Given the matrices:
• 𝑟(𝑠𝐴) = 𝑟𝑠(𝐴) 2 3 4 0 2 7 9 −6 3
𝐴= ,𝐵= , and 𝐶 = .
1 3 1 −1 3 −5 3 0 12
• (𝑟 + 𝑠)𝐴 = 𝑟𝐴 + 𝑠𝐴 Find
• 𝑟(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑟𝐴 + 𝑟𝐵 1) 3𝐴
• 𝐴(𝑟𝐵) = (𝑟𝐴)𝐵 2) −𝐵
1
3) 𝐶
3

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Exercises 3. If
1. Given the matrices: 1
6 −1 2 5 2𝑥 𝑥−𝑦 𝐴 = 𝑎 , and 𝐵 = [𝑏 −1 3].
𝐴= ,𝐵 = , and 𝐶 = .
0 2 −1 4 0 2 2
a) Calculate 2𝐴 + 𝐵 a) Calculate 𝐴 − 𝐶
b) If 𝐴 = 𝐶, determine the value 𝑥 and 𝑦.
b) Calculate 𝐴𝐵
2. Given the matrices: c) Find 𝑎 and 𝑏 so that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐴
3 0 4 −1 1 4 2
𝐴 = −1 2 , 𝐵 = , and 𝐶 = .
0 2 3 1 5
1 1
Calculate the following (if any):
a) 𝐵𝐶 b) 𝐶𝐵 c) 𝐶𝐴 d) 3𝐴 + 𝐶
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Linear Equation System (LES)

Definition
A linear equation in the 𝑛 variables 𝑥 , 𝑥 ,…, 𝑥 to be one that
Week 2 can be expressed in the form:
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =𝑏 (1)
Linear Equation System and where 𝑎 , 𝑎 , …, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants.

Gaussian Elimination A solution of linear equation (1) is a sequence of 𝑛 numbers

𝑠 , 𝑠 , …, 𝑠 for which the substitution 𝑥 = 𝑠 , 𝑥 = 𝑠 , …, 𝑥 =
𝑠 makes the equation a true statement.

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Three kinds of solutions of LES

Linear equation system (LES) is a system consisting of m linear 1. There is one solution (consistent LES)
l y m
equations with n unknown numbers, can be written as:
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =𝑏 x

𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =𝑏
, 2. There is no solution (LES is inconsistent)
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ m l y
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =𝑏
where 𝑥 , 𝑥 ,…, 𝑥 are numbers that are not known and 𝑎’s x

and 𝑏’𝑠 are constants. 3. There are many solutions (LES is consistent)
y m

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𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏
Types of LES writing: 𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏
1. Equation form ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =𝑏 Suppose
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 9
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 1.
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 3𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
2. Matrix form ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ =
⋮
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 Determine the matrix and augmented matrix form of the
above LES.
𝐴 𝑥 = 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 ⋯
𝑏𝑎
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
3. Augmented matrix form 𝑎 𝑎 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑏

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LES Solution with Elimination Three Elementary Row Operations

1. Multiply a row by a nonzero 2. Interchange two rows
With a certain rule, the elements of a row of a matrix can be changed, constant
and this rule is called elementary row operation (ERO). 1 1 2  1 1 2  1 1 2   2 4 3 


  r1  r2  

   
2 4  3  3r2  6 12 9   2 4 3  1 1 2 
3 6  3 6 5   3 6 5 
3
 6  5    5     
The equivalent of two matrices
Two matrices A and B are called equivalent (written A ~ B) if matrix B 3. Add a constant times one row to
another.
is obtained from matrix A by means of elementary operations.
1 1 2 1 1 2 


  r3 - 3r1  
2 4 3  2 4 3 
3 6 5  0 3 11 
 
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Row Echelon Matrix (REM)

§ In any two successive rows that do not consist entirely of
A matrix is said to have a row echelon form if : zeros, the leading 1 in the lower row occurs farther to the
n has a row where not all elements are zero, and the first non- right than the leading 1 in the higher row.
zero element in that row is 1 (one). We call this a leading 1.
     0 1 4 2 1 0 1 3


    r1  r2  
0 0 0 1 3
1 0 1 3 0 1 4 2
      0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
  
 
§ rows consisting entirely of zeros, then they are grouped
together at the bottom of the matrix. REM
   
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
 

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Reduced Row Echelon Matrix (RREM)

The examples of REM and RREM
If the row echelon matrix plus this property: The number one is the 1

1 0
 1 0 0 4 1 0 0 0 1 -2 0 1
0      
 1 0  0 1 0 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 3
only nonzero element in the column then this matrix is said to have  0    
 0 0  0 0 1 -1  0 0 1
0
 0 0 0 0
a reduced row echelon form (RREM)     
0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 4 3 7 0 1 2 6 0 0 0
       
0 2 0
0 1 4 0 
0
1 6 0 0 1 -1 0
  0
0 0 0 1  0 1 5 0 0 0 0 1
 
 

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Gaussian elimination
Solution steps of LES 𝐴 𝑥 = 𝑏
1. Writes in an augmented matrix form 𝐴|𝑏
2. Transform the augmented matrix into row echelon form
using ERO
3. Solve by back substitution, or makes the matrix into reduced
row echelon form.

The procedure of reducing a matrix to row echelon form is

called Gaussian elimination.
Meanwhile, changing the matrix form into reduced row
echelon form is called Gauss-Jordan elimination.

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Exercises
Determine the solution of following LES by eliminating Gauss – Jordan

1. x  y  z 1 3. x  y  2 z  w  1
2 x  y  3z  0 2 x  y  2 z  2w  2
3x  y  2 z  4 x  2 y  4z  w  1
3x  3w  3
2. 2 x2  3x3  1
3x1  6 x2  3x3  2
6 x1  6 x2  3x3  5

Homogeneous LES (HLES) Exercises

A LES is said to be homogeneous if the constants on the right Solve the following HLES
are all zero
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =0 1) 2 x  y  3z  0
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =0
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ x  2y  0
𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎 𝑥 +…+𝑎 𝑥 =0 yz 0
If the solution of HLES is 𝑥 = 𝑥 =…= 𝑥 = 0, then the solution of
HLES is said to be a trivial solution. 2) 3 x1  x2  x3  x4  0
If not all of 𝑥 = 0 then the solution of HLES is said to be a 5 x1  x2  x3  x4  0
nontrivial solution or many solution

Matrix Inverse
Matrix 𝐴 × is said to be a non singular if there is a matrix 𝐵 ×
such that
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼
Week 3 Matrix 𝐵 is said to be inverse of 𝐴 (or matrix inverse of 𝐴).

Matrix Inverse Theorem

If the matrix has an inverse, the inverse is only one.

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The Properties of Inverse

Let matrix
2 −5 3 5
𝐴= ,𝐵 = If A and B are non singular matrices, then
−1 3 1 2
Show that 𝐵 is inverse of 𝐴 1. (𝐴 ) = 𝐴
2. (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴
3. (𝐴 ) = (𝐴 )𝑇

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The Method to Determine 𝐴

Find the inverse of
1. Make an augmented matrix 𝑛x2𝑛 [𝐴|𝐼 ] which is obtained by
combining the matrix A and the identity matrix.
2. Transform matrix A at no 1 into reduced row echelon form with
ERO. Answer:
3. We will get a matrix [𝐶|𝐷] if,
a) 𝐶 = 𝐼𝑛 , then 𝐷 = 𝐴 → [𝐼 |𝐴 ]
b) 𝐶 ≠ 𝐼𝑛 , 𝐶 has zero row, then 𝐴 singular and 𝐴 is not exist.

So we have

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The solution of LES by using Inverse Exercises

1. Find the inverse of
If matrix 𝐴 sized 𝑛x𝑛 then LES 𝐴 𝑥 = 𝑏 will have the solution
 1 0 1
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑏  
A   1 1 1 
where 𝐴 non singular or 𝐴 exist  0 1 0
 
2. Determine the solution of following LES with Inverse (𝑥 =
𝐴 𝑏
x1  2 x2  x3  1
x1  x2  x3  1
x1  x2  3

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Thank You

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Chapter 2 WEEK 4 WEEK 5

DETERMINANTS Determinants - Basics Determinants - Applications

Determinant
The determinant of a square matrix is a scalar (number)
obtained from the elements of a square matrix using a certain
WEEK 4 operation.
Determinant 𝐀 × is symbolized by |𝐀| or det (A)

Determinants - Basics • Matrix 𝐀

𝑎
, det(𝐀) = 𝑎
𝑎
=𝑎 𝑎 −𝑎 𝑎
× 𝑎

• Matrix 𝐀 × , using Sarrus’s rule

3 4

Sarrus’s Rule
Calculate the determinant of the following matrix
1 −2 1
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 −3 2
a) b) 0 1 2
6 2
det ( A)  a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 −1 1 0
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32

 a 11 a 22 a 33  a 12 a 23 a 31  a 13 a 21 a 32
 a 13 a 22 a 31  a 11 a 23 a 32  a 12 a 21 a 33

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Properties of Determinant - 1 Properties of Determinant - 2

1. det (𝐀) = det (𝐀𝐓) 3. If two rows/columns of matrix A are equal, then det (𝑨) = 0
−3 2 −3 2 2 0 6
𝑨= → |𝑨| = =− 18 |𝑨| = −1 3 5 = 30 + 0 − 18 − (−18 + 30 + 0) = 0
6 2 6 2
−3 6 −3 6 −1 3 5
𝑨 = → |𝑨 | = =− 18
2 2 2 2
4. If in matrix A there are rows/columns where all the elements
2. If matrix B is obtained by swapping two rows (columns) of are zero, then det (A) = 0
matrix A then det (𝑩) = - det (𝑨). 2 0 6
−3 2 −3 2 |𝑨| = 0 0 0 = 0
𝑨= → |𝑨| = =− 18
6 2 6 2 −1 3 5
6 2 6 2
𝑩= → |𝑩| = = 18
−3 2 −3 2
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Properties of Determinant - 3 Properties of Determinant - 4

5. If the matrix B is obtained from A by multiplying one 7. If the matrix A is an upper/lower triangular then det (𝑨) =
row/column by k ≠ 0 in reals then det (𝑩) = 𝒌 det (𝑨) 𝑎11 𝑎22…. 𝑎𝑛𝑛 atau det (𝑨) = multiply the elements on the main
−3 2 −𝟗 𝟔 diagonal.
𝑨= → |𝑩| = =− 54 = 3(−18)
6 2 6 2
3 2 1
6. If B is obtained from A by adding or subtracting elements from 0 5 8  (3)(5)(6)  90
one row/column by k times the elements of another
row/column, then det (𝑩) = det (𝑨) 0 0 6

3 2 b2  2b1 3 2
  (3)(6)  (2)(0)  18
6 2 0 6

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Properties of Determinant - 5 Singular and Non Singular

8. The determinant of the product of two matrices is the same as • If |𝑨| = 0, then the square matrix 𝑨 is called singular matrix.
the product of each determinant det (𝑨𝑩) = det(𝑨)det(𝑩)
• If |𝑨| ≠ 0, then the matrix 𝑨 is called non singular matrix.
 1 3 1 3 1
A  A  7 • If 𝑨 non singular, then |𝐴 | = |𝐴|
1 4  1 4
0 1 0 1 

B  B  2
 2 3 2 3
 1 3  0 1   6 8  6 8
C  AB       AB   14
 1 4  2 3   8 13  8 13

Then : |𝑨𝑩| = |𝑨||𝑩|

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By using the properties of determinant, calculate the following How to Count Determinant
matrix
1. By using the properties of determinant or by reducing the row
3 2 1 3 to an upper/lower triangular matrix (ERO/ECO)
a) 2. By cofactors expansion
0 0 0 2
0 1 4 2
0 1 2 1
3 0 0 0
b) 2 2 3 2
4 1 3 2
1 1 2 2

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Minors Cofactors
Minor of element 𝑎 of a matrix sized 𝑛 × 𝑛 is the determinant of a Cofactor of element 𝑎 , written by 𝑐
matrix sized (n - 1)x(n - 1) which is obtained by deleting the 𝑖th and Defined by 𝑐 = (−1) 𝑴
jth column.
Minor of 𝒂𝒊𝒋 is written by 𝑴𝒊𝒋 3 0 0 0
2 2 3 0 0
3 2 
A  c23  ( 1) 2  3 4 1 2  6
3 0 0 0 4 1 3 2
2 3 0 0
2   1 0 2
2 3 1 0 2 2
A  M 23  4 1 2
4 1 3 2
  1 1 2
1 1 2 2

15 16

Calculating Determinants by Cofactors Expansion Using the cofactor expansion along row 1, calculate the determinant
of the following matrix:
Theorem
Determinant of a matrix 𝑨𝑛 × 𝑛 can be counted by multiplies the  1 4 0 
members of any row (column) by their cofactors and adds the a)  
product 1 2  2
 1 0 2 

For any 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛,
det(𝑨) = 𝑎 𝑐 + 𝑎 𝑐 + ⋯ + 𝑎 𝑐 3 0 0 0
(cofactors expansion along 𝑗th column)  1 
or b)  0 2 0
det(𝑨) = 𝑎 𝑐 + 𝑎 𝑐 + ⋯ + 𝑎 𝑐 4 1 3 2
(cofactors expansion along 𝑖th row)  
1 1 2 2

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Cofactor Matrix and Adjoint of 𝑨

If 𝑨 is any matrix 𝑛 x 𝑛 and 𝑐𝑖𝑗 is a cofactor of
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐 ⋯ 𝑐
𝑎𝑖𝑗, then the matrix 𝑪 = ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ is called
𝑐 𝑐 ⋯ 𝑐
cofactor matrix of 𝑨.

Transpose of thecofactor matrix is called adjoint 𝑨 and is called by

Adj(𝑨), written as
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐 ⋯ 𝑐
Adj(𝑨) = 𝑪 = ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑐 𝑐 ⋯ 𝑐
19 20

Two Application of Determinant

• Find the inverse of the matrix
• Determine the solution of the LES with the Cramer’s rule
WEEK 5
Determinants -
Applications

21 22

Matrix Inverse Solving of LES by Using Cramer’s Rule

Theorem Theorem
1
If A is a matrix that has an inverse then 𝑨 = adj(𝑨) If 𝑨 𝒙 = 𝒃 is a system of 𝑛 linear equations with 𝑛 variables such
det(𝑨)
that det(𝑨) ≠ 0, then the system has an unique solution.

Find 𝑨 of the following matrices det(𝑨 ) det(𝑨𝟐 ) det(𝑨𝒏 )

The solution is 𝑥 = ,𝑥 = , ⋯, 𝑥 =
det(𝑨) det(𝑨) det(𝑨)
3 0 0 0 where 𝑨𝑗 is a matrix obtained by substituting the elements in the
 1 4 0  0 2 0 1  𝑗th column of 𝑨 with the elements of 𝒃
 
a)   1 2  2 b) 
 1
4 1 3 2
 0 2   
1 1 2 2
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Solve the following LES by using Cramer’s rule

a) 4x  5y  2
11 x  y  2 z  3
x  5y  2z  1
b)  u  4 v  2 w  z   32
2 u  v  7 w  9 z  14
 u  v  3 w  z  11
u  2v  w  4 z  4

26

Thank You

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Chapter 3 Vectors in R2 and R3 WEEK 6 WEEK 7

Vectors in R2 and R3 Operation of Vectors
Definition of Vectors
Operation of Vectors

Definition of Vector (Geometric)

A vector is a directed segment (arrow) in 2 or 3 dimensional space

WEEK 6 arrow direction = vector direction

arrow length = vector magnitude
B

Vectors in R2 and R3 arrow tail = starting point

arrow tip = end point A

Notations: 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐯, or 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝐴𝐵

Vector Operations (Geometric) - 1 Vector Operations (Geometric) - 2

• Equality of two vectors: 𝐮 = 𝐯 • Multiplication by scalar
if the magnitude and direction are the same u
v
𝑘 is a scalar (real number), 𝐯 is a vector
• Addition: 𝐮 + 𝐯 = 𝐯 + 𝐮 v v
𝑘𝐯 is a vector whose length is |𝑘| long time 𝐯
u u+v
u+v
v+u
u 𝑘 > 0 in the same direction with 𝐯, 𝑘 < 0 opposite direction with 𝐯
u
v
kv
• Zero vector (0): zero length and operation 𝟎 + 𝐯 = 𝐯 + 𝟎 = 𝐯 v
kv kv kv
• Negative (−𝐯): magnitude is the same, the direction is reversed with 0<k<1 -1<k<0
𝐯 + (−𝐯) = 𝟎 k>1
k<-1
v
• Subtraction: 𝐮 − 𝐯 = 𝐮 + (−𝐯)
-v
u-v u
v
-v
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Vectors in the Coordinate System (𝐑𝟐) Vector Operations in Planes

Vector in the plane (𝐑𝟐) • Equality of two vectors
𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2) 𝐮 = (𝑢1, 𝑢2) and 𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2) is the same if and only if 𝑢1 = 𝑣1 and
𝑢2 = 𝑣2
where 𝑣1, 𝑣2 real numbers or also called vector component
𝑣 • Addition
𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2) = 1 = 𝑣 𝑖 + 𝑣 𝑗 𝐮 = (𝑢1, 𝑢2) and 𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2) then 𝐮 + 𝐯 = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1, 𝑢2 + 𝑣2)
𝑣2
• Zero Vector
𝟎 = (0,0)
If 𝑃 𝑃 has a starting point 𝑃1(𝑥1, 𝑦1) and an end point 𝑃2(𝑥2, 𝑦2)
• Multlipication by scalar:
then 𝑃 𝑃 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 , 𝑦 − 𝑦 )
𝑘 is a scalar then 𝑘𝒖 = (𝑘𝑢1, 𝑘𝑢2)

7 8

Vectors in the Coordinate System (𝐑𝟑) Vector in the General Coordinate System
Vector in space (𝐑𝟑) Properties of vector operations
𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3)
𝐮,𝐯,𝐰 are vectors in R2, R3 and 𝑘, 𝑙 are scalars
where 𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3 are real numbers or also called the vector component
𝑣1 1. 𝐮 + 𝐯 = 𝐯 + 𝐮 2. (𝐮 + 𝐯) + 𝐰 = 𝐮 + (𝐯 + 𝐰)
𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3) = 𝑣2 = 𝑣 𝑖 + 𝑣 𝑗 + 𝑣 𝑘
𝑣3 3. 𝐮 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝐮 = 𝐮 4. 𝐮 + (−𝐮) = 𝟎
5. 𝑘(𝑙𝐮) = (𝑘𝑙)𝐮 6. 𝑘(𝐮 + 𝐯) = 𝑘𝐮 + 𝑘𝐯
If 𝑃 𝑃 has a starting point 𝑃1(𝑥1, 𝑦1, 𝑧1) and an end point 7. (𝑘 + 𝑙)𝐮 = 𝑘𝐮 + 𝑙𝐮 8. 1𝐮 = 𝐮
𝑃2(𝑥2, 𝑦2, 𝑧2) then 𝑃 𝑃 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 , 𝑦 − 𝑦 , 𝑧 − 𝑧 )

Vector operations in R3 is the same operations with in R2

9 10

Norm (Length) of a Vector

1. Suppose that 𝐮 = (−3,1,2) and 𝐯 = (4,0, − 8) determine
a. 𝐮 + 𝐯 b. 3𝐯 − 𝐮 c. 5(𝐮 − 2𝐯) • For 𝐮 = (𝑢1, 𝑢2), then norm of 𝐮 or ‖𝐮‖ is
2. Find the vector component whose starting and end are ‖𝐮‖ = (𝑢 ) + (𝑢 )
points • For 𝐮 = (𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3), then norm of 𝐮 or ‖𝐮‖ is
‖𝐮‖ = (𝑢 ) + (𝑢 ) + (𝑢 )
a. 𝑃1(3, − 8), 𝑃2(−4,6) b. 𝑃1(3, − 7,2), 𝑃2(−2,5,4)
• Unit vector is a vector which have ‖𝐮‖ = 1
3. If 𝐮 and 𝐯 in no. 1 determine the vector 𝐯
• If 𝐯 ≠ 𝟎 then ‖𝐯‖ will be the unit vector
𝐱 which fulfills 3𝐮 − 𝐱 = 𝐯 + 2𝐮
• The distance between 𝐮 and 𝐯 is 𝑑(𝐮, 𝐯) = ‖𝐮 − 𝐯‖

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If 𝐮 = (−7, 2, − 1) and 𝐯 = (2, 0, 6) determine

a. ‖𝐮‖
b. unit vector of 𝐮
c. distance between 𝐮 and 𝐯 WEEK 7
Operation of Vectors

13

Dot Product Projection

u
Suppose that  is an angle between 𝐮 and 𝐯
v u - Projau

a
 Projau
u Suppose that  is an angle between 𝐮 and 𝐚. Projection vector of 𝐮
• 𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 = ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ cos  onto 𝐚 (Proj𝐚𝐮) is
𝐮∙𝐚
• If 𝐮 = (𝑢1, 𝑢2) and 𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2) then 𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 = 𝑢1𝑣1 + 𝑢2𝑣2 Proj𝐚 𝐮 = ‖𝐚‖ 𝐚
• If 𝐮 = (𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3) and 𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3) then 𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 = 𝑢1𝑣1 +
𝑢2𝑣2 + 𝑢3𝑣3 Vector projection is a component of 𝐮 which is parallel to 𝐚.
• 𝐮 and 𝐯 perpendicular to each other if and only if 𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 = 0 While
𝐮∙𝐚
𝐮 − Proj𝐚 𝐮 = 𝐮 − 𝐚
‖𝐚‖
is a component of 𝐮 perpendicular to 𝐚.
15 16

Cross Product in 𝐑𝟑
If 𝐮 = (−7,2, − 1) and 𝐯 = (2,0,6) determine Suppose that 𝐮 = (𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3) and 𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3) are two
a. 𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 vectors in R3. Cross product of 𝐮 and 𝐯 is
uxv
b. A component of 𝐮 which is parallel to 𝐯 v 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
c. A component of 𝐮 perpendicular to 𝐯

𝐮 × 𝐯 = 𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3
u 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
Vector 𝐮 × 𝐯 perpendicular to 𝐮 and 𝐯 in the direction of the
right hand rule.
The magnitude of 𝐮 × 𝐯 is
‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖ = ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖sin 
Or geometrically,
‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖ is an area of the parallelogram formed by 𝐮 and 𝐯
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Triple Scalar Product 𝐮 ∙ (𝐯 × 𝐰)

If 𝐮 = (−7,2, − 1) and 𝐯 = (2,0,6) determine
Suppose that 𝐮 = (𝑢1, 𝑢2, 𝑢3), 𝐯 = (𝑣1, 𝑣2, 𝑣3), and 𝐰 =
a. 𝐮 × 𝐯 (𝑤1, 𝑤2, 𝑤3) are three vectors in R3, triple scalar product 𝐮 ∙ (𝐯 ×
b. area of the parallelogram formed by 𝐮 and 𝐯 𝐰) of 𝐮, 𝐯, dan 𝐰 is 𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3
𝐮 ∙ (𝐯 × 𝐰) = 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3u
𝑤 1 𝑤2 𝑤 3
w
v

§ 𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐰 coplanar if and only if 𝐮 ∙ (𝐯 × 𝐰) = 0

§ |𝐮 ∙ (𝐯 × 𝐰)| is the volume of the parallelepipedum composed
by 𝐮, 𝐯, and 𝐰.

19 20

If 𝐮 = (1,2,1), 𝐯 = (−1,0,2), and 𝐰 = (2, − 2,1) determine

the parallelepipedum volume composed by 𝐮, 𝐯, 𝐰

Thank You

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Week 8
Chap 4 Vector Space Vector Space and Subspace

Week 9
Linear Independence

n Vector Space and Subspace Week 10

n Linear Independence Basis dan Dimension
n Basis dan Dimension

n Solution Space of Homogenous System

Vector Space Axiom

𝑽 is a non-empty set, in 𝑽 the addition and multiplication

Week 8 operations are defined by scalars (reals). Let 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 ∈ 𝑽 and k, l

are scalars. 𝑽 is called a vector space if it satisfies:
1. 𝒖 +𝒗 ∈ 𝑽
Vector Space and Subspace 2. 𝒖 +𝒗 =𝒗+𝒖
3. (𝒖 + 𝒗) + 𝒘 = 𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘)
4. ∃𝟎 ∈ 𝑽 such that 𝒖 + 𝟎 = 𝟎 = 𝟎 + 𝒖

5. ∀𝒖 ∈ 𝑽, ∃ − 𝒖 ∈ 𝑽 such that 𝒖 + (−𝒖) = 𝟎

6. 𝑘𝒖 ∈ 𝑽
7. 𝑘(𝒖 + 𝒗) = 𝑘𝒖 + 𝑘𝒗
8. (𝑘 + 𝑙)𝒖 = 𝑘𝒖 + 𝑙𝒖
9. 𝑘(𝑙𝒖) = (𝑘𝑙)𝒖
10. 1𝒖 = 𝒖
If 𝑽 is a vector space then the elements in 𝑽 are called vectors.

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Problem 4.1
1. Suppose that 𝑽 = 𝑹 . If 𝒖 = (𝑢 , 𝑢 , 𝑢 ), 𝒗 = (𝑣 , 𝑣 , 𝑣 ) ∈ 𝑽
by addition operation 𝒖 + 𝒗 = (𝑢 + 𝑣 , 𝑢 + 𝑣 , 𝑢 + 𝑣 )
and multiplication by scalar 𝑘𝒖 = (𝑘𝑢 , 0,0), then investigate
whether 𝑽 forms a vector space?

2. Suppose that 𝑽 = 𝑴 is a 2 x 2 matrix set with real number Properties of Vector Space
elements, with matrix addition operations and matrix
multiplication operations with scalar 𝑘 real numbers. Show 𝑽 1. 0𝒖 = 𝟎
forms a vector space!
2. 𝑘𝟎 = 𝟎
3. (−1)𝒖 =− 𝒖
4. If 𝑘𝒖 = 𝟎 then 𝑘 = 0 or 𝒖 = 𝟎

Subspace Theorem of Subspace

𝑽 is a vector space, 𝑾 is a non-empty subset of 𝑽, 𝑾 is called a 𝑽 a vector space, 𝑾 a non-empty subspace 𝑽, 𝑾 is called a subspace 𝑽
subspace of 𝑽 if 𝑾 itself is a vector space with scalar addition and if and only if
multiplication operations defined in 𝑽. 1. 𝒖, 𝒘 ∈ 𝑾  𝒖 + 𝒘 ∈ 𝑾 (closed to addition operations)
2. 𝑘𝒖 ∈ 𝑾, k scalar (closed to scalar multiplication operations)

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Problem 4.2
1. Suppose that 𝑽 = 𝑹 by addition operation
(𝑢 , 𝑢 ) + (𝑣 , 𝑣 ) = (𝑢 + 𝑣 , 𝑢 + 𝑣 )
and multiplication by scalar
Week 9
𝑘(𝑢 , 𝑢 ) = (𝑘𝑢 , 𝑘𝑢 ).
𝑾 = {(0,0)} is a subset of 𝑽. Investigate whether 𝑾 is a subspace
Linear Independence
of 𝑽 or not!
2. Is the set of all vectors of form (𝑎, 1,1) a subspace of 𝑹

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Linear Combination Linear Combination

A vector 𝒘 is called a linear combination of vectors 𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 if it
can be expressed as Theorem
𝒘=𝑘 𝒗 + 𝑘 𝒗 + ⋯+ 𝑘 𝒗 Suppose that 𝑽 is a vector space and 𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑽, the set of all
where 𝑘 , 𝑘 , ⋯, 𝑘 are scalars. linear combinations 𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 is a subspace of 𝑽.

Example:

Span
Suppose that 𝑺 = {𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 } is a set of vectors in a vector space 𝑽
and 𝑾 is the set of all linear combinations of vectors in 𝑺.
𝑾 is called a spanned space by 𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 and 𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 is
called span 𝑾.
𝑾 = span(𝑺) or 𝑾 = span{𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 }
𝑾 is a subspace of 𝑽.

Example Problem 4.3

𝒗 = (1,0) and 𝒗 = (0,1) span 𝑹 , because of for every 1. Suppose that 𝒖 = (1,0, − 1), 𝒗 = (3, − 1,2). Investigate whether
𝒖 = (𝑢 , 𝑢 ) ∈ 𝑹 can be expressed as a linear combination 𝒗 , 𝒗 a. 𝒘 = (7, − 2,3)
that is b. 𝒛 = (3,3,0)
𝒖=𝑘 𝒗 + 𝑘 𝒗 linear combination of 𝒖 and 𝒗 or not?
or (𝑢 , 𝑢 ) = 𝑢 (1,0) + 𝑢 (0,1) 2. Investigate whether
a. 𝒗 = (0,2) and 𝒗 = (0, − 2) span 𝑹 or not?
b. 𝒗 = (1,0,0), 𝒗 = (1,1,0), 𝒗 = (1,1,1) span 𝑹 or not?

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Linear Independence Example

Suppose that 𝑺 = {𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 } is a non-empty set of vectors. 𝑺 is 1. (1, 0) and (0,1) are the vectors which are linear independent in 𝑹
called a linear independence if the vector equation because 𝑘 (1,0) + 𝑘 (0,1) = (0,0) if and only if 𝑘 = 𝑘 = 0 .
𝑘 𝒗 + 𝑘 𝒗 + ⋯+ 𝑘 𝒗 =𝟎
2. (2, − 1, 0, 3), (1, 2, 5, − 1) and (7, − 1, 5, 8) are the vectors which
has only one solution 𝑘 = 𝑘 = ⋯ = 𝑘 = 0. If there are other
solutions then 𝑺 is called not linear independent or linear dependent. are not linear independent in 𝑹 because
3(2, − 1, 0, 3) + (1, 2, 5, − 1) − (7, − 1, 5, 8) = (0, 0, 0, 0)

Theorem Theorem
A set 𝑺 with two or more vectors is not linear independent if and only
if one of the vectors in 𝑺 can be expressed as a linear combination of • A finite set which has a zero vector is linearly dependent.
the other vectors in 𝑺 • A set which have two vectors is linearly dependent if and only if one
Example: vector is the multiple of the other vector.
𝑺 = {𝒔 , 𝒔 , 𝒔 } with 𝒔 = (2, − 1, 0, 3), 𝒔 = (1, 2, 5, − 1), 𝒔 = • Suppose that 𝑺 = {𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 } is a set of vectors in 𝑹 . If 𝑟 > 𝑛
(7, − 1, 5, 8). 𝑺 is a set of not linearly independent vectors. 𝒔 can then 𝑺 is linearly dependent.
be expressed as linear combination of 𝒔 and 𝒔 that is
𝒔 = 3𝒔 + 𝒔

Problem 4.4
Investigate whether the following vectors
1. 𝒂 = (−3, 0, 4), 𝒃 = (5, − 1, 2), and 𝒄 = (1, 1, 3) are linearly Week 10
independent in 𝑹 or not!
2. 6 − 𝑥 and 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 are linearly independent in 𝑷 or not! Basis dan Dimension
3. (3, − 1), (4, 5), dan (−4, 7) are linearly independent in 𝑹 or not!

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Basis Example
Show that 𝑾 = {(1,0), (0,1)} is a basis of 𝑹2!
Suppose that 𝑽 is a vector space, 𝑺 = {𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 } is a set of vectors
in 𝑽. 𝑺 is called a basis of 𝑽 if (i) Will be shown 𝑾 is linearly independent :
1. 𝑺 is linearly independent 𝑎(1,0) + 𝑏(0,1) = (0,0) fulfilled only if 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0  linearly
independent
2. 𝑺 spans 𝑽
(ii) Will be shown 𝑾 span 𝑹2 :
Every (𝑢1, 𝑢2)  𝑹2 can be expressed as the following linear
combination (𝑢1, 𝑢2) = 𝑢1(1,0) + 𝑢2(0,1)
so 𝑾 span 𝑹2.
So it is a proof that 𝑾 is a basis of 𝑹2.
** Note: 𝑾 is a standar basis of 𝑹2.

Problem 4.5 Coordinates Relative to a Basis

Investigate whether
1. {(1,0), (1,1)} is a basis of R2 or not! Suppose that 𝑺 = {𝒗1, 𝒗2,…, 𝒗r} is a basis of 𝑽.
𝒗 is a vector in 𝑽.
2. {𝑀1, 𝑀2, 𝑀3, 𝑀4} is a basis of 𝑴22, where If 𝒗 = 𝑐1𝒗1 + 𝑐2 𝒗2 + … + 𝑐r 𝒗r then the coordinates relative of 𝒗 to the
basis 𝑺 is
(𝒗) = (𝑐1, 𝑐2, … , 𝑐n)

Example Dimension
Suppose that 𝑺 = {(1,0), (1,1)} is a basis of 𝑹2, Determine the Suppose that 𝑽 is a vector space, the number of vectors in a basis 𝑽 is
coordinate relative of 𝒖 = (3,2) to the basis 𝑺. called the dimension of 𝑽, denoted by dim(𝑽).
Answer: • {𝒗1, 𝒗2,… 𝒗n} is a basis of 𝑽  dim(𝑽) = n (𝑽 is finite dimensional)
𝒖 = 𝑐1(1,0) + 𝑐2(1,1) • {𝒗1, 𝒗2,…, 𝒗n, 𝒗n+1,…} is a basis of 𝑽  dim(𝑽) =  (𝑽 is infinite
(3,2) = (𝑐1+𝑐2, 𝑐2)  𝑐2 = 2, 𝑐1 = 3 - 2 = 1 dimensional)
So (𝒖) = (1, 2) • 𝑽 = {0} (zero vector space)  dim(𝑽) = 0

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Theorem Example
• If 𝑽 is a vector space of dimension n then
1. Since 𝑾 = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is a basis 𝑹2 then dim(𝑹2) = 2
a. Any set with more than n vectors is not linearly independent.
b. There is no set with the vectors less than n spanning 𝑽 2. 𝑺 = {(1,1)} is not span of 𝑹2 because the number of vectors in
• All bases for a vector space of finite dimension have the same number 𝑺 = 1 < dim(𝑹2) = 2
of vectors.
• Let 𝑽 be a vector space of n dimension, if 𝑺 is a set of vectors at 𝑽 with 3. 𝑼 = {(−1, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)} is not linearly independent in 𝑹2
exactly n vectors then 𝑽 is a basis of 𝑽 if 𝑺 is linearly independent or 𝑺 because the number of vectors in 𝑼 = 3 > dim(𝑹2) = 2
spans 𝑽.

Problem 4.6 Solution Space of Homogeneous System

1. Determine relative coordinates of 𝒑 = 2 - x + x2 to the basis 𝑺 = {1 Solution space (or solution set) of homogeneous LES 𝑨𝒙 = 𝟎, with
+ x, 1 + x2, x + x2} m equations and n variables is subspace of 𝑹n.
2. Determine relative coordinates of M terhadap basis 𝑺 = {𝑀1, 𝑀2,
𝑀3, 𝑀4} Determine the basis and dimension for the solution space 𝑨𝒙 = 𝟎:
3. Determine the dimension of 𝑴22 1. determine the solution LES 𝑨𝒙 = 𝟎
4. Investigate whether {(7, − 3), (9, − 1)} is a basis of 𝑹2 or not. 2. determine the spanning set
3. investigate whether linearly independent or not

Example Answer
Determine the basis and dimension of the solution space of the The solution to the homogeneous LES is:
following homogeneous system x1   s  t , x2  s, x3  t , x4  0, x5  t
2x1  2x2  x3  x5  0 The solution can be written in the form

 x1  x2  2x3  3x4  x5  0  x1    s  t    1   1
x   s   1  0
x1  x2  2x3  x5  0  2      
 x3     t    0  s    1 t
x3  x4  x5  0        
 x4   0   0  0
 x 5   t   0   1 

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Answer Problem 4.7

or 𝒙 = 𝑠𝒗 + 𝑡𝒗 . Determine the basis and dimension of the solution space of the

following homogeneous system
𝒗 and 𝒗 span the solution space and linearly independent (show it).
So the basis of solution space is {𝒗 , 𝒗 } and the dimension is 2.

Thank You

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Chapter 5 Inner Product Space

Week 11
q Definition of Inner Product Space Inner Product Space
q Properties of Inner Product Space
q Length, Angle, and Orthogonal Properties in
Inner Product Space

Definition of Inner Product Definition of Inner Product

An inner product in a real vector space 𝑉 is a function that associates a A real vector space 𝑉 with an inner product is called a real inner product
real number 〈𝐮, 𝐯〉 with each pair of vectors 𝐮, 𝐯 ∈ 𝑉 such that for all 𝐮, space
𝐯 ∈ 𝑉 and all scalars 𝑘, the following conditions are satisfied
(i) symmetry : 〈𝐮, 𝐯〉 = ⟨v,u⟩
(ii) additive : ⟨u+v,w⟩ = ⟨u,w⟩ + ⟨v,w⟩
(iii) homogeneous : ⟨𝑘u,v⟩ = 𝑘⟨u,v⟩
(iv) positive : ⟨v,v⟩ ≥ 0 with ⟨v,v⟩ = 0 if and only if v = 0

Relationship between Inner Product and Exercise 5.1

Dot Product
Given ⟨u,v⟩ is a standard inner product in R2, with u = (2,-5), v = (3,4),
A dot product of the vectors 𝐮, 𝐯 ∈ 𝑅 or 𝑅 denoted 𝐮 ∙ 𝐯 is basically w = (1,-6) and 𝑘 = -3
the standard inner product of the vectors 𝐮, 𝐯 ∈ 𝑅 or 𝑅 which can be a. determine ⟨u,v⟩
denoted ⟨u,v⟩ b. determine ⟨u,𝑘v⟩
c. show that ⟨u,v + w⟩ = ⟨u,v⟩ + ⟨u,w⟩

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Exercise 5.2 Properties of the Inner Product Space

If u, v, w are vectors in real inner product space and k is any scalar, then
Let u = (u1,u2), v = (v1,v2)  R2, prove that ⟨u,v⟩ = 4 u1 v1 + 5 u2 v2 is an (1). ⟨0,v⟩ = ⟨v,0⟩ = 0
inner product in R2. (2). ⟨u,v + w⟩ = ⟨u,v⟩ + ⟨u,w⟩
(3). ⟨u, 𝑘v⟩ = 𝑘⟨u, v⟩
(4). ⟨u − v, w⟩ = ⟨u,w⟩ − ⟨v,w⟩
(5). ⟨u, v − w⟩ = ⟨u, v⟩ − ⟨u, w⟩

Exercise 5.3 Definition of Length in Inner Product

Space
From example 5.2, show that ⟨0,v⟩ = ⟨v,0⟩ = 0
For an inner product space V, length (norm) of a vector uV denoted by
‖u‖ and defined as
𝟏
‖u‖ = ⟨u, u⟩𝟐

Definition Orthogonal in Inner Product

Definition of Angle in Inner Product Space Space
For an inner product space V, with u,v ∈ V, u  0, v  0 , the angle
For an inner product space V, with u,v ∈ V if ⟨u,v⟩ = 0 then u and v is
between u and v denoted by  and defined as
called orthogonal
⟨u,v⟩
𝜽 = cos 𝟏
‖u‖‖v‖
with 0 

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Exercise 5.4 Exercise 5.5

𝑢 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣
Let ⟨u,v⟩ be a standard inner product in R3, for u = (4, 2, -1), 1. Let 𝐔 = 𝑢 𝑢 , 𝐕 = 𝑣 𝑣 be any matrix sized 2x2 in M22 and
v = (-1, 3, 2), determine defined an inner product in M22 as follow
1. length u and norm v ⟨𝐔,𝐕⟩ = u1 v1 + u2 v2+ u3 v3+ u4 v4
2. angle between u and v −1 0 1 2
If 𝐔 = ,𝐕= , determine
3. Is u and v orthogonal ? 3 2 3 4
a. ⟨U,V⟩
b. norm U and norm V
c. cosine of the angle between U and V

Exercise 5.5
2 1
2. Given 𝐀 = , which of the following matrices is orthogonal
−1 3
to 𝐀 with respect to the inner product defined in Exercise 5.5 no 1.
1 1 2 1
𝐁= ;𝐂=
0 −1 5 2

3. Suppose that R3 with a standard inner product. For what value of m

such that u = (m, m, 1) and v = (m, 5, 6) are orthogonal?

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Chapter 6
Week 12
Linear Transformation Linear Transformation

Definition of linear transformation …Definition of linear transformation…

A function in the form of a linear equation that maps a vector in Rn So a linear transformation
become a vector in Rm that is T: Rn Rm is called as T : Rn  Rm
linear transformation from Rn to Rm defined by equations of form
w1  a11x1  a12 x2    a1n xn
w2  a21x1  a22 x2    a2n xn
   
wm  am1x1  am2 x2    amn xn

…Definition of linear transformation Exercise 6.1

in matrix notation form Determine the standard matrix for linear transformations
 a1n   x1 
T : R5  R3
 w1   a11 a12
w  a a22  a2 n   x2  which is defined by the equations
 2    21  
           w1  2 x1  3 x 2  x3  5 x 4
w  a  amn   xn 
 m   m1 am 2 w2  4 x1  x 2  2 x3  x5
or in short with w3  5 x1  x 2  4 x 4
   
w  Ax  T x   T x
Matrix A is called a standard matrix T

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Expansions and contractions operators -

Types of linear transformation 2 Dimension
n n
In this section, we will study the linear transformation of R to R which
are often known as linear operators, namely:
1. Expansions and contractions operators
2. Projection operator
3. Reflection operator
4. Rotation operator

Expansions and contractions operators -

3 Dimension Projection operator - 2 Dimension

Projection operator - 3 Dimension Reflection operator - 2 Dimension

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Reflection operator - 3 Dimension Rotation operator - 2 Dimension

Rotation operator - 3 Dimension Exercise 6.2

1. Determine the standard matrix of linear operators T which is
defined by:
a. Vector expansion in R2 with factor k=3
b. Vector rotation in R3 clockwise to the angle 60º respect to the axis x
2. Determine the mirror from the vector (-1,2) which is reflected
respect to the line y = x
3. Find the orthogonal projection of the vector (-2,1,3) in the plane xy

Linear transformation composition Exercise 6.3

1. Determine a standard matrix for linear operators T: R3 R3 the first
If T1: Rn Rk and T2: Rk Rm linear transformations with one rotates a vector counterclockwise about the axis z with the
standard matrices consecutively A and B then transformation angle /2. Then reflects the resulting vector against the plane yz,
and then projecting the vector orthogonally onto the plane xy
from Rn to Rm is defined as 2. Determine the reflection of vector (2,-5) which is rotated clockwise
(T2◦T1) : Rn Rm at an angle / 6 followed by a contraction by factor k = 1/2
where (T2◦T1) (x) = T2(T1(x)) = BAx

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Inverse linear transformation Exercise 6.4

If T: Rn  Rn is a linear transformation with a standard matrix A then 1. Determine the standard matrix for inverse linear transformations
inverse of linear transformation T is defined as
T : R3  R3
T -1 : Rn  Rn
(if any) which is defined by the equations
with (T -1) (x) = A-1 x w1 = x1 – 2 x2 + 2 x3
w2 = 2x1 + x2 + x3
w3 = x1 + x2
2. Determine a vector whose mirror is under linear transformation
T (in question 1) is (1,-2,0)

Exercise 6.5
3. Determine the standard matrix for inverse linear operators
T : R3  R3
(if any) which are defined successively by
a. Vector reflection by the plane xoy
b. Vector reflection by the plane xoz
c. Contraction by factors 1/5

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Chapter 7 Week 13
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Eigenvalues and
Problem Eigenvectors Problem

Eigenvalue Problem Determine Eigenvalue and Eigenvektor

Let 𝑨𝒏𝒙𝒏 . Vector 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎 is called an eigenvector of 𝑨 if The eigenvalue 𝜆 are determined from the solution of characteristic
𝑨𝒙 = 𝜆𝒙 equation
with 𝜆 ∈ 𝑹. det(𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰) = 0.
The number 𝜆 is called an eigenvalue of 𝑨. The eigenvector is obtained as the basis of the homogeneous system
solution space
(𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰)𝒙 = 𝟎
by first substituting the eigenvalues 𝜆 obtained previously.

Several Properties of Eigenvalues Exercise 7.1

• If 𝑨𝒏𝒙𝒏 triangle matrices then the eigenvalues of 𝑨 is the elements Given
located on the main diagonal. 1 7 −1
𝑨= 0 1 0
• If 𝑘 is a positive integer, 𝒙 and 𝜆 is an eigenvalue and eigenvector of 𝑨
0 15 −2
then 𝒙 and 𝜆 is an eigenvalue and eigenvector of 𝑨 .
a) Determine the eigenvalues of 𝑨
• 𝑨𝒏𝒙𝒏 invertible if and only if 𝜆 = 0 is not an eigenvalue of 𝑨
b) Determine the eigenvectors of 𝑨

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Exercise 7.2 Diagonalization Problem

Given 𝑨𝒏𝒙𝒏 can be diagonalized if there is a matrix P which is invertible so
−1 2 0 that 𝑷 𝑨𝑷 = 𝑫, where 𝑫 is a diagonal matrix whose main diagonal
𝑨 = 0 2 −5 elements are eigenvalues of 𝑨
0 0 3
a) Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 𝑨 The matrix 𝑷 is called diagonizing of 𝑨
b) Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 𝑨𝟐 The following two statements are equivalent:
q 𝑨 can be diagonalized

q 𝑨 have n independent eigenvectors

Diagonalization Procedure Eigenvector and Eigenvalue Properties

1. Determine n independent eigenvectors of 𝑨𝒏𝒙𝒏 namely 𝒑 , 𝒑 , ⋯, 𝒑 . If 𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 are eigenvectors of matrix of 𝑨 corresponding to
2. Make a matrix 𝑷 that has 𝒑 , 𝒑 , ⋯, 𝒑 as their column vectors. different eigenvalues 𝜆 , 𝜆 , ⋯, 𝜆 , then {𝒗 , 𝒗 , ⋯, 𝒗 } is an
3. Next is the matrix 𝑷 𝑨𝑷 is going to be a diagonal matrix with independent set.
𝜆 , 𝜆 , ⋯, 𝜆 as their diagonal elements. 𝜆 is an eigenvalue
corresponding to 𝒑 .. If any square matrix 𝑨𝒏𝒙𝒏 have n different eigenvalues then 𝑨 can be
diagonalized.

Eigenvector and Eigenvalue Properties Eigenvector and Eigenvalue Properties

Let 𝜆 be an eigenvalue of 𝑨, defined Let 𝑨 be a matrix square, then:
𝑚 (𝜆 ) = geometric multiplicity of 𝜆 Ø For every 𝜆, 𝑚 (𝜆) ≤ 𝑚 (𝜆)
= eigenspace dimension corresponding to 𝜆 Ø 𝑨 can be diagonalized if and only if 𝑚 (𝜆) = 𝑚 (𝜆), for every 𝜆.
𝑚 (𝜆 ) = multiplisitas aljabar of 𝜆
= the number of occurrences of 𝜆 − 𝜆 as a factor in the
characteristic equation.

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Calculating the Power of a Matrix Calculating the Power of a Matrix

If the matrices 𝑨𝒏𝒙𝒏 and 𝑷 are invertible, then: If 𝑨 can be diagonalized and 𝑷 𝑨𝑷 = 𝑫, where 𝑫 is a diagonal matrix,
(𝑷 𝑨𝑷) = (𝑷 𝑨𝑷)(𝑷 𝑨𝑷)⋯(𝑷 𝑨𝑷) then:
𝑛 times (𝑷 𝑨𝑷) = 𝑫
= 𝑷 𝑨𝑰𝑨𝑰⋯𝑨𝑰𝑷 𝑷 𝑨 𝑷=𝑫
𝑛 times 𝑨 =𝑷 𝑫 𝑷
=𝑷 𝑨 𝑷

Exercise 7.3
Let
0 0 −2
𝑨= 1 2 1
1 0 3
a. Find the matrix 𝑷 that diagonizing 𝑨
b. Find the diagonal matrix 𝑫
c. Determine 𝑨